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SPECIA.L   CONSULAR   REPORTS. 


STREETS  AND  HIGHWAYS 


FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


REPORTS   FROM   THE    CONSULS   OF   THE   UNITED  STATES   ON   STREETS 

AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   THEIR   SEVERAL  DISTRICTS,    IN  ANSWER 

TO  A  CIRCULAR  FROM  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  STATE. 


ISSUED  FROM  THE  BUREAU  OF  STATISTICS,  DEPARTMENT  OF  STATE 


ALL  REQUESTS  FOR  THESE  REPORTS  SHOULD  BE  ADDRESSED 
TO  THE  SECRETARY  OF  STATE. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT   PRINTING    OFFICE, 

1891. 


LANDSCAPE 
ARCHITECTURE 


Farrand  Gift" 


US 


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SPECIAL  CONSULAR  REPORTS 

ON 

STREETS  AND  HIGHWAYS  IN  FOREIGN  COUNT 


a 


CONTJNENT  OF  EUROPE. 
AUSTRIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  GENERAL  GOLDSCHMI DT,    OF  VIENNA. 
HIGHWAYS. 

In  speaking  of  the  construction,  maintenance,  and  management  of 
public  roads  in  Austria  a  distinction  must  be  made,  between  the  so- 
called  Imperial  or  state  roads,  which  are  subject  to  the  legislation  and 
administration  of  the  state,  and  the  public  streets  and  roads,  which 
are  subject  to  provincial  legislation. 

1.  STATE  OR  IMPERIAL  ROADS. 

The  principal  regulations  concerning  the  state  roads  have  been  given 
from  case  to  case  by  special  laws  or  orders.  Of  these  may  lie  men- 
tioned provisional  regulations  for  the  maintenance  of  country  roads, 
(order  by  the  department  of  the  interior  of  October  13,  184!),  No.  415, 
E.  B.) ;  building  and  maintenance  of  those  parts  of  imperial  reads  lead- 
ing through  communities  (order  by  tlie  department  of  the  interior  of 
March  20,  1855,  No.  53);  the  clearing  away  of  snow  from  state  roads 
(law  of  January  2,  1877,  K.  G.  Bl.,  Nos.  33,  34).  In  addition  to  this, 
order  by  the  department  of  the  interior  of  May  5,  1877,  and  of  July  7, 
187G  (K.  G.  B.,  No.  100). 

The  total  length  of  state  or  imperial  roads  throughout  the  kingdoms 
and  provinces  at  present  represented  in  Parliament  amounted  in  the  year 
1828  to  11,436  kilometres  and  in  the  year  1873  t<>  15,003  kilometres; 
therefore  the  increase  in  length  in  this  time  amounts  to  21  per  cent,  of 
i the  latter  figure.  One  square  kilometre  of  state  territory  is  conse- 
quently intersected  l>.v  0.0508  kilometre  of  state  roads. 

33A— *     •        <K)7 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


A.  Construction  of  the  State  Roads. 

Only  the  state  roads  of  Bohemia  and  the  Tyrol  are  throughout  or 
with  but  few  exceptions  constructed  in  the  manner  of  regular  highways 
(Chaussdcn),  that  is  to  say  provided  with  a  stone  foundation. 

In  the  other  provinces,  as  Moravia,  Lower  Austria,  Upper  Austria, 
Salzburg,  Silesia,  Styria,  Carinthia,  Oarniola,  Galicia,  Bukowina,  -nearly 
all  the  state  roads  are  constructed  after  the  manner  of  country  roads, 
that  is  without  any  stone  foundation  and  built  exclusively  of  ballast 
(broken  stone). 

In  Lower  Austria,  for  instance,  only  two-tenths  of  the  state  roads  are 
built  upon  a  stone  foundation. 

These  state  roads  in  the  above  provinces  have  as  a  rule  originated 
from  the  old  parish  roads  and  ways,  which  in  some  cases  have  only 
been  corrected  and  widened. 


O.   TRAN8VERSE   SECTION   OF   THE   STATE   ROADS. 

For  the  constructing  of  new  state  roads  it  is  prescribed  that  the  maxi- 
mum breadth  (even  in  the  vicinity  of  large  towns)  should  be  9.5  metres. 
Only  the  largest  state  roads,  leading  from  the  city  of  Vienna,  have  the 
exceptional  breadth  of  11.4  metres. 

The  normal  transverse  sections  of  the  newly  built  state  roads,  which 
are  all  provided  with  a  stone  foundation,  are  shown  in  figures  1,  2,  3, 
and  4  of  the  annexed  drawing. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  following  drawings  the  width  of  the  road- 
way varies,  according  to  the  importance  of  the  road,  from  6.3  to  8 
metres,  and  the  width  of  the  banquette,  on  both  sides,  or  in  narrow 
valleys  or  ravines  only  on  the  valley  side,  from  0  to  1.6  metres. 

The  foundation  pavement  is  from  24  to  32  centimetres,  and  the 
second  ballast  (of  broken  stones  or  gravel)  placed  thereon  from  16  to 
24  centimetres  high.  The  convexity  of  the  road  surface  is  1  in  50  to  1 
in  30.  The  road  ditch  has  an  average  depth  of  from  30  to  63  centi- 
metres and  a  bottom  width  of  from  30  to  63  centimetres.  In  the  normal 
transverse  section  of  the  state  roads  for  Moravia  the  foundation  bed 
appears  provided  with  exceptionally  high  bordering  stones,  which  have 
the  object  of  holding  together  the  ballast. 

The  section  of  the  state  roads  for  Bohemia  is  essentially  the  same 
as  that  for  Lower  Austria,  with  the  only  difference  that  it  has  a  width  of 
roadway  of  7.5  metres,  a  stone  foundation  of  37  centimetres,  and  a  second 
ballast  or  covering  of  broken  stones  or  gravel  of  15  centimetres.    The) 


EUROPE AUSTRIA.  3 

five  state  roads  leading  from  Vienna  are  in  its  immediate  vicinity 
paved  with  granite  cubes  on  account  of  the  great  traffic  thereon.  The 
total  length  of  this  paving  amounts  to  215,000  metres. 


Fir/.l. 


6'4  —S'Om. 


T^r^-  -~  ,"-.  "■^''    .;■■  -::  *>  ■■:- 


Fi9.  3. 

7  '0-7 "5  m. 


L  63-7' 6  m..  i    * — f 


Closely  connected  with  the  width  of  the  roads  are  the  regulations  of 
the  road  police,  according  to  which,  for  instance  in  Lower  Austria, 
Bohemia,  Styria,  and  Carniola,  the  load  of  a  wagon  must  not  exceed  ;> 
metres  in  breadth,  while  in  Carinthia  this  maximum  is  tixed  at  2.2 
metres. 

/>.    OTHER  REGULATIONS. 

Where  there  is  a  steep  r  ise  or  fall  of  ground  along  the  banks  of  t In- 
road a  sufficient  number  of  safety  posts  or  bars  must  be  provided.  In 
the  beginning  of  winter  temporary  roads  must  be  marked  out  with 
poles  or  branches  of  at  least  2  metres  height  upon  such  roads  a 8  are 
regularly  rendered  impassible  l>y  snowdrifts,  and  teams  are  obliged  to 
use  these  temporary  roads. 


4  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

B.  The  Maintenance  oe  the  State  Koads. 

Daring  the  last  century  experiments  have  been  made  with  the  letting 
of  the  maintenance  of  the  state  roads  to  private  parties,  which  experi- 
ments have,  however,  proved  unsatisfactory.  Then  the  Government 
took  in  hand  the  work  of  maintaining  the  state  roads,  and  has  adhered 
to  this  system  up  to  the  present  day,  with  a  short  interruption  in  the 
years  1858-1801,  during  which  time  the  keeping  of  the  roads  was  again 
contracted  for  by  way  of  experiment,  which  again  gave  but  unsatisfac- 
tory results. 

For  the  immediate  carrying  out  of  the  work  necessary  for  keeping  in 
repair  the  state  roads,  road-keepers  are  employed  by  the  Government, 
the  number  of  which,  according  to  the  statement  of  1872,  was  3,025  ; 
consequently  there  was  on  an  average  one  keeper  for  every  4.14  kilo- 
metres of  state  roads.  Lately  the  number  of  road-keepers  in  Lower 
Austria  and  Salzburg  has  been  reduced. 

In  larger  districts  road  masters  or  inspectors  are  employed  for  con- 
ducting and  superintending  the  work  on  the  roads.  The  number  of 
these  inspectors  in  the  year  1875  was  413,  so  that  on  an  average  there 
were  30.52  kilometres  of  road  for  every  inspector  to  attend  to. 

a.    METHOD    OF   MAINTAINING   THE    KOADS. 

The  maintenance  of  the  Austrian  state  roads  is  carried  on  after  the 
system  of  the  so-called  re-covering.  After  numerous  experiments  with 
other  systems  of  keeping  the  roads,  which  have  always  failed,  the 
above  method  has  ever  proved  the  best.  According  to  this  method  the 
smaller  defects  of  the  road  are  continually  repaired  by  the  regular  road- 
keepers,  by  removing  the  dnst  and  mud  from  the  ruts  and  hollows  and 
filling  them  with  gravel.  It  is  then  as  a  rule  left  to  the  passing  wagons 
to  pack  these  stones  and  roll  them  in.  After  certain  longer  periods  of 
time,  when  the  ballast  of  the  roadbed  has  been  thoroughly  worn  out.  cer- 
tain lengths  of  the  road  are  again  completely  covered  with  ballast  up  to 
their  normal  height.  This  work  is  as  much  as  possible  carried  out  in 
wet  weather,  as  a  rule  in  the  fall  and  spring  of  the  year. 

The  rolling  of  the  new  layers  of  ballast,  as  formerly  practiced,  is  now 
omitted.  Experiments  which  have  been  made  with  rolling  and  with 
the  so  called  patching  system  in  the  years  1850-1858,  1801-1804  and 
18G8  have  neither  financially  nor  technically  given  any  satisfactory 
results.  The  reason  for  this  may*  to  a  great  extent  be  found  in  the 
circumstance  that  the  most  of  the  roads  are  not  constructed  in  the 
manner  of  regular  highways  and  were  not  provided  with  sufficiently 
thick  layers  of  ballast. 


EUROPE AUSTRIA.  .         5 

b.  CONSUMPTION    DF     BALLAST    INT     MAINTAINING   THE     ROADS,   AND    PROPORTION     OK 

TRAFPIC. 

Although  the  traffic  upon  the  roads  has  not  decreased  since  the 
building  and  development  orrfie  railways,  baton  the  contrary  lias  in- 
creased, the  consumption  of  ballast  (broken  stones  and  gravel)  upon 
the  state  roads  lias,  since  the  year  L85G,  decreased  continually.  The 
average  quantity  of  ballast  per  year  and  kilometre  of  state  road 
amounted,  in  1850-1856,  to  93.3  cubic  metres';  in  1857-1804  to  70.7  cubic 
met  res  ;  and  in  1865-1  872  to  G2.4  cubic  metres. 

From  the  proceeds  of  the  tolls  collected  upon  the  state  roads,  an 
average  traffic  of  20!)  vehicles  per  day  maybe  calculated.  Prom  this 
there  results  as  the  specific  consumption  of  ballast,  i.  c,  per  kilometre 
of  road,  per  year,  and  with  a  daily  traffic  of  100  vehicles,  a  quantity 
of  31.2  cubic  metres  of  ballast,  taking  the  average  of  the  7  years'  period 
of  1805  to  1872..  This  quantity  must  be  considered  as  very  small  in 
comparison  with  the  analogous  requirements  of  other  well-conducted 
countries. 

In  Lower  Austria  aloue  180  cubic  metres  of  ballast  were  used  on  an 
average  per  year  and  kilometre  of  state  roads  in  the  years  1850  to 
1875;  the  maximum  consumption  was  285  cubic  metres  in  the  year 
1853,  and  the  minimum  130  cubic  metres  in  the  year  1863. 

The  average  traffic  on  the  roads  of  Lower  Austria,  however,  is  800 
vehicles  per  day.  The  average  specific  consumption  of  ballast  there- 
fore was  23.5  cubic  metres. 

In  Bohemia,  where  excellent  material  for  ballast  is  at  disposition, 
the  consumption  of  ballast,  with  an  average  traffic  of  150  vehicles  per 
day,  amounted  per  kilometre  and  year,  in  the  average  of  the  years 
1850-1875,  only  to  48  cubic  metres,  and  in  the  year  1875  only  to  40.4 
cubic  metres;  consequently  the  specific  consumption  of  ballast  was  32 
and  27  cubic  metres,  respectively. 

C.   THE   CLEANING  AWAY  OF  THE  SNOW. 

According  to  the  regulations  of  the  law,  mentioned  before  (of  Jan. 
2,  1877),  those  communities  (or  estates),  the  territory  of  which  is  inter- 
sected by  a  state  road,or  which  are  not  any  further  than  S  kilometres  bom 
such  road,  are  obliged  to  cause  the  removal  of  the  snow  in  so  far  as  it 
is  necessary  for  keeping  up  the  traffic  on  such  roads. 

The  Government,  however,  has  the  right  to  deviate   from  this  rule 
and  to  cause  the  removal  of  the  snow  in  any  other  manner. 
-  The  parties  obliged  to  do  this  work  receive  a  remuneration  ftym  the 
state  road  fund. 

In  those  parts  of  roads,  however,  which  are  situated  within  a  town, 
village,  etc.,  as  far  as  they  form  a  passage  through  such  town,  etc.. 
the  respective  town,  etc.,  has  to  attend  to  without  any  remniieral  ion. 


6  *      STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

C.  The  Passage  Roads. 

Of  the  costs  of  construction  and  maintenance  of  sucli  parts  of  state 
roads  as  lead  through  towns,  villages,  etc.,  the  state  only  pays  the 
same  amount  as  is  required  for  the  construction  and  maintenance  of 
the  continuation  of  the  same  roads  outside  of  such  towns,  villages,  etc. 
Therefore  the  removal  of  the  mud  scraped  from  such  parts  of  roads  and 
taken  from  the  ditches  thereof  has  to  be  attended  to  by  the  state  road 
keepers. 

When  such"  parts  of  state  roads  forming  a  passage  through  towns, 
villages,  etc.,  are  paved  throughout,  the  respective  communities  have 
to  attend  to  the  keeping  of  such  roads.  For  this  they  receive  a  remu- 
neration from  the  state  road  fund,  but  only  in  such  proportion  as  if  the 
road  were  a  common  highway  (not  paved). 

D.  Important  Regulations  of  the  Road  Police. 

All  wagons  built  for  a  load  of  more  than  2£  tons  must  have  wheels 
with  rims  of  at  least  11  centimetres  width  (Styria  ami  Carinthia),  and 
if  they  are  built  for  more  thau  4£  tons  (in  Styria).  or  more  than  3£  tons 
(in  Carinthia)  the  rims  of  the  wheels  must  be  at  least  10  centimetres 
wide. 

Iu  Lower  Austria  a  width  of  wheel  rim  of  11.5  centimetres  is  pre- 
scribed for  loaded  wagons  drawn  by  two  or  three  horses,  and  in  Bohe- 
mia the  same  for  wagons  drawn  by  two  horses. 

In  going  down  hill  the  wheels  must  only  be  locked  by  means  of  brakes 
or  drags  (skid  shoes),  the  latter  of  a  minimum  width  of  18.4.  The  em- 
ployment of  chains  for  locking  the  wheels  is  not  permitted. 

If  the  road  leads  through  woods,  a  clearance  of  at  least  4  metres  on 
either  side  of  the  ditch  must  be  made. 

The  driving  across  the  ditches,  where  there  is  no  bridge  or  special 
crossing  provided,  or  the  driving  on  the  blauquettes  (borders)  is  for- 
bidden, as  well  as  the  grazing  of  cattle  on  the  latter. 

E.  Cost  of  Construction  and  Maintenance  of  State  Roads. 

During  the  period  from  1828  to  1877  an  average  amount  of  891,409 
florins  per  year  has  been  expended  for  the  building  and  the  more  im- 
portant reconstruction  of  state  roads.  The  maximum  costs,  in  the 
year  1S74,  amounted  to  2,091,260  florins,  and  the  minimum,  in  the 
year  1865,  to  418,157  florins  (since  1860).  The  maintenance  of  the 
gravel  or  broken-stone  road  surface,  including  the  costs  and  transport 
of  the  »tones,  and  the  wages  for  workmen,  etc.,  cost  per  kilometre  of 
state  road : 

Fl.    kr. 

In  the  year  1850 180.46 

In  the  year  1869 167.88 

In  the  year  1871 183.54 

In  the  year  1873 207. 02 


EUROPE AUSTRIA.  .7 

The  average  cost  for  the  period  of  24  years  from  1850  to  1873  may  bo 
calculated  at  187  florins  per  year  and  kilometre  of  state  road. 

The  amount  of  the  total  costs  of  maintenance,  that  is,  for  the  road 
surface  and  for  the  other  constructions  appertaining  to  the  roads, 
amounted  from  1847  to  1873  to  an  average  of  284  tlorins  per  year  and 
kilometre. 

In  Lower  Austria  alone  the  expenses  for  the  maintenance  of  state 
roads  were  484  tlorins  per  kilometre  in  the  year  L866s  and  in  the  years 
1870-'73,  on -au  average,  008  florins  per  year. 

The  average  wages  of  the  road-keepers  and  their  assistants  in  the 
years  1868-1873  amounted  to  43  florins  80  kreutzers  per  year  and  kilo- 
metre of  road. 

The  average  price  of  the  ballast  in  the  year  1873  was  2  florins  28 
kreutzers  per  cubic  metre. 

In  Bohemia  the  expenses  for  the  maintenance  of  the  road  on  the  part 
of  the  state  were  as  follows  : 

Fiorina. 
1877 1,939,197 

1879 i,  i8b.au 

1381 1,074,920 

Of  these  sums  the  expenses  for  the  ballast  alone  were : 

Florins. 

1877 039,706,  or  52  per  cent,  of  tbe  total  costs. 

1879 586,464,  or  50  per  cent,  of  the  total  costs. 

1881 526,521,  or  49  per  ceut.  of  the  total  costs. 

F.  State  Roads— Toll  Receipts 

In  Austria  the  receipts  of  toll,  collected  upon  the  state  roads  in  the 
average  of  the  years  1800-1873,  amounted  to  2,018,540  florins  net  per 
year,  with  the  maximum  of  2,078,827  florins  in  1801  and  the  minimum 
of  2,401,240  florins  in  1873. 

The  net  toll-receipts  per  kilometre  of  stale  road  in  the  year  L873  was 
172  florins  50  kreutzers. 

In  Lower  Austria  the  annual  net  receipts  for  tolls  increased  from 
551,G12  florins  in  the  year  1817  to  654,81 1  florins  in  1873,  in  which  latter 
year  the  annual  receipts  per  kilometre  of  state  road  amounted  to  914 
florins. 

In  Bohemia  these  receipts  increased  in  the  above  period  from  47S,-J17 
tlorins  to  553,002  florins  in  L873. 

The  toll  collected  upon  the  state  roads,  the  same  as  that  for  entering 
the  city  limits  of  Vienna,  is  :  , 

Crrat 

For  a  2-borse  vehicle H 

For  a  1 -horse  vehicle 4 

For  one  horse,  not  hitched vJ 

I'or  head  of  cattle 1 


8  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

2.  COMMON  PUBLIC  (NOT  STATE)  ROADS. 

Ail  oilier  public  streets  and  roads,  which  are  not  state  roads,  are 
subject  to  the  independent  administration  of  the  single  respective  prov- 
inces, and  with  regard  to  them  the  respective provincial  laws  are  in 
force.     Tin'  most  important  of  these  laws  are  the  following : 

Province  law  for  Lower  Austria  concerning  the  construction  and 
maintenance  of  roads,  not  belonging  to  the  state.  (November  3,  1808. 
L.  (J.  Bl.  No.  17.) 

Province  law  for  Lower  Austria  of  January  8,  1873,  concerning  cer- 
tain alterations  of  the  law  before  cited.    (L.  G.  Bl.  No.  5.) 

Regulations  of  the  road  police  for  the  public  roads,  not  belonging  to 
the  state,  in  Lower  Austria,  excluding  Vienna.  (Law  of  October  24, 
1868.     L.  G.  Bl.  No.  15.) 

Province  law  for  Upper  Austria  of  December  11,  18G9,  concerning 
the  building  and  maintenance  of  roads  not  belonging  to  the  state.  (L. 
(J.  CI.  No.  31 .)  The  same  for  Moravia  (L.  G.  Bl.  No.  4,  excluding  1809) ; 
Styria  (L.  G.  Bl.  No.  22,  law  of  June  23,  1800);  Carinthia  (L.  G.  Bl. 
No.  15,  law  of  July  25,  1SG1) ;  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg  (law  of  February 
21,  1870,  L.  G.  Bl.  No.  10). 

A.  Classification  of  the  Public  Roads. 

The  different  provincial  laws  classify  the  respective  roads  generally 
into  provincial  roads,  district  roads,  and  community  roads. 

The  following  provinces  classify  their  roads  differently: 

Carinthia,  into  provincial  roads,  subventioned  roads,  and  community 
roads.  Styria  into  district  roads  first  class,  district  roads  second  class, 
and  community  roads.  Bukowina  and  the  coast  district,  into  provincial 
roads,  competition  roads  and  community  roads,  etc. 

Provincial  roads  are  those  roads  which  according  to  their  importance 
have  been  declared  as  such  by  resolution  of  the  diet ;  this  refers  in 
Lower  Austria  also  to  the  district  roads  and  in  Styria  to  the  first  class 
district  roads.  District  roads  (second  class  in  Styria)  are  those  which 
have  been  appointed  as  such  by  the  respective  district  authorities.  All 
other  roads  (public)  are  community  roads. 

In  Bohemia  the  total  length  of  district  roads  in  1870  was  12,40G 
kilometres,  and  that  of  the  community  roads  4,075  kilometres;  in  1881 
these  lengths  were  13,492  kilometres  and  4,894  kilometres,  respectively  ; 
so  that  in  the  latter  year  there  was  an  average  of  0.200  kilometre  of 
district  roads  and  0.094  kilometre  of  community  roads  per  square  kilo- 
metre of  territory. 

B.  Construction  of  the  Public  Roads. 

a.      THKIK  TRANSVERSE   SECTION. 

The  provincial  and  district  roads  of  Lower  Austria  as  well  as  the 
provincial  roads  of  Upper  Austria  are  constructed  in  the  manner  of 


EUROPE AUSTRIA.  [} 

regular  highways,  with  a  width  of  0  metres';  the  community  roads, 
however  (Lower  Austria),  are  built  according  to  the  requirements  of  the 
local  teaming,  with  a  width  of  at  least.  4  metres,  and  the  smallest  roads 
with  a  width  of  3  metres. 

The  provincial  and  competition  roads  (Tyrol,  Dalmatia,  coast  dis- 
trict) also  have  a  stone  foundation  and  a  width  of  at  least  5  metres  and 
at  most  6  metres.  In  Bukowina  the  roads  have  a  width  of  8  metres. 
The  provincial  and  subventioned  roads  ot  <  'arinthia  are  from  3.8  to  4.75 
wide  and  in  Salzburg  the  provincial  roads  are  from  4  to  0  metres  wide. 
In  Bohemia  (see  Fig.  4  of  the  foregoing  drawing)  the  provincial  roads, 
must  have  a  width  of  from  0.3  to  7.0  luetics,  and  must  have  a  stone 
foundation  of  4.45  to  5.0G  metres  in  breadth  and  0.24  to  0.2B  metro 
depth.  The  covering  layer  of  ballast  must  be  0.1  to  0.13  metre,  which 
is  again  to  be  covered  by  a  layer  of  sand  of  0.03  to  0.05  metre.  Bottom 
width  of  the  road  ditch  0.47  metre,  convexity  of  the  road  surface  0.13 
to  0.10,  with  a  width  of  road  of  0.3  and  0.10  to  0.21  metre,  with  a  width 
of  road  of  7.0  metre,  i.  e.  1  in  18  to  1  in  24. 

For  the  district  roads  in  Bohemia  the  following  measurements  are 
prescribed:  Width  of  road  surface,  5.7  to  0.7,  or  3.8  to  4.75  metres; 
depth  of  stone  foundation,  0.10  to  0.24  metre ;  covering  of  ballast,  0.8 
to  0.10  metre;  top  layer  of  sand,  0.026;  convexity,  1  in  21  to  1  in  27  ; 
bottom  width  of  ditch,  0.40. 

In  districts  where  the  stone  for  the  foundation  layer  would  be 
too  expensive  to  get  the  road  may  be  macadamized.  In  such  cases 
the  ballast  must  be  put  on  in  layers  and  rolled  until  it  has  reached  a 
thickness  of  0.20  to  0.32  metre  with  provincial  roads  and  0.21  to  0.20 
with  district  roads.  The  road  must  in  such  cases  be  provided  with 
bordering  stoues  on  either  side,  in  order  to  prevent  the  ballast  from 
leaving  the  road  wheu  being  rolled. 

Provincial  and  district  roads  are  to  be  planted  with  trees  in  distances 
of  from  20  to  25  metres  (Lower  Austria,  Carniola,  Carinthia).  In  Mora- 
via, if  possible,  fruit  trees  must  be  planted  alongthe  roads  in  distances  of 
10  metres  apart  and  0.15  metre  distant  from  the  outside  border  of  the 
road  ;  otherwise  these  trees  are  to  be  planted  on  the  adjoining  ground 
at  a   distance  of  0.00  or  at  the  most  0.85  metre  from  the  outside  border 

of  the  ditch. 

b.  Gkadient  of  the  Roads. 

The  gradient  of  provincial  roads  (in  Bohemia)  as  a  rule  must  not  be 
any  more  than  ,V,  and  only  with  very  unfavorable  territory  it  may  be 
as  much  as  ,',..  Steeper  gradients  are  permitted  as  an  exception  only  OU 
mountain  roads,  and  there  only  in  lengths  of  at  most  95  metres,  when 
these  ascents  arc  interrupted  by  stretches  of  horizontal  or  nearly  hori- 
zontal road. 

The  district  roads  of  Bohemia  are  not  to  have  a  gradient  of  more  llian 
T\.-,  and    with    very   unfavorable   territory    not   more    than    ,'. ;   steeper 

ascents  are  only  allowed  as  an  except  i< n  roadsforless  heavy  teaming 

than  the  usual,  and  only  by  special  permission  of  the  hoard. 


10  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES, 

c.  Maintenance  of  the  Puulic  Roads. 

The  respective  regulations  for  Lower  Austria,  to  which  those  of  the 
other  provinces  are  similar,  are  the  following: 

The  building  as  well  as  the  maintenance  of  the  provincial  roads  is 
incumbent  upon  the  provincial  committee,  and  with  district  roads  to 
the  respective  district  road  board  or  committee.  The  proceedings  of 
the  latter  however  are  supervised  by  the  provincial  committee. 

The  different  communities  are  obliged  to  attend  to  the  building  and 
the  maintenance  of  the  respective  district  roads  under  the  supervision 
of  the  board  or  committee  for  district  roads. 

If  the  ballast  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  the  district  roads  can 
not  be  obtained  by  way  of  public  proposal,  or  only  at  a  very  high  price, 
the  commmittee  for  district  roads  has  the  right  to  charge  the  communi- 
ties with  the  furnishing  of  such  ballast  at  a  price  to  be  fixed  according 
to  circumstances.  The  costs  for  carting  away  the  dirt  removed  from 
the  roads  are  paid  by  the  district  treasury  ;  the  communities,  however, 
are  obliged  to  furnish  free  of  cost  the  dumping  places  and  roads  leading 
thereto.  These  places  must  not  be  farther  than  1  kilometre  from  the 
respective  parts  of  the  road. 

The  removal  of  the  suow  from  the  roads  has  to  be  attended  to  by  the 
communities,  the  territory  of  which  is  not  more  than  8  kilometres  dis- 
tant from  the  road.  For  this  work  they  receive  a  proportionate  remu- 
neration. 

d.  Costs. 

All  costs  for  the  building  and  maintenance  of  provincial  roads  (in 
Stvria)  of  first-ciass  district  roads  are  paid  from  the  provincial  fund. 

The  costs  for  the  district  roads,  in  so  far  as  they  are  not  otherwise 
covered,  fall  to  tne  respective  districts,  which  as  a  rule  are  identical 
with  the  court  districts.  The  raising  of  the  necessary  money  is  pre- 
scribed to  the  different  communities  of  the  district  in  proportion  to 
their  direct  taxes  (with  exclusion  of  the  extraordinary  addition  tax). 
A  levy  of  more  than  10  per  cent,  and  up  to  15  per  cent,  of  the  total  tax 
amount  requires  the  permission  »f  the  provincial  committee,  and  such 
of  over  15  per  cent,  can  only  be  imposed  by  way  of  legislation.  Accord- 
ing to  circumstances  subventions  from  the  provincial  fund  may  be 
granted  for  the  building,  reconstruction,  and  even  maintenance  of  dis- 
trict roads. 

The  necessary  means  and  work  for  community  roads  have  to  be  fur- 
nished by  the  respective  communities.  For  important  community 
roads,  however,  subventions  from  the  district  road  fund  are  permissible. 

The  construction  of  the  roadway  of  a  district  road  with  4.8  millimetres 
ballasted  surface,  a  stone  foundation  of  0.20  millimetre,  and  a  bed  of 
ballast  of  0.14  costs  per  kilometre  about  3,800  florins,  not  including  the 
value  of  the  ground  and  the  ground  woi1v  nor  the  costs  of  supervision. 

Buildings  erected  along  provincial,  district",  and  community  roads 


EUROPE AUSTRIA.  1  1 

must  stand  at  least  2  metres  away  from  the  outside  border  of  the  road 
ditch  iu  Upper  Austria,  Bohemia,  and  Carniola;  while  in  Moravia, 
Silesia,  and  Lower  Austria  this  distance  must,  be  at  least  4.7  metres. 

For  public  houses  (inns)  this  distance  must  be  4  metres  iu  Upper 
Austria. 

STREETS. 

The  essential  rules  for  the  construction  of  streets  in  cities  and  towns 
are  contained  in  the  different  building  regulations  (Bauordnungen ; 
B.  O.). 

Lower  Austria,  B.  O.  for  Lower  Austria  and  for  the  city  of  Vienna 
(laws  of  January  17,  1883,  L.  G.  Bl.  12). 

Upper  Austria,  building  laws  of  March  13,  1875  (L.  G.  Bl.  7,  8). 

Salzburg,  B.  O.  for  the  city  of  Salzburg  of  Jauuary  28,  1873  (L.  G. 
Bl.  9). 

For  the  province  of  Salzburg,  excluding  the  capital,  B.  O.  of  July  7, 
1S79(L.  G.  Bl.  10). 

Styria,  B.  O.  for  Styria,  exclusive  of  the  city  of  Graz,  of  February  9, 
1857  (L.  G.  Bl.  5) ;  alterations  of  thislaw,  of  August  31,  1804  (L.  G.  Bl. 
2) ;  B.  O.  for  Graz  of  September  7,  1881  (L.  G.  Bl.  14,  etc.). 

A.  Construction  of  city  streets  and  regulations  relating  thereto. 

New  streets,  if  they  are  principal  streets,  must  be  at  least  15  metres 
wide  (Lower  Austria,  Upper  Austria,  Styria,  Carinthia,  Moravia,  etc.) ; 
side  streets  and  lanes  must  be  at  least  11  metres  wide  in  Lower  and 
Upper  Austria,  and  at  least  12  metres  in  Prague. 

Besides  ^roadway  sufficiently  wide  to  permit  the  easy  turning  around 
of  wagons,  new  streets  must  be  provided  on  either  side  with  a  sidewalk, 
iucludiug  which  their  entire  breadth  must  be  at  least  15  metres  (Graz). 

In  Vorarlberg  the  streets  iu  cities  and  towns  must  be  at  least  12 
metres  wide,  in  country  communities  at  least  9.5  meters,  and  lanes  at 
leasts  metres. 

In  Linz,  Wels,  Steyer  the  streets  to  be^cousidered  as  principal  must 
be  at  least  10.20  metres  wide,  less  frequented  streets  at  least  14  metres, 
and  side  or  cross  streets  or  laues  at  lea^t  12  metres. 

a.   STREETS   OF   VIENNA. 

The  total  square  surface  of  all  streets,  lanes,  and  squares  (including 
the  sidewalks,  walks,  and  riding  paths)  maintained  by  the  imperial  city 
of  Vienna  at  the  end  of  the  year  1888  amounted  to  5,075,590  square 
metres.  Of  these  the  roadways,  squares,  crossings,  etc.,  occupy 
3,GG3,740  square  metres,  or  72.2  per  cent.,  ami  the  sidewalks,  walks, 
and  riding  paths  1,411,850  square  metres,  or 27.8  per  cent. 

Of  the  entire  street  surface  3, Pi  1.294  square  metres,  or  01.5  per  cent., 
are  paved.  Of  this  paved  surface  2,055,181  square  metres,  or  05.8 
per  cent.,  belong  to  the  roadways,  squares,  crossings,  etc.,  ami  L,066, 1  13 

square  metres,  or  .'Jl.'J  per  cent.,  to  the  paved  sidewalks. 


12  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Comparing  with  the  measurement  at  the  end  of  the  year  1SS7  the 
paved  surface  at  the  end  of  the  year  1SS8  showed  an  increase  of  55,018 
square  metres,  or  1.81  per  cent. 

At  the  end  of  1888  the  different  kinds  of  pavement  in  use  were  in  the 
following  proportions: 

Roadways,  squares,  etc.  Square  metres. 

Granite ......:.- 1,837,270 

Asphalt - 4»»°27 

Wood  pavemeut - ----         11. OHO 

Gutters  and  street  crossings,  granite 167, 848 

Sidewalks  and  walks  : 

Granite 1,033,275 

Asphalt 28,703 

Clinker 4,135 

Total  smfftce  paved  .„. 3, 121,294 

Consequently  the  entire  pavemeut  was  composed  of: 

Per  cent. 

Granite •  - - 97.03 

Asphalt  - 2.48 

Clinker - 0.13 

Wood 0.36 

Of  the  unpaved  surface  of  1,904,302  square  metres,  which  are  partly 
macadamized,  partly  only  covered  with  ballast,  1,61)8,559  square  metres, 
or 82  per  cent.,  belong  to  roadways,  squares,  etc.,  and  315,743  square 
metres,  or  18  per  cent.,  to  walks  and  riding  paths. 

Besides  the  paved  surface  enumerated  there  are  still  of  streets, 
lanes,  and  squares  withiu  the  territory  of  Vienna, 


Maintained  by— 


Unpaved. 


The  government 

The  provincial  fund. 
Private  persons 


Sq.  metres. 
49,  446 
72,  747 
3,200 


Sq.  metres. 
21,372 
30,  3GI 
1C1,  216 


Including  the  above  figures  the  total  surface  of  streets,  squares,  etc., 
of  Vienna  at  the  end  of  the  year  1888  consequently  was:  Paved, 
3,210,087  square  metres,  and  2,170,251  square  metres  unpaved.  This 
total  service  comprises  1,008  streets,  lanes,  and  squares. 

The  granite  cubes  employed  for  paving  the  Vienna  streets,  as  a  rule, 
have  a  length  of  side  of  18.4  centimetres.  For  the  diagonal  paving  of 
the  roadways  there  are  besides  required  stones  of  13.2  and  23.7  centime- 
tres. Finally,  there  are  also  smaller  cubes  of  but  15.8  centimetres  side  j 
these,  however,  are  used  only  in  small  quantities. 

The  paving  is  generally  carried  out  diagonally,  and  only  for  streets 
with  a  very  steep  gradient  parallel  rows  are  employed. 

For  the  paving  of  the  sidewalks  mostly  granite  plates  of  31.0  centi- 
metres and  47.4  ceutimetres  squares  are  employed. 


EUROPE AUSTRIA. 


13 


The  greatest  part  of  the  granite  for  paving  the  streets  of  Vienna  is 
taken  from  the  quarries  at  Mauthausen,  in  Upper  Austria.  For  paving 
those  streets,  however,  which  have  an  exceptionally  great  traffic,  the 
hard  granite  of  Wilshofen,  in  Bavaria,  as  well  as  that  from  Scharding 
and  Dornaeh,  in  Upper  Austria,  are  employed. 

The  clinker  pavement,  formerly  employed  by  way  of  experiment  on 
the  roadways,  has  been  removed  again  on  account  of  its  inferior  dura- 
bility. 

For  the  asphalt  pavement  (of  natural  asphalt,)  the  roadways  are  cov- 
ered with  pressed  asphalt,  while  on  the  sidewalks  the  asphalt  is  poured 
over  a  layer  of  sand. 

By  way  of  experiment  the  so-called  metallic  pavement  has  been  tried 
upon  a  larger  surface.  For  this  purpose  a  bed  of  concrete  of  10  centi- 
metres is  employed,  upon  which  is  spread  the"  metallic"  composition  (> 
centimetres  thick  for  the  roadway. 

The  metallic  pavement  (furnished  by  the  firm  C.  Schlimp  &  11.  Scbef- 
tel)  is  a  kind  of  concrete,  aud  consists  of  broken  blast-turuace  slag, 
cinders,  and  Portland  cement;  to  the  water  required  for  mixing  this 
concrete  carbouate  of  soda,  carbonate  of  ammonia,  or  crude  potash  is 
added. 

The  metallic  pavement,  the  same  as  asphalt  and  wood  pavement,  is 

noiseless. 

B.  Maintenance  of  City  Streets. 

As  most  worthy  of  interest,  the  facts  furnished  by  the  city  of  Vienua 
regarding  the  maintenance  of  streets  will  here  be  given. 

The  work  of  mainteuauce  of  the  Vienna  streets  as  a  rule  consists  in 
their  being  repaved,  which  is  done  by  tearing  up  the  pavement  to  be 
repaired  and  by  freshly  paving  those  parts  of  the  street,  making  use, 
however,  of  part  of  the  old  material. 

The  following  dates  will  show  the  extent  of  repaviug  in  Vienna: 


Tear. 

Roadway. 

Sidewalks. 

Total. 

Sq.metres. 
64.680 
57,  165 

37,  L03 

38,  7f>.r> 

Sq.  metru 
16,650 
10,393 
8.454 

7,  100 

,V</.  in,  lr.  1. 
81.348 

:,t\.  557 

48,  827 

10,  551 

59,  378 

The  ballast  used  for  the  maintenance  of  the  respective  streets  and 
jjuares  was  as  follows,  in  cubic  metres,  per  year: 


Kinds  of  ballast. 

Time. 

Mountain. 

Ordinary 
gravel. 

5,012 

7,  807 

Coarse 

Fine 

gravel 

Vienna 
rivet 

sand 

1,505 

I.  166 

Band. 

Total. 

Broken  Gravel. 

l-'iv.'  yews'  :\\<  i:i  :■     '  --  1      • 

14.052      8,  156 
13,210 

1,  122 

U77 

504 

2,044 

14  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Leaving  out  the  sand,  the  actual  ballast  used  was 34,972  cubic  metres 
in  the  average  and  32,362  in  1888. 

Supposing  this  total  amount  of  ballast  equally  divided  upon  the  sur- 
face of  unpaved  roadways,  squares,  etc.,  the  annual  consumption  of 
ballast  per  square  metre  of  street  surface  amounts  to  0.02  cubic  metre. 

C.  Costs  of   Construction  and*  Maintenance  op  City  Streets. 

The  following  were  the  average  costs,  per  square  meter,  for  new  pav- 
ing in  the  Year  1888: 

B                   *                                                                                                       '  Florins. 

With  Vilshofen  granite  stones 7.70 

With  Mauthausen  granite  stones 7.  02 

With  old  granite  stones 1*06 

With  common  stones 2.81 

With  asphalt 6-08 

With  wood 7-44 

For  the  repaving  of  a  surface  of  38,755  square  metres  of  roadway  and 
of  7,100  square  metres  of  sidewalks  41,563  florins  78  kreutzers  were  ex- 
pended in  the  year  1888,  which  is  equivalent  to  an  average  of  0.91  florin 
per  square  metre. 

The  total  expenditure  of  the  city  of  Vienna  for  building  and  main- 
taining the  streets  amounted  to  the  following : 


New  construction. 

Maintenance. 

Tear. 

Paved 
streets. 

Unpaved 
streets. 

Paved 
streets. 

Unpaved 

■streets. 

Florin* 
499,710 

408,  891 
392,  287 

Florins. 

283 

3.7C0 

26,  079 

Florins. 
272,488 
133,789 

255, 170 

Florins. 
U9,7:i8 

130,349 

118,566 

The  cleaning  and  sprinkling  of  the  streets  in  the  year  1888  cost  for 
the  first  district  (the  central  part  of  the  city)  375,928  florins,  and  for 
the  entireterritory  of  Vienna  908,008  florins. 

The  total  surface  of  the  streets,  lanes,  and  squares  kept  by  the  city 
of  Vienna  amounting  to  5,075,596  square  metres,  the  cleauing  and 
sprinkling  of  one  square  metre  per  year  costs  17.9  kreutzer. 

D.— Public  Parks  and  Gardens  of  Vienna. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number,  extent,  and  cost  of  mainte- 
nance of  the  public  parks  and  gardens  of  Vienna: 


Tear. 

Num- 
ber. 

Surface. 

Cost  of 
maintenance. 

1887 

34 
35 

Square  metres. 
381,473 
387,  383 

Florins. 
111,148 

123, 951 

EUROPE AUSTRIA.  15 

Those  public  gardens  (in  1888)  amounted  to  0.7  per  cent.,  and  if  the 
woods  are  included  to  16.7  per  cent,  of  the  entire  precinct  of  Vienna, 
which  is  5,540  hectares. 

CONCLUSION. 

Public  streets  and  roads  are  universally  acknowledged  as  the  prime 
means  of  culture,  and  it  is  a  fact  proved  by  history  that  the  grade  of 
civilization  of  a  nation  may  in  a  great  measure  be  judged  by  the  state 
of  its  public  roads.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  land  value  is  in  every 
country  considerably  improved  by  well  kept  and  frequented  public 
roads.  It  is,  however,  impossible  to  express  in  figures  or  fix  the  ex- 
tent of  improvement  in  value  of  laud  intersected  by  public  roads,  as 
this  is  most  everywhere  depending  on  local  conditions  and  circum- 
stances. 

Julius  Goldschmidt, 

Consul-fhneral. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Vienna,  April  1,  1891. 


TRIESTE. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  UARTIGAN. 

The  streets  of  Trieste,  except  a  few  macadamized  ones,  are  paved 
with  .sandstone  obtained  from  the  neighboring  mountains  (Karst). 
This  sandstone  costs  the  corporation  2.70  florins  per  square  metre  ($1.13 
per  square  yard).  The  average  price  of  macadamizing  stone  is  1.45 
florins  per  cubic  metre,  or  61  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

The  expense  of  laying  the  sandstone,  not  including  its  cost,  sand,  or 
cartage,  is  1  florin  per  square  metre  (12  cents  a  square  yard).  The 
labor  for  macadamized  streets  costs  80  kreutzers  a  square  metre,  or  31 
cents  a  square  yard,  except  the  gutter  Bagging,  which  costs  in  addition, 
3.25  florins  per  liuear  metre,  (81.37  per  linear  yard). 

The  maintaining  of  macadamized  roads  costs  very  little.  Their 
average  depth  is  6  to  10  inches,  and  the  nature  of  the  soil  is  Bach  that 
it  requires  little  preparation  for  a  foundation.  The  maintaining  of  the 
paved  streets  is  according  to  the  traffic;  the  average  price,  including 
labor  and  material,  is  50  cents  a  square  yard. 

lu  laying  new  pavements  the  old  one  is  placed  underneath  with  a 
layer  of  sand  intervening,  the  entire  cost  of  which  is  5  florins  per 
square  metre  (£2.10  per  square  yard).  New  streets  without  this  under 
pavement  cost  1  florins  per  square  metre,  or  $1.78  per  square  yard,  in- 
cluding stone,  sand,  cartage,  etc. 

Formerly  the  streets  were  laid  concave  inclining  to  the  middle,  along 
which  under  the  surface  canals  or  sewers  extended,  with  gratings  at  in- 
tervals for  surface  drainage.     It,  was  found,  however,  from  experience 


16  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Unit  (liis  plan  was  not  durable  for  heavy  traffic.  Accordingly,  when 
new  pavements  are  now  found  necessary  the  convex  method  is  adopted. 
The  water  from  the  gutter  is  conducted  by  branches  to  the  middle  ca- 
nals or  sewers.  These  latter  are  also  receptacles  for  overflow  pipes 
from  the  fecal  vaults  of  the  various  houses,  there  being  no  other  sewer- 
age system  in  the  city.  The  contents  are  finally  emptied  along  the  river 
or  quays  of  the  town. 

The  streets  in  general  are  iuteuded  for  heavy  traffic.  The  sidewalks 
are  of  the  same  stone,  the  flags  being  about  1  to  4  inches  thick  and  2  to 
4  feet  square.  Their  construction  aud  maintenance  are  borne  by  the 
property  owners,  as  well  as  the  stone  pillars  which  line  and  separate 
them  from  the  street. 

The  Trieste  sandstone  is  resisting  and  desirable  material  for  street 
paving;  the  pieces  are  from  2  to  5  feet  long,  1  to  1£  feet  wide,  and  C 
to  lOinc^s.thick. 

The  roads  outside  the  city  are  macidamized  of  the  same  average 
depth,  and  have  a  stone  foundation  with  open  drains  on  either  side. 

James  F.  Hartigan, 

Consul. , 

United  States  Consulate, 

Trieste,  January  30,  1891. 


BELGIUM. 
PROVINCE  OF  ANTWERP. 

REPORT  BY  CONSVL  STEUARI. 

I  have  the  honor  to  offer  the  following  report  upon  the  manner  of 
constructing  aud  maintaining  the  roads  and  streets  in  this  province  and 
city  of  Antwerp,  and  as  the  said  roads  and  streets  are  well  made  and 
well  kept,  it  would  be  gratifying  if  a  consideration  of  the  careful  man- 
ner in  which  the  work  is  contracted  for,  executed,  aud  kept  in  repair 
should  prove  of  service  to  those  intereste  1  inbringingaboutan  improve- 
ment in  the  manner  and  expense  of  doing  these  things  in  our  own 
country. 

The  thoroughfares  in  the  Kingdom  of  Belgium  are:  The  routes  run- 
ning from  one  part  of  the  Kingdom  to  another  controlled  and  managed 
by  the  state  authorities;  the  provincial  chaussees,  or  roads,  between 
two  points  within  a  province,  constructed  and  controlled  by  the  provin- 
cial authorities;  these  are  paved  in  the  center,  a  dirt  road  on  each  side, 
and  are  bordered  with  trees;  the  streets  constructed  and  controlled 
by  the  municipal  authorities. 

The  provincial  couucil  of  the  province  of  Antwerp  is  composed  of 
some  sixty  members  elected  from  different  parts  of  the  province.   They 


EUROPE BELGIUM.  17 

hold  one  session  each  year,  in  tlie  mouth  of  July,  presided  over  by  the 
governor  of  the  province,  for  the  purpose  of  passing  the  budget]  vot- 
ing subsidies,  ordering  and  approving  the  construction  of  roads,  canals, 
etc.,  and  such  other  matters  as  may  come  before  them.  During  the 
remainder  of  the  year  when  they  are  not  in  session,  a  committee  of 
their  body,  consisting  of  five  members,  called  the  ''Deputation  Per- 
manente,"  is  always  in  organization,  clothed  with  full  powers  and  pre 
pared  to  carry  into  execution  the  orders  and  instructions  passed  by  tlie 
council,  a  report  being  made  by  them  at  the  next  meeting  of  tlie  coun- 
cil for  approval  and  ratification.  Their  duties  and  powers  are  referred 
to  in  the  body  of  the  contracts  given  further  on. 

Under  the  rules  of  the  technical  service  of  the  province  of  Antwerp, 
the  service  of  roadways  is  intrusted  to  a  body  of  provincial  agents, 
composed  of  one  eugineer-in-chief,  three  district  engineers,  and  inspect- 
ors of  roads  to  a  number  not  exceediug  00. 

These  agents  are  charged  (in  the  limits  presented  by  the  present  rules 
and  in  accord  with  the  authorities  designated  iu  the  legal  rules  upon  the 
matter)  with  the  service  of  the  district  roads,  of  the  works  of  hygiene, 
and  of  the  water  courses  not  navigable. 

The  rules  and  regulations  governing  this  body  of  agents  are  full  aud 
elaborate,  much  too  numerous  to  be  translated  and  embodied  iu  this 
report,  so  they  are  sent  in  pamphlet  form  under  separate  cover. 

The  streets  in  the  city  are  all  built  of  the  same  material  and  without 
reference  to  the  traffic  that  passes  over  them,  whether  light  or  heavy. 
An  idea  of  their  cost  can  be  had  from  the  estimate  of  expeuses  making 
part  of  the  contract  for  building  a  street  as  given  below. 

As  regards  the  assessment  for  first  cost  aud  maintenance,  I  can  only 
refer  to  my  dispatch  No.  255,  dated  June  28,  1887,  'forwarding  a  full  re- 
port upon  taxation,  national  and  local,  in  this  district,  in  which  occurs  the 
following  remarks  upon  the  municipal  tax  upon  sewers  and  pavements: 

The  payment  of  this  tax  is  required  but  once,  and  not  yearly,  even  not  again  when 
repairs  become  necessary  and  are  made. 

In  1652  the  rate  was  fixed  at  12  francs  per  running  metre  for  all  expenses  connected 
with  the  building  of  a  sewer,  and  was  collected  upon  the  buildings  immediately,  while 
owners  of  unimproved  property  paid  only  when  they  erected  buildings  thereon  ;  also 
a  tax  of  8  francs  per  metre  was  collected  from  buildings  upon  new  pavements,  oi  5 
francs  upon  old  ones,  owners  of  unimproved  property  paying  2  francs  at  the  time,  and 
the  balance  when  buildings  were  erected.  This  law  is  still  in  force  regarding  the 
property  covered  by  it  at  that  time. 

In  1874  the  law  was  changed  as  follows:  Fortlieexpen.se  of  sewers  12  francs  pel 
running  metre  is  collected  from  the  proprietors  of  improved  and  unimproved  prop- 
erty, and  for  pavements  10  (rains  is  collected  upon  the  same  measurement. 

In  the  laying  out  of  new  streets  the  owners  of  the  property  fronting  on  said 
will  be  required  to  hear  all  the  expenses,  each  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  running 

metres  along  the  front  of  his  property. 

The  amount  due  per  metre  is  found  in  dividing  the  cost  of  the  work  by  double  the 
length  of  the  street,  thus  covering  both  sides. 

Every  six  months  a  map  is  drawn  up  for  the  purpose  of  showing  what  new  build- 
ings have  been  erected  since  the  last  verification. 

33a 2 


IK  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FDREI13N    COUNTRIES. 

Under  separate  cover  and  forming  part  of  this  report  I  forward  for 
reference  the  following  documents,*  viz  : 

No.  1.  Rules  governing  the  technical  service  of  the  province  of  Antwerp,  November 

12,  L886. 

No.  2.  Contract  and  conditions  for  the  maintenance  in  good  order  for  a  period  oi 
five  years  of  the  provincial  roads  of  the  province  of  Antwerp. 

No.  3.  Contract,  and  conditions  for  the  maintenance  in  good  order,  for  a  term  of 
3  years,  of  the  routes  of  the  state  passing  through  the  province  of  Antwerp. 

No.  4.  General  statement  of  the  conditions  governing  the  work  and  famishing  of 
material  under  the  service  of  the  municipal  authorities  of  the  city  of  Antwerp. 

No.  5.  Contract  and  couditious  for  the  construction  of  a  chaussee  in  the  district  of 
"Waerloos"  in  the  province  of  Antwerp. 

No.  6.  Contract  and  conditions  for  the  paving  and  sewerage  of  the  "  Rue  du  Dau- 
phin," in  the  city  of  Antwerp. 

The  two  last-named  documents  have  been  translated  and  given  below; 
they  furnish  the  details  ot  the  system  followed  and  an  estimate  of  the 
expenses  attendant  thereupon. 

John  H.  Steuart, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Antwerp,  February  2,  1891. 


CITY  STREETS. 
Municipal  Works  of  Antwerp. 

(Inclosure  1  in  Consul  Steuart's  report.  J 

Estimates  and  conditions  for  the  execution  of  the  street  works  in  the  Rue  du  Dauphin  (east- 
ern  district),  Antwerp. 

Article  1. 

The  object  of  the  present  undertaking  is  the  execution  by  contract  of  the  sewers 
and  pavement  of  the  above-mentioned  street,  also  a  water  connection  with  the  canal 
Herenthals. 

The  work  in  general  shall  be  executed  in  accordance  with  the  indications  of  the 
plau  annexed  to  the  present  conditions  and  with  the  instructions  contained'therein. 
The  contractor,  in  addition,  will,  in  the  execution  of  the  works,  be  held  to  follow  the 
instructions  of  the  directors. 

All  the  terms  aud  conditions  of  the  general  statement  of  conditions,  registered  and 
filed  in  the  fourth  bureau,  at  the  City  Hall,  are  deemed  to  be  textually  given  here,  in 
bo  far  as  they  are  not  modified  by  the  following  articles  : 

Article  2. 

The  works  to  be  executed  consist  of: 

1.  The  execution  of  the  works  of  digging  out  and  filling  in.  also  the  leveling,  com- 
prising the  furnishing  of  the  earth  and  the  work  that  may  be  required  to  brrng  same 
to  the  prescribed  height,  and  to  form  the  side  hanks,  destined  to  strengthen  the  side- 
walks; the  demolition  of  the  sewers  indicated  on  the  plan. 


*  Not  puhlbihed. 


EUROPE BELGIUM.  19 

2.  The  construction  of  an  ovoid  soworof  14  water  pipes  with  collars  for  outlets  of  14 
cast-iron  gratings,  with  ventilators,  of  the  required  model  ami  of  11  masoned  means 
of  access  with  cast-iron  brinks,  comprising  the  fixtures  necessary  for  draining. 

3.  The  construction  of  two  sections  of  sewer,  paved  with  flags,  in  the  "  longue  and 
conrte  mo  de  l'Autel." 

4.  The  work  of  paving  with  new  stones  and  the  employment  in  the  part  of  the 
street  destined  to  vehicles,  of  new  extra  large  stones  (conlants)  near  the  curbs. 

5.  The  work  of  paviug  with  new  stones  and  the  employment  for  the  sidewalks  of 
new  borders  of  cut  stone,  comprising  the, joining  of  the  paving  in  the  street  and  on 
the  sidewalks. 

6.  The  construction  of  a  water  connection  with  the  caual  Herenthals. 

Article  3. 

The  guiding  mark  for  tho  leveling  forms  the  tablet  of  the  bridge  of  the  "  rue  du 
Canal."    This  point  is  situated  at  a  slope  of  5.95  metres. 

Article  4. 

The  side  banks,  which  shall  strengthen  the  sidewalks,  will  be  executed  along  the 
entire  length  of  the  street  to  bo  paved,  conform  to  the  conditions  prescribed,  and  at 
the  expense  of  the  contractor.  This  work  shall  be  executed  with  the  earth  excavated 
from  other  places.  These  banks  will  be  turfed  to  a  width  of  25  centimetres,  conform 
to  the  instructions  of  the  directors. 

Article  5. 

The  sewer,  the  stone  water  pipes,  the  moans  of  access,  and  the  water  connection 
shall  be  executed  according  to  the  indications  of  the  plan  hereto  annexed,  tho  pre* 
scriptions  of  the  conditions,  and  the  special  indications  of  the  directors  of  the  work. 

Article  6. 

The  sewer  to  be  constructed  shall  have  an  interior  height  of  1.30  metres  aud  a  width 
of  at  most  80  centimetres.  Its  length  shall  be  385.70  metres  aud  its  frame  shall  be 
established  at  the  sides,  as  shown  in  the  plan. 

Article  7. 

The  concave  and  convex  parts  of  the  sewer  shall  be  formed  by  two  rolls  of  one  half 
brick  "  klampsteen  "  (ordinary  brick)  of  the  kind  known  by  the  denomination  of 
"klinkaert." 

The  sewer  shall  be  rough-cast  in  the  interior,  up  to  the  commencement  of  the  supe- 
rior arch,  with  hydraulic  mortar,  and  tho  dome  of  the  arch,  with  the  addition  of  two 
parts  cement. 

Tho  centerings  shall  be  properly  constructed  and  strengthened  wit-fa  plunks  of  \> 
centimetres  thickness ;  tho  entire  convex  surface  shall  be  established  in  a  manner  to 
present  a  regular  curve. 

The  supports  of  the  centerings  shall  be  placed  at  a  distance  of  70  centimetres  from 
axis  to  axis. 

Tho  extrados  of  tho  superior  arch  shall  be  covered  with  1  centimetre's  thickness  of 
hydraulic  or  common  mortar. 

Article  8. 

In  the  arch  shall  be  established  eleven  openings,  each  surmounted  by  a  means  of 
access,  having  walls  of  19  centimetres  thickness  and  an  interior  diameter  of  -"and 
70  centimetres.  The  means  of  access  shall  be  orowned  with  a  oast-iron  brink  to  con- 
form to  the  model  deposited  at  tho  storehouse  Leguit. 


20  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  contractor  shall  furnish  and  place  ninety-two  collars  of  cut  stone  for  the  out- 
lets of  public  and  private  water  pipes. 

The  junction  of  the  sewer  to  be  constructed  to  that  of  the  Rue  du  Dragon  shall 
be  established  in  conformance  wi.th  indications  from  the  directors. 

Article  9. 

The  masonry  shall  be  executed  with  hydraulic  or  common  mortar.  The  mortar 
shall  be  made  under  the  supervision  of  an  ageut  of  the  administration  and  in  a  cov- 
ered place.  The  mixture  of  raw  materials  shall  be  made  in  a  dry  state,  then  put  into 
a  crusher,  with  the  addition  of  the  necessary  water. 

The  directors  reserve  the  right  to  prescribe  the  time  at  which  the  mixture  shall  be 
worked  in  the  crusher. 

Article  10. 

The  contractor  shall  transport  to  the  storehouse  iu  the  Rue  St.  Gommaire  the  stones 
or  flags  accruing  from  the  demolition  of  the  sewers  referred  to. 

Article  11. 

The  curbstones,  as  also  the  crest  of  the  pavement  of  the  part  of  the  street  destined 
to  vehicles,  shall  be  established  at  the  level  designated  in  the  plan. 

Article  12. 

The  new  sidewalks  shall  be  2.04  metres  wide  and  the  carriage  route  7.92  metres. 
The  slope  of  the  sidewalks  shall  be  8  centimetres. 

Article  13. 

The  paving  stones  for  the  street  aud  the  stones  used  for  the  curbs  shall  be  procured 
from  one  of  the  quarries  enumerated  under  the  first  category  in  the  conditions.  They 
shall  be  strictly  refused  by  the  administration  iu  case  the  cutting  of  the  tops  is  not 
perfect  or  does  not  conform  to  tho  prescriptions  of  the  last  paragraph  of  article  28 
of  the  conditions. 

The  paving  stone  of  the  4th  sample  shall  solely  be  admitted  for  the  vehicle  route, 
excluding  all  others.  The  curbstoues  shall  be  procured  at  the  quarries  of  Queuast  or 
those  of  Sweden. 

Paving  stones  6  by  4  (boutisses)  shall  be  placed  alternately  at  the  end  of  the  lines- 

The  paving  stones  for  the  sidewalks  shall  be  procured  from  the  quarries  of  Dinant, 
of  Yvoir,  or  from  the  Ourthe,  excepting,  however,  those  of  Marche  and  Gernelle; 
they  shall  be  taken  from  the  best  beds  and  shall  be  of  a  uniform  blue  gray.  The  di- 
mensions of  these  stones  shall  bo  14  by  14  centimetres  at  the  top  and  10  to  12  centi- 
metres at  tho  bottom,  aud  the  height  8  to  11  centimetres.  The  stones  shall  have  flat 
tops,  even  aud  perfectly  smooth,  the  sides  well  squared  and  edged.  Tho  paving 
stones  are  generally  chosen  at  the  expense  of  the  city. 

Article  14. 

The  straight  new  curbstones  shall  have  a  width  of  17  centimetres  and  a  height  of 
30  centimetres;  they  shall  be  placed  according  to  the  profile  indicated  in  the  plan, 
aud  each  stone  must  have  a  length  of  at  least  1|  metres.  They  shall  be  procuie.l 
from  the  quarries  of  Ecaussines,  Soiguies,  or  Eeler. 

The  curved  borders  to  bo  furnished  aud  placed  number  three,  of  2  metres  and  three  of 
4  metres,  radius.  The,  first  mentioned  shall  be  composed  each  of  two  pieces,  1.20  metres 
in  length,  aud  the  others  of  seven  pieces  of  1.25  metres  in  length. 


EUROPE BELGIUM.  21 

The  curved  borders  shall  be  30  centimetres  high  and  17  centimetres  wide  at  the 
junctions,  and  shall  have  the  same  profile  as  the  straight  borders. 
The  curved  borders  shall  consist  of  Swedish  or  Quenast  porphyry. 
The  joints  of  the  borders,  in  general,  shall  bo  strengthened  with  mortar. 

Article  15. 

In  the  water  way  shall  be  established  fourteen  sewer  gratings,  with  cast-iron  venti- 
lator, similar  to  the  model  deposited  at  the  storehouse  Leguit. 

Artict.e  1G. 

The  contractor  shall  take  the  measures  necessary  in  order  to  preserve  all  the  pipes 
serving  for  the  distribution  of  water  and  other  purposes,  in  ease  of  an  accident,  be 
shall  advise  the  grantee  society,  who  will  repair  btie  damage  done.  The  expense  aris- 
ing therefrom  will  be  paid  by  the  city  and  deducted  from  the  amount  retained  as 
guaranty  from  the  contractor. 

Article  17. 
The  work  must  be  entirely  completed  within  a  period  of  2)  months. 

Article  18. 
The  expenses  of  the  undertaking  shall  be  met  in  three  payments. 

Article  19. 

The  amount  of  the  guaranty  to  be  deposited  with  the  municipal  collector  is  fixed 
at  2,000  francs. 

Akticle  20. 

The  expenses  for  stamps  and  registering  must  be  paid  into  the  4th  bureau  of  the 
city  hall  of  Antwerp  withiu  8  days  after  the  acceptance  of  the  offer. 

Article  21. 

-  The  contractor  shall  include  in  the  price  of  his  ofTer  a  sum  of  2,083  francs  to  cover 
expenses  for  watching,  plans,  and  others,  which  will  be  deducted  from  the  amount  of 
his  offer. 

Article  22. 

The  envelope  containing  the  offer  should  bear,  under  the  address  of  the  bnrgomns 
ter,  the  words:  "Offer  for  the  execution  of  street  works  in  the  rue  dn  Dauphin." 

Prepared  by  the  undersigned,  engineer  of  municipal  works. 

Antwerp, 18 — . 

(Signed)  .  

Seen  and  presented,  Antwerp,  ,  18—. 

Engineer  and  chief  director  of  municipal  works: 

(Signed)  

Approved  by  the  "College  des  Bourgraeetre  et  Echevins"  oi  the  city  oi  Antwerp 
in  their  sitting  of 18 — . 

The  burgomaster: 

(Signed)  

The  secretary : 

(8igned:)  


22  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Detailed  estimate. 


Description  of  works. 


Quan- 
tity. 


Price 
per  unit. 


Total 
amount. 


Excavation,  shoving  up  of  earth  accruing  therefrom,  eventual  drain- 
ing reemployment  of  the  earth  for  tillinginand  damming,  compris- 
ing the  demolition  of  the  sewers  designated  in  the  plan,  cu.  metres.. 

Furnishing  and  working  o I  the  earth  in  order  to  bring  the  street  to 
the  required  height,  comprising  leveling  and  damming.. cu.  metres.. 

Sewer,  1.30  by  080  metres metres.. 

Sewer,  0.70  by  0.50  metre do  ... 

Means  of  access cubic  metres.. 

Furnishing  and  placing  of  trap  doors kilos.. 

Stone  water  pipes  of  20  centimetres  interior  diameter metres.. 

Sewer  grat ings  with  cast-iron  ventilator 

Hough  casting  with  cement  mortar  of  the  interior  of  sewer  to  1  centi- 
metre thickness  c 

Cut  stone  for  outlets  of  public  and  private  branchings  off ;  92  x  0.45  x 
0.45  x  6.30  cubic  metres 

New  straight  curb  stones metres.. 

New  curved  curb  stones  do  ... 

Pavement  with  new  stone  8  by  4  for  sides square  metres.. 

Pavement  with  new  stone  for  street do 

Pavement  with  new  stone  for  sidewalk do 

Old  curbstones,  taking  up  and  placing metres.. 

Pavement  with  used  stones  for  sides square  metres.. 

Pavement  with  used  stonos  for  side  walks do 

Pavement  with  used  stones  for  streets do 

Transportation  of  flagstones  to  storehouse  of  the  city 

Establishment  of  the  water  connection  with  the  canal  Herentbals  : 

Foundations  in  rough  masonry cubic  metres.. 

Masonry do 

Furnishing  and  placing  of  cut  stone do  ... 

Wrought  iron  for  grating  of  the  2  mouths  of  tho  water  connection 
comprising  sealing  with  lead kilometres.. 

Cast-iron  trap  doors  of  80  by  80  centimetres do 

Expenses  for  guards,  plans,  etc 

Expenses  for  stamps  and  registering 


1,404 

3,533 
385.  70 
20 

5.500 
2,100 
63 
14 

826 

5.575 
550 
27. 10 
02.  32 
2,431 
1,  079 
10 

1.60 
20 
150 


1.650 
13 

2.027 

40 
450 


15.00 
12.00 
22.00 
.16 
5.00 
75.00 

1.00 

120.  00 
6.00 
13.00 
13.00 
7.00 
6.00 
.30 
.80 
.80 
.35 


12.00 
22.00 
120.  00 


1,  544.  40 

1,059.90 
5,  785.  50 
240.00 
121.00 
330.  00 
315.00 

1,  050.  00 

826.  00 

669.  00 

3,  300.  00 

352.  30 

1,200.16 

17,  017.  00 

6,474.00 

3.00 

1.28 

16.00 

52.  00 

75.00 

19.80 
286.  00 
243.  24 

16.00 
72.  00 

2,  085.  00 

24.  92 


Total 43,185.00 


Drawn  up,  with  an  estimate  oft  ho  sum  of  43,185  francs,  hy  the  undersigned  engineer 
of  the  municipal  works. 

Autwerp, ,        18 — . 

(Signed,)  ■ . 

Seen  and  approved,  Antwerp, ,  18 — . 

Principal  engineer,  director  of  municipal  works: 

(Signed,)  . 

MODEL   OF    OFFER. 


I,  the  undersigned  (full  name),  contractor  of  public  works,  residing  at  , 

street ,  No. ,  bind  myself  by  the  present,  upon  guaranty  of  my  personal  and 

real  property,  to  execute  under  the  terms  and  provisions  of  the  contract  and  special 
conditions,  according  to  the  prescriptions  specified  and  conforming  to  the  plan,  of 
which  I  declare  to  have  a  perfect  knowledge,  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of  (to  be 
written  out  in  letters),  the  street  works  in  the  Rue  du  Dauphin. 

Done  at ,  the day  of ,  18 — . 


EUROPE BELGIUM.  23 

COUNTRY  ROADS  OR  HIGHWAYS. 

llncloauro  2  in  Consul  Steoarl'a  report.] 

Provincial  Government  of  Antwerp.— Technical  Service. 

Statement  of  the  stipulations  and  conditions  upon  which  will  be  awarded  the  construction 
of  a  chausse'e  or  wide  carriage  road  following  the  route  No.  3  at  Waerloos. 

DESCRIPTION  ok  Tin:   WOKK. 
Aktici.k  1. 

The  undertaking  comprises: 

1.  The  execution  of  the  earthworks. 

2.  The  construction  of  the  "ouviages  d'art "  and  the  furnishing  of  the  necessary 
material. 

3.  The  paving. 

4.  The  maintenance  in  good  order  for  1  year  of  the  chausse'e  and  its  dependencies. 

Article  2. 

The  road  to  he  constructed  shall  he  laid  out  according  to  the  trace  in  red  upon  the 
plan  annexed  to  the  present  contract  and  conditions;  it  will  commence  at  a  given 
point  in  the  village  of  Waerloos  ;  will  extend  along  the  road  No.  3  to  join  the  direct 
ehaussee  from  Waerloos  to  Duffel  near  the  limits  of  the  latter  village.  The  total 
length  of  the  ehaussee  is  to  he  1,917.50  metres. 

Article  3. 

The  red  line  running  lengthwise  along  the  plan  of  the  chausse'e %shows  the  height 
at  which  will  he  established  the  crest  of  the  paving. 

The  system  of  slopes  and  borders  shall  be  made  conformably  to  the  indications  of 
the  profile  lengthways. 

The  slopes  and  borders  shall  be  joined  to  each  other  in  the  vertical  sense  by  regular 
curves  of  which  the  development  will  be  indicated  by  the  provincial  engineer. 

The  route  shall  have  6  metres  of  width  between  the  outside  crusts  of  the  sideways; 
the  paved  pait  will  occupy  the  middle  part  of  the  route  and  will  have  £.50  metres  of 
width. 

The  convexity  of  the  paving  shall  be  97  centimeters,  and  the  transverse  inclination 
of  the  sideways  shall  be  .04  centimetre  per  metre. 

The  route  shall  be  bordered  with  ditches  having  1  metre  width  at  the  top  and  40 
centimetres  depth.  These  dimensions  may  be  modified  according  to  the  requirements 
of  the  ground. 

The  crests  of  the  sideways  shall  be  marked  by  level  borders  of  grass  of  25  oenti- 
meties  width  with  8  to  10  centimetres  thickness. 

Article  4. 

•  The  plan  of  the  work  shall  be  executed  by  the  contractor  or  his  agents  under  his 
responsibility .  The  work,  however,  can  not  be  commenced  until  after  the  pi. in  has 
been  veiilied  by  the  provincial  engineer. 

All  the  tools,  utensils,  engines,  wheelbarrows,  carta,  etc,  in  faol  all  the  material 
necessary  for  the  carrying  on  of  the  work,  without  any  exception  whatever,  moat  he 
provided  by  the  contractor. 

The  works  will  be  commenced  at  the  points  designated  bj  the  provincial  engineer. 


21  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

ARTICLE  5. 

Tlic  eartli  coming  from  the  excavation  and  that  necessary. for  the  embankments 

shall  be  employed  to  form  the  profiles  of  the  roads  following  the  sides;  the  same  earth 
(shall  serve  to  unite  roads,  avenues  to  farms,  or  entrances  to  fields  with  the  sideways 
of  the  route. 

The  earth  removed,  with  the  exception  of  mud,  roots,  and  grass  shall  he  employed 
in  the  work  of  filling  up  and  embanking. 

If  the  ground  coming  from  the  excavations  is  not  sufficient  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  the  embankments  the  contractor  must  provide  the  quantity  needed. 

Article  6. 

After  all  the  preliminary  earthworks  have  been  finished  a  coffer  shall  be  opened  at  a 
depth  of  25  centimeters,  preserving  at  the  bottom  a  slope  or  convexity  equal  to  that 
of  the  paving.     The  bottom  as  well  as  the  sideways  shall  be  made  thoroughly  strung. 

The  bed  of  sand  will  have  a  thickness  of  25  centimetres,  measuring  from  the  top  of 
the  pavement. 

Article  7. 

Paving. 

The  borders  shall  be  placed  along  the  line  following  the  slopes,  declivities,  and  levels 
as  indicated.  They  shall  be  joined  and  made  firm  at  the  outside  with  sand  well 
driven  in. 

The  space  between  the  two  border  lines  shall  be  filled  with  paving  stones  forming 
a  regular  connection,  placed  in  such  a  manuer  as  to  touch  each  other  on  all  sides,  the 
joints  well  filled  with  sand  and  made  firm  under  the  weight  of  a  hammer  of  at  least 
6  kilogrammes. 

The  stones  shall  be  successively  driven  firm  with  a  paving  beetle  weighing  at  least 
16  to  18  kilogrammes. 

The  hammering  shall  commence  at  the  borders  of  the  chaussee  and  be  continued 
towards  the  axis,  taking  care  to  preserve  the  slopes  and  convexity  indicated  upon  the 
plan. 

The  hammering  shall  be  done  regularly  by  two  workmen,  commencing  one  from 
each  side  of  the  route  and  advaucing  towards  the  axis,  hammering  the  same  line  of 
6tone. 

All  the  stones  which  may  be  broken  under  the  weight  of  the  beetle,  or  which  may 
be  driven  below  the  surface  line,  shall  be  removed  and  replaced  by  others  having 
the  proper  dimensions  to  be  fitted  to  those  already  placed. 

When  the  supervisor  of  the  works  shall  be  satisfied  that  the  paving  has  been  well 
done,  there  shall  be  spread  upon  it  a  bed  of  sand  2  centimeters  deep. 

Article  8. 

The  operations  of  the  plan  and  the  verification  of  the  work  'shall  be  at  the  charge 
of  the  contractor,  who  will  furnish  for  this  purpose  the  workmen  and  the  instruments 
necessary,  such  as  squares,  levels,  chains,  liues,  stakes,  etc. 

Article  9. 
Traraure  d'Art. 

The  framework  of  the  "  Travaure  d'Art "  shall  be  made  firm  to  the  sides  of  the  level 
marked  in  the  special  plans.  - 

These,  works  of  art  shall  be  constructed  under  the  best  conditions  conformably  to 
the  plans,  and  after  the  indications  of  the  provincial  engineer. 


EUROPE — BELGIUM.  25 

These  works  are : 

Oue  aqueduct  with  80  centimetres opening,  square  section,  and  covered  with  flag? 
stones. 

Three  aqueducts  of  30  to  35  centimetres  opening,  section  rectangular,  and  covered 
■with  ilagstouos. 

Article  10. 

The  compensation  due  to  third  parties  for  the  taking  of  sand,  earth,  depots  of 
materials,  shops,  service  roads,  etc.,  will  be  at  the  charge  of  the  contractor. 

in  no  case  will  a  depot  of  materials  he  allowed  upon  the  ground  reserved  for  the 
bed  of  the  route  or  its  dependencies. 

Article  11. 

Materials. 

The  paving  stones  shall  he  in  porphyry  or  sandstone. 

The  contractors  must  indicate  in  their  offer  the  kind  (porphyry  or  sandslone)  and 
the  place  of  production  of  the  paving  stones  that  they  agree  to  place  in  the  work. 

The  admini8tratiou  reserves  the  right  to  choose,  as  best  suits  them,  among  the 
different  offers. 

The  paving  stones  shall  have  the  following  dimensions  :  Length,  14  to  16  couti- 
metres;  width,  14  centimetres;  height,  14  centimetres  at  the  least. 

The  borders  of  the  chaussdes  shall  bo  in  ordinary  limestone  granite.  They  shall 
have  the  following  dimensions:  Length, 26  to  36  centimetres;  width,  14  ceutimetres; 
height,  25  centimetres. 

Sand  :  The  sand  shall  be  pure,  dry,  gritty,  free  from  stones  aud  clay. 

Lime:  The  lime  shall  be  of  the  best  quality,  aud  shall  bo  furnished  "quick  "at 
the  foot  of  the  work. 

Bricks:  Tho  bricks  shall  be  of  the  kind  called  "  Klampsteeu."  They  must  be  well 
formed,  well  burnt,  hard,  and  sonorous.  The  bricks  for  the  facing  shall  be  chosen 
from  among  the  best  looking  aud  the  best  burnt.     They  shall  be  of  uniform  color. 

Bluestone:  The  bluestone  shall  be  of  the  ordiuary  liinestoue  granite.  It  shall  be 
taken  from  the  largest  and  hardest  quarries.  It  shall  have  neither  daws,  thin  places, 
broken  corners,  or  defective  veins. 

The  facings  shall  be  finely  cut.     The  tablets  shall  be  provided  with  drains. 

Flagstones:  The  flagstones  shall  be  of  stone  from  "Tournai."  They  shall  bo  of 
best  quality  and  have  a  uniform  thickness. 

Mortar:  Tho  mortar  of  the  ordiuary  masonry  shall  bo  composed  01  'wo  parts  Of 
slack  lime,  one  part  of  ashes,  and  one  part  of  sand. 

That  for  the  rough  casting  of  the  "  Ouvrages  d'Art "  shall  conta:u  three  parts  of 
lime  and  two  parts  of  "  trass,"  which  is  a  rough  cemont. 

Article  12. 

Nature  and  reception  of  material. 

All  of  the  material,  each  of  its  kind,  shall  be  of  I  he .best  quality;  it  must  be  deliv- 
ered at  the  works,  but  can  be  employed  only  after  having  been  accepted  by  the 
administration.  It  must  bo  placed  in  such  a  manner  thai  its  verifioatiou  may  be  as 
easy  as  possible. 

The  contractor  must  furnish  the  workmen  necessary  for  the  reception  of  the 
material. 

The  material  rejected  must  be  immediately  removed  from  the  works  am t  replaced 
by  others,  and  that  before  tho  resumption  of  work. 


26  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Article  13. 
General  conditions. 

The  present  enterprise  constitutes  an  absolute  coutract,  consequently  the  con- 
tractor shall  be  held  for  in  consideration  of  the  price  of  adjudication,  to  execute,  at 
his  expense,  risk,  and  peril,  and  to  deliver,  at  the  expiration  of  the  contract  time,  all 
the  works  which  make  the  subject  of  this  contract  and  which  are  mentioned  or 
described  in  the  present  conditions  or  appear  upon  the  plans  hereto  annexed,  in  fur- 
nishing and  putting  upon  the  work  all  the  materials  necessary  to  this  effect  and  in 
conformity  with  all  the  clauses  and  provisos  stipulated  in  the  said  conditions. 

The  contractor  shall  be  considered  to  have  established  the  sum  total  of  his  offer 
after  his  proper  calculations  and  estimates ;  he  will  not  be  permitted  to  raise  any 
claim  by  reason  of  errors  or  omissions  which  might  appear  in  the  measurement  and 
detailed  estimates,  which  are  joined  to  the  conditions  only  as  simple  suggestions,  aud 
of  which  the  quantities  are  not  guarantied. 

The  administration  formally  reserves  to  itself  the  right  to  prescribe  to  the  con- 
tractor, in  the  execution  of  the  work,  such  modification  as  they  may  judge  proper  to 
make  in  the  work  as  provided  for,  whether  in  regard  to  the  form,  the  dimensions,  or 
the  method  of  construction,  or  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  material  to  be  need  in  the 
work,  or  in  any  other  manner,  and  this  without  the  contractor  being  able,  by  virtue 
of  this  matter,  to  raise  any  complaint  or  claim  whatsoever. 

Should  the  case  occur,  the  administration  will  prepare  a  statement  in  which  the 
works,  as  provided  for,  that  the  contractor  will  be  relieved  from  executing  and  those 
that  he  must  execute,  not  previously  provided  for,  will  be  valued  at  a  price  greater 
or  less,  as  may  be,  pro  rata  of  the  difference  between  the  total  amount  of  the  detailed 
estimates  and  that  of  the  adjudication. 

The  contractor  will  be  held  to  accept  the  statement  which  will  have  been  prepared 
by  the  Direction,  unless  objections  and  claims  on  his  part  may  be  considered  as  well 
founded,  whether  in  regard  to  the  price  at  which  the  work  is  valued  or  in  regard  to 
the  quantity  of  the  work  which  has  been  carried  into  the  statement,  in  which  case  a 
new  statement  will  be  prepared,  giving  right,  if  necessary  to  his  claims,  and  that  the 
contractor  can  no  longer  refuse  to  accept. 

Article  14. 

No  work  not  provided  for,  either  on  the  plan  or  in  the  present  contract  and  condi- 
tions, shall  be  allowed  to  the  contractor,  if  the  execution  has  not  been  previously 
authorized  by  the  administration. 

The  work  will  be  considered  to  have  been  done  in  the  interest  of  the  contractor 
aud  will  remain  at  his  expense. 

Article  15. 

The  contractors  are  not  allowed,  except  in  cases  of  necessity  and  pressure,  to  make 
the  workmen  work  on  Sundays  or  legal  holidays,  or  to  admit  upon  the  works  chil- 
dren under  the  age  of  13  years. 

The  infraction  of  these  rules  will  be  ascertained  by  the  provincial  engineer  or  his 
subordinates  charged  with  the  supervision  of  the  works,  by  the  communal  adminis- 
tration, aud  by  the  agents  of  the  local  police. 

The  contractor  will  be  liable  to  a  penalty  of  5  francs  per  day,  to  be  retained  from 
the  amount  of  the  adjudication,  for  each  workman  who  will  have  worked  on  Sunday 
or  a  legal  holiday  aud  for  each  child  under  13  years  admitted  upon  the  works. 

In  case  of  dispute  as  to  the  real  infraction  or  as  to  the  amount  of  penalties  applied 
the  contractor  will  be  allowed  to  appeal  to  the  deputation  permanente  and  he  must 
submit  to  their  decision. 


EUROPE BELGIUM  27 

The  ainonnt  of  penalties,  imposed  shall  be  granted  by  the  deputation  perraanente 
to  the  bureau  of  charity  of  the  commune  where  the  infraction  occurred  or  to  a  hos- 
pital if  oue  exists  iu  the  locality. 

Article  16. 

Commencement  and  completion  <>/  Hie  work. 

The  contractor  Hball  cou.mence  the  work  within  111  days  of  the  order  that  he  shall 
receive  from  the  administration;  the  work  must  be  entirely  finished  the  1st  of  No- 
vember, 1890,  period  at  which  it  will  be  submitted  to  ;v  provisory  reception. 

The  reception  shall  be  in  the  presence  of  the  commission  and  shall  be  verified  by 
a  regular  official  report. 

Article  17. 

In  the  case  where  the  contractor,  by  carelessness,  ill-will,  or  lack  of  means  shall 
refuse  to  comply  within  10  days  to  the  orders  which  may  be  given  to  him  by  the 
provincial  engineer,  the  work  will  be  proceeded  with  ami  the  expenses  resulting 
therefrom  shall  be  deducted  from  the  payment  of  the  last  quarter  of  the  enterprise. 

Article  18. 

•  Fines  and  forfeits. 

For  each  day  of  delay  beyond  the  time  established  the  contractor  shall  be  liable  to 
a  penalty  of  20  frauce  per  day  ;  if  this  delay  reaches  30  days,  ou  the  31st  day  the  con- 
tractor shall  forfeit  all  his  right  to  the  undertaking  and  all  expenses  resulting  there- 
from shall  be  at  his  charge. 

Article  19. 
Delay. 

The  deputation  permanente  alone  accords  au  extension  or  delay  in  the  finishing 
of  the  work.  It  alone  also  inflicts  the  penalties  after  having  heard  the  province  and 
the  contractor  interested. 

The  penalties  that  the  contractor  will  have  iucurred  shall  be  turned  into  the  pro- 
vincial treasury. 

Article  20. 

The  contractor  will  be  held  to  guaranty  his  work  for  the  term  of  1  year  from 
the  time  of  the  legal  provisory  reception  ;  he  will  keep  it  in  perfect  order  during  that 
lapse  of  time. 

At  the  expiration  of  this  time  and  before  the  route  be  recovered  with  a  * >* -< I  of  Band 
2  centimetres  in  thickness,  the  final  reception  shall  take  place. 

Works  left  in  suspense  shall  lie  executed  officially  and  their  cost  be  withheld  from 
the  amount  of  the  5  per  cent,  held  for  guaranty. 

The  final  reception  will  take  place  in  the  presence  of  the  commission  and  will  ho 
verified  by  a  regular  and  detailed  legal  report. 

Article  21. 

The  contractor  can  not)  in  any  case,  give  OYtit  his  undertaking  to  any  one  whatso- 
ever,  without  tbecousentof  the  administration;  the  Babooutraoton  that  In-  m 
biate  with  himself  will  not  he  recognized  by  the  administration. 


28  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

ARTICLE    '?->. 

All  infringements  of  the  stipulations  contained  in  the  present  conditions  will  be 
verified  by  the  provincial  engineer  ;  the  legal  documents  will  be  prepared  in  dupli- 
cate, of  which  one  will  be  delivered  at  the  real  or  chosen  residence  of  the  contractor 
against  -i  receipt  signed  by  him. 

The  same  mode  of  deli  very  will  apply  to  other  acts  of  which  the  notification  must 
be  verified  in  an  official  mauuer.  In  case  of  the  absence  of  the  contractor  or  his 
proxy,  or  upon  the  refusal  to  deliver  the  receipt,  the  delivery  can  be  made  at  the 
residence,  either  by  a  registered  letter  through  the  post,  at  the  expense  of  the  con- 
tractor, or  by  the  declaration  of  an  agent  of  the  direction  establishing  the  delivery  of 
the  documents  at  the  residence  of  the  contractor. 

Article  23. 

All  differences  arising  between  the  province,  the  provincial  engineer,  and  the  con- 
tractor shall  be  submitted  to  the  commission,  reserving  appeal  to  the  ddputation 
permaneute,  to  whose  decision  the  contractor  must  submit  without  further  recourse. 

Article  24. 

Payments. 

The  payments  will  be  made  quarterly,  in  proportion  to  the  advancement  of  the 
work,  reserving  the  amount  of  5  per  cent,  to  serve  as  guaranty  and. which  will  be 
paid  at  the  final  reception  of  the  work,  d<  duction  haviug  been  made  for  the  amounts 
officially  expended,  of  which  mention  lias  been  made  in  Article  17. 

The  payments  will  be  made  in  cash  upon  the  certificates  delivered  by  the  provin- 
cial engineer  verifying  the  portion  to  which  the  contractor  is  entitled.  All  pay- 
ments made  within  8  days  following  the  delivery  of  each  certificate  will  be  consid- 
ered as  cash. 

Fifteen  days  before  the  estimated  time  of  the  delivery  of  each  certificate  the  pro- 
vincial engineer  of  the  roads  shall  inform  the  commission  of  the  delivery  of  this  piece 
to  the  contractor. 

In  case  of  delay  in  payment,  there  6hall  be  5  per  cent,  interest  due  to  date  from 
the  eighth  day  after  the  emission  of  the  certificate  of  reception,  of  which  the  con- 
tractor shall  receive  an  official  notice  for  his  guidance. 

Article  25. 

Indemnities. 

No  indemnity  shall  be  allowed  to  the  contractor  on  account  of  losses,  injuries, 
damages  caused  by  negligence,  want  of  meaus,  or  bad  workmauship,  unless  it  caube 
established  that  the  injuries  or  delays  came  from  a  superior  power  and  were  inde- 
pendent of  his  will. 

The  contractor  will  be  allowed  to  plead  the  superior  power,  whether  for  a  claim  of 
indemnity  of  any  kind  whatever,  or  to  justify  the  nonexecution  of  any  part  of  the 
work,  or  to  obtain  a  remission  of  all  or  part  of  the  penalties  that  he  had  incurred, 
only  iu  case  that,  within  10  days  of  the  circumstances  or  events  from  which  may 
have  resulted  the  obstacles  or  damages,  he  will  have  made  known  the  situation  to 
the  administration. 

Article  26. 

The  contractor  shall  comprise  in  his  offer — 

1.  A  sum  of  1,134-r^s  francs  for  works  unforeseen. 

2.  The  expenses  of  printing,  of  advertising,  of  posters,  of  stamp  and  registering  the 
conditions  and  legal  contract  of  adjudication,  valued  at  200  francs. 


EUROPE — BELGIUM.  29 

The  payment  of  these  expenses  shall  be  made  within  8  days  following  the  approval 
of  the  legal  contract. 

:i.  Three  per  cent,  upon  the  total  of  the  amount  of  adjudication  to  the  proiit  of  the 
province. 

Artici.k  27. 

Seourity, 

In  order  to  take  part  in  the  adjudication  the  competitors  must  deposit  in  the 
national  bank  the  sum  of  4,000  franc*  either  in  cash  or  national  bonis. 

The  receipt  for  the  deposit  must  be  annexed  to  the  offer.  Any  offei  to  which  this 
receipt  is  not  annexed  will  not  be  considered. 

The  restitution  of  the  deposits  to  the  unsuccessful  competitors  will  be  made,  with 
the  authority  of  the  governor  of  the  province,  immediately  after  the  approval  of  the 
adjudication. 

The  amount  deposited  by  the  one  obtaining  the  contract  will  remain  iu  the  national 
bank  as  security  until  the  temporary  reception  of  the  work. 

Article  28. 

Method  of  adjudication. 

The  assignment  will  bo  made  upon  the  otters  addressed  to  the  greffior  (notary)  of 
the  province  of  Antwerp,  by  registered  letters  placed  in  the  post  at  least  1  day  be- 
fore the  date  fixed  for  the  adjudication. 

The  "Tether,  assisted  by  the  delegates  of  the  communal  administration  and  chief 
engineer,  will  proceed  to  the  opening  of  the  offers  in  public  session. 

The  offers*  which  shall  contain  stipulations  other  thau  those  provided  for  in  the 
given  conditions,  will  not  be  considered. 

The  otters  and  the  legal  copy  of  adjudication  will  bo  submitted  to  the  approval  of 
the  common  council,  and  if  necessary  to  that  of  the  deputation  permaneute. 

Prepared  by  provincial  engineer. 

Antwerp,  April  16,  1890. 

(Signed.)  • 

Seen  and  presented  chief  engineer,  director. 
Antwerp,  April  17,  1890. 

(Signature.)  • 

FORM   OF   OFFER. 

I,  the  undersigned  (full  name),  contractor  of  public  works,  living  at street, 

;  No.  ,  do  engage  by  this  otter,  under  guaranty  of  all  my  property,  real  and 

personal,  to  undertake,  upon  the  terms  and  provisions  of  the  contract  and  c litions, 

all  the  work  for  the  construction  of  a  chaussee  following  the  route  No.  3  at  Waerloos, 
in  consideration  of  asuin  of  (indicate  the,  amount,  in  writing  and  in  letters),  putting 
on  the  work  paving  of  the  fourth  sample  (indicate  the  kind  and  origin  of  the  paving 
stone). 

Made  at ,  the day  of ,  18—. 

(Signed.) 


30 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


DISTRICT  OF   WAERLOOS. 

Estimated  expense  of  works  to  be  executed  iu  the  construction  of  a  carriage  road 
following  the  route  No.  3: 


Dimensions. 

Quantity. 

£ 

Amouut. 

Length. 

Width. 

Height. 

Earth  works: 

Excavation,  filling  in,  and  trans- 
port of  earth. 

Kilos. 

Rectos. 

Dekas. 

1,917.50  meters. 

Frs. 

0.60 

0.15 
0.20 

0.75 

0.15 

0.10 

6.70 
0.10 

Francs. 
1,  150.  50 

510.90 

Turfing  the  ridge  of  the  sideways . 

Dinging  the  coffer  and  furnish- 
ing the  sand. 

Working  up  the  profile  of  the^ 
sideways. 

3,446.00 
1,917.50 

0.25 
2.50 

801.50  square 

meters. 
1,  1118.44  cubic 

meters. 
1.917.50  meters. 

1,917.50  meters 

4,793.75  meters 

75.  00  meters. 

4,868.75  meters 
4,  868.  75  meters. 

172.36 

0.25 

80S. 82 
287.  63 
191.75 

Paving: 

Pavings  of  0.14  by  0.16  (porphyry 
or  stone)  and   borders,   4-inch 
sample,      common     limestone 
granite. 

1,917.50 

2.50 

Repairs  of  pavement 

Travaux  d'art : 

Aqueduct,  0.80  by  0.80  meter  sec- 
tion. 

Aqueduct,  0.30  bj  0.35  meter  sec- 
tion. 

32,  620.  03 
486. 88 

543.  96 

876.  32 

80  pieces 

1.50 

120.00 

k  un  fores 

37,  805.  69 

Expenses    of  registering,    printing, 
adjudication,  etc. 

30,  200.  00 



The  present  estimate  amounts  to  the  sum  of  40,376  francs. 
Prepared  by  provincial  engineer: 

(Signature.) 
Antwerp  (Date). 
Engineer  in-chief,  director. 

(Signature.) 
Antwerp  (date). 


HIGHWAYS  IN  BELGIUM  AND  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  TANNER,  OF  LEIQE. 

[From  Consular  Reports  No.  24.] 


While  the  Department  of  State  is  making  such  laudable  efforts  for  the  extension 
of  our  commerce  and  industry  it  behooves  us  not  to  lose  Right  of  matters  at  homo 
equally  conducive  to  our  prosperity. 

In  order  to  lay  clearly  and  concisely  my  subject  before  the  Department  I  will  do 
so  by  presenting  two  pictures. 


EUltOPE BELGIUM  31 

PUBLIC    HIGHWAYS   IX    BELGIUM. 

Americana  who  find  themselves  in  Europe  are  struck  with  astonishment  at  the 
enormous  loads  drawn  hy  horses  and  dogs  here.  One  glance  of  the  eye  from  the  bulk 
just  mentioned  to  the  roads  and  half  the  wonder  would  be  accouuted  for,  because 
the  roads  have  almost  everything  to  do  with  it.  We  are  too  apt  to  ignore  that  which 
we  trample  under  foot.  The  ancients  knew  and  appreciated  more  the  importance  of 
good  public  roads  than  we  do  to-day,  though  at  the  present  time  in  Europe  this  is  a 
subject  of  first  importance. 

Many  of  the  roads  built  by  the  ancient  Romans  and  traveled  by  the  proud  Roman 
conquerors  remain  to  this  day.  This  is  particularly  the  ease  in  Turkey,  where  they 
have,  ever  since  the  Roman  era,  been  in  use  with  little  or  no  repair.  Of  the  numer- 
ous evidences  left  by  them  of  their  greatness  and  civilization  I  deem  these  roads  the 
seal  and  stamp. 

Belgium  is  divided  into  nine  provinces,  and  each  province  is  the  seat  of  a  well- 
organized  State  government,  presided  over  by  a  govenuor.  Each  of  the  nine  prov- 
inces, at  each  seat  of  government,  has  a  bureau  for  roads  and  bridges  whoso  chief 
gives  his  undivided  attention  to  these  things. 

The  roads  are  most  carefully  eugiueered  in  the  first  place,  heavy  grades,  even  in 
mountainous  localities,  being  carefully  avoided.  The  roads  are  built  in  an  oval 
form,  aud  in  most  cases  are  paved  with  stones;  in  others  gravel  iorms  the  road  Led, 
and  still  in  others  gravel  covers  the  stone,  which,  soon  becoming  hard  and  smooth, 
makes  the  best  road  bed  of  all  others,  because  the  jolts  aud  noise  of  a  paved  road, 
which  are  both  tiresome  and  disagreeable,  are  avoided,  and  then  the  wear  and  tear 
are  not  so  great  on  the  running  gear,  and  this  kind  of  road  is  decidedly  more  agree- 
able to  pedestrians  aud  possesses,  in  addition  to  other  advantages  enumerated,  the 
advantage  that  if  the  gravel  washes  away  the  stones  remaiu  aud  a  good  road  is  al- 
ways assured. 

The  stones  composing  the  roads  are  of  a  blunt  wedge  shape,  4  or  5  inches  square, 
aud  are  quickly  laid  and  quickly  taken  up  if  necessary.  These  stones  are  uniform 
and  regular  iu  size,  and,  when  placed,  dirt  is  placed  over  the  new  pavement  and  then 
a  large  roller,  drawn  by  four  horses,  is  passed  and  repassed  over  it  until  the  stones 
are  well  settled  in  their  places  aud  the  crevices  tilled  with  earth.  In  constructing 
roads  here  regard  is  always  paid  to  locality  and  liability  to  wash.  Where  there  is 
no  danger  of  washes  stones  are  dispeused  with  altogether  and  an  oval-shaped  gravel 
road  substituted  at  less  cost,  but  in  all  cases  the  sides  of  the  road  receiving  the  drain- 
age and  where  it  is  apt  to  show  first  symptoms  of  yielding  to  bad  weather  are  care- 
fully paved  so  that  washes  and  gullies  can  not  commence  in  that  quarter. 

These  roads  are  flanked  on  either  side  by  two,  aud  sometimes  four,  rows  of  shade 
trees,  which  add  much  beauty  to  the  country  through  which  they  run,  and  from  a 
distance  are  particularly  picturesque  where  several  roads  intersect.  One  can  mark 
the  roads  iu  their  windings  sometimes  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  by  these  fresh 
green  shade  trees,  which,  with  the  various  teams  of  horse  and  dog  laden  with  the 
products  of  farms,  mines,  and  shop,  conspire  to  make  a  ver>  pretty  scene.  1  never 
look  at  these  roads  but  what  I  think  of  the  enormous  blessing  and  luxury  they 
would  be  in  certain  sections  of  our  country. 

The  public  roads  of  Belgium  enter  into  successful  competition  with  the  railroads, 
so  much  so  that  a  man  who  has  his  team  does  not  by  any  means  consider  himself 
forced  to  send  his  products  by  rail.  It  is  one  of  the  commonest  of  sights  here  in 
Liege  to  see  wagons  laden  with  merchandise  from  Brussels,  which  is  150,  or  from  Ant- 
werp, which  is  72,  miles  from  this  place j  this  faol  does  not  possess  anything  aston- 

ishing  until  the  enormous  loads  pulled  that  distance  by  one  horse  is  considered,  and 
there  is  nothing  that  BO  astonishes  the  American  as  this.  Sometimes  the  wagon 
itself  looks  like  a  sufficient  charge  for  two  horses,  while  wagon,  load,  and  all  are 
drawn  by  one  with  the  greatest  ease.  Those  horses  an-  of  a  larger  and  stronger 
build  than  our  horses,  and  from   their  size  and  strength  are  called   in  England  "  El* 


32  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

glial]  drafts."  Place  the  same  load  on  almost  any  of  our  roads  in  the  United  States, 
and  at  least  two  more,  if  not  three  more,  "  English  drafts"  would  be  required  to  pull 
it  the  same  distance.  Dog  carts  come  to  this  market,  laden  with  beef  and  other 
products  of  the  farm,  a  distance  of  12  and  15  miles,  drawn  by  one  dog.  Two  grown, 
persous  return  in  the  wagon. 

AMERICAN   HIGHWAYS. 

In  presenting  the  other  side  of  the  picture  the  task  is  not  an  agreeable  one  because 
I  will  have  to  write  some  very  disagreeable  things.  Can  it  be  said  that  we  have  any 
public  roads  in  the  United  States  ?  I  have  only  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  public 
roads  in  the  Western  and  Southern  States,  and  there  is  only  one  within  my  knowl- 
edge that  can  make  pretentions  to  being  called  a  road  in  the  Belgian  sense,  and  that 
is  in  the  Valley  of  Virginia.  Most  of  the  others  that  have  come  under  my  notice  are 
little  short  of  bogs,  swamps,  aryl  marshes,  and  the  bridges  man  traps.  These  roads 
are  utterly  at  the  mercy  of  the  weather,  and  are  passable  or  impassable  according  to 
it,  and  are  entirely  out  of  keeping  with  the  enlightened  and  intelligent  people  who, 
through  apathy,  patiently  endure  such  a  state  of  affairs. 

I  have  been  in  certain  sections  of  the  South,  in  the  fall  and  winter  months,  when  the 
farmer  had  gathered  his  crop,  and  when  the  business  season  would  naturally  be  good, 
when  the  farmer  would  go  to  market,  make  his  sales,  and  return  with  merchandise  and 
heard  the  most  dismal  complainings  of  dull  business  and  "  hard  times."  This  is  the 
case  simply  because  in  most  cases  the  roads  are  utterly  impassable,  the  distribution  of 
products  is  at  a  standstill,  and  of  course  dull  business  follows.  There  are  few  outside 
of  these  sections  that  know  the  real  condition  of  these  roads.  The  emigrants,  bow- 
ever,  know  more  on  the  subject  than  many  Americans,  as  I  will  show  further  on.  I 
have  been  on  the  roads  and  seen  a  poor  old  Rosinante  tugging  away  at  a  wagon  stuck 
in  the  "mud  almost  out  of  sight ;  when  released  from  his  gear  he  could  hardly  pull  him- 
self out  of  the  mire.  Some  of  these  roads  are  marked  with  skeletons  of  horses  that 
have  beerl  beaten  to  death  or  drowned  in  the  mud  or  some  bridgeless  stream,  and 
wrecks  of  wagons  and  other  vehicles  mark  the  place  of  an  accident  to  some  one  who 
had  courage  enough  to  venture  out  on  the  road.  I  was  in  oue  of  the  most  beautiful  of 
our  Southern  cities  last  winter,  and  while  there  read  a  glowing  account  in  one  of  the 
newspapers  of  the  place  of  a  horse  having  been  smothered  in  the  mud,  and  this  on 
one  of  the  principal  streets  of  the  city.  When  poor  roads  prevail  in  a  sectiou,  every- 
thing else  is  very  apt  to  be  poor— the  horse,  the  farmer,  and  the  merchant,  and  the 
church. 
Where  good  roads  prevail  you  find  a  community  that  would  be  loth  to  give  them  up. 
It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  in  spite  of  the  strenuous  efforts  made  in  some  sections  of 
our  couutry  to  induce  emigrants  to  settle  among  them,  very  few  accept  the  invitation. 
I  am  in  a  position  here  to  know  something  of  the  emigrant.  He  generally  posts  him- 
self pretty  thoroughly  about  a  section  before  he  goes  to  it.  This  is  made  easy  by  the 
numerous  emigrants  who  have  preceded  him,  and  he  is  sure  to  have  acquaintances  in 
several  sections  who  give  him  information.  I  have  invariably  been  informed  by  them 
that  they  would  not  go  to  a  section  where  the  roads  were  impassable.  This  is  their 
only  objection.  They  inform  me  that  they  would  gladly  go  to  such  sections,  but  that 
they  do  not  wish  to  be  mud-bound  or  mud-blockaded  for  six  months  in  the  year.  I 
can  say  to  such  sectious  that  they  must  make  good  public  roads  before  they  can  in- 
duce emigrants  to  come  among  them.  If  it  is  economy  that  restrains,  it  is  a  false 
economy ;  '  very  day  that  they  allow  their  public  roads  to  remain  in  an  impassable 
condition,  their  streams  to  remain  without  bridges,  they  deal  a  direct  and  severe  blow 
at  their  own  interests;  the  country  will  remain  undeveloped,  its  hidden  treasures 
locked  up.  These  roads,  if  improved  at  once,  newly  engineered,  and  made  good 
roads,  with  permanent  bridges  that  could  not  be  swept  away  with  every  rise  in  the 
stream,  would  give  some  sign  of  permanence  of  settlement,  and  of  contentment  with 
the  section;  the  burden  of  tho  tax  would  soon  be  shared  by  so  many  that  the  roads 


EUROPE BELGIUM.  33 

would  not  only  be  self-sustain  iug,  but  would  be  a  source  of  revenue  to  tbe  State. 
The  taxes  would  return  in  the  improved  couditiou  of  stock  and  running  gear,  and  of 
the  increased  loads  that  could  be  sent  to  market  in  wagons.  Circulation,  which  is 
the  backbone  of  business,  would  be  facilitated  ;  whore  now  it  is  a  hazard  and  a  task 
to  venture  on  the  public  highways  it  would  become  a  pleasure.  In  short,  there  are 
few  blessings  that  any  commuuity  can  know  equal  to  that  of  having  first-class  roads. 
But  unless  roads  are  made  first-class,  to  commence  with,  you  will  never  have  them, 
and  you  throw  away  the  money  you  invest  in  them. 

Geo.  C.  Tanner, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Liege  and  Verviers,  August  1,  1882. 


BRUSSELS  DISTRICT. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  ROOSEVELT. 

STREETS. 

Owing  to  the  numerous  quarries  existing  in  Belgium,  very  little  else 
than  stone  is  employed  in  paving  the  streets  and  highways,  in  and 
around  Brussels^  A  few  streets  in  the  center  of  the  city,  as  well  as 
the  sidewalks  of  the  railway  stations,  are  paved  with  condensed  asphalt, 
comiug  from  Val  de  Travers.  On  account  of  the  peculiar  situation  of 
the  city,  the  majority  of  the  streets  are  of  too  precipitous  an  incline  to 
permit  the  successful  condensation  of  asphalt.  Wood  paving  is  em- 
ployed on  some  of  the  boulevards. 

Asphalt  paving. — Streets  destined  to  receive  asphalt  are  constructed 
in  the  following  manner:  The  soil  is  removed  to  a  depth  of  6  inches, 
the  ground  then  leveled  into  shape,  preparatory  to  receiving  a  deposit 
of  concrete,  composed  of  Portlaud  cement  and  gravel,  upon  which  the 
asphalt  is  applied  to  a  depth  of  2  inches.  The  method  of  laying  wood 
pavement  is  similar  to  that  employed  in  the  United  States. 

Stone  paving. — Primary  preparation  of  streets  to  be  paved  with  stone 
is  identically  the  same  as  when  asphalt  is  employed.  A  deep  bed  of 
sand  is,  however,  deposited  instead  of  concrete,  upon  which  paving 
stones,  known  as  Belgian  blocks,  are  placed  in  transverse  rows,  and 
firmly  fixed  in  a  smooth  and  comparatively  compact  mass,  by  use  of  a 
heavy  paving  ram  worked  by  hand,  a  slight  sprinkling  of  sand  is  ap- 
plied and  the  street  declared  ready  for  traffic. 

BOULEVARDS. 

The  boulevards  of  Brussels,  forming  a  continuous  and  beautiful  cir- 
cuit around  the  city,  are  abundantly  planted  in  line,  large  elms,  maples, 
sycamore,  and  chestnut  trees,  affording  delightful  promenades  to  pedes- 
trians  and  equestrians,  as  well  as  fine  carriage  drives. 

The  boulevards  vary  in  width  according  to  section  of  city  which  they 
traverse.  They  are  divided  into  roadways  for  tramoars  and  heavy 
33A 3 


34  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

traffic,  walks  for  pedestrians,  and  roads  for  carriages  and  equestrians. 
The  walks  devoted  to  pedestrians  are  constructed  from  pulverized 
granite  covered  with  a  sufficiently  deep  layer  of  sand  rolled  hard  and 
smooth,  and  afford  agreeable  promenades  even  in  wet  weather.  The 
roads  are  built  on  similar  principles  as  ordinary  roads,  that  is,  the 
ground  is  excavated  to  an  agreed  depth,  say  from  10  to  16  inches,  and 
filled  in  with  the  paving  material.  The  roads  devoted  to  equestrians 
are  filled  in  to  a  depth  of  16  inches  with  broken  brick,  which  after  being 
leveled  into  shape  is  covered  with  a  thick  bed  of  sea  sand.  The  carriage 
roads  aie  paved  in  part  with  asphalt,  wood,  and  also  broken  and  pul- 
verized granite,  the  latter  producing  a  fine  macadamized  roadway. 

The  pavements  and  paving  stones,  their  origin,  duration,  and  cost 
are  as  follows :  Porphyry,  from  quarries  at  Quenast  and  Lessines,  esti- 
mated duration  75  years ;  sandstone  from  quarries  at  Ecoussines,  esti- 
mated duration  60  years.  No.  4  from  the  vicinity  of  the  rivers  Ourthe 
and  Meuse,  estimated  duration  40  years;  limestone,  no  longer  accepted 
by  the  city  government,  estimated  duration  25  years. 

Porphyry,  per  square  yard,  9.50  francs  ($1.83) ;  sandstone,  per  square 
yard,  8.50  to  9.50  francs  ($1.64  to  $1.83);  asphalt  from  Val  de  Travers, 
per  square  yard,  17  francs  ($3  .27) ;  wood  on  concrete  foundation,  per 
square  yard,  11  francs  ($2.12)  ;  the  two  last  named  pavements  are 
highly  esteemed  and  m  uch  employed  on  the  boulevards. 

HIGHWAYS. 

Roads  in  Belgium  are  divided  into  three  categories  and  distributed 
under  the  following  administrations  : 

1.  Government  roads  under  the  administration  of  bridges  and  road- 
ways (civil  engineering).  # 

2.  Provincial  roads,  controlled  by  the  provincial  government. 

3.  Communal  roads,  controlled  by  the  communal  authorities. 
Dimensions.—  Government  roads:    Width   of  roadway,  5  yards  20 

inches;  width  of  sidewalk,  2  yards  8  inches;  width  of  ditch,  three- 
fourths  yard. 

Provincial  roads :  Width  of  roadway,  5  yards  20  inches ;  width  of 
sidewalks,  2  yards 27  inches;  width  of  ditch,  three-fourths  yard. 

Communal  roads :  Width  of  roadway,  4  yards  16  inches ;  width  of 
sidewalk  and  ditch,  1  yard  24  inches. 

Materials. — These  roads  are  paved  with  native  porphyry  and  sand- 
stone of  following  dimensions  :  7  by  6£  inches,  6£  by  5£  inches,  5£  by  4f 
inches,  4f  by  3£  by  8|  by  7  inches,  4|  by  3£  by  7  by  5£  inches.  Curb- 
stone, 30  by  15  inches  each  side  of  road. 


EUROPE — BELGIUM.  35 

Cost  of  construction  of  road  destined  for  frequent  and  heavy  traffic,  per  square  yard. 

Preparing  bed  12  inches  deep $0.03 

-Ashes 00 

Paving  stones  6£  by  5^  inches 1.31 

Labor 04 

Total 1.47 

Asbes  per  cubic  yard  30  to  40  cents;  sand  per  cubic  yard,  48  to  58 
cents. 

With  rough  or  broken  stone. 

Preparing  bed  12  inches  deep $0.03 

Rough  stone,  8  inches  deep 16 

Broken  stone  or  pebbles,  2  to  4  inches  deep 11 

Labor 04 

Contractor 03^ 

Total  per  square  yard 37  £ 

Cost  of  maintenance. — Country  roads,  per  running  yard,  4  cents; 
near  industrial  districts,  6  cents ;  proximity  to  sugar  factories,  6  to  10 
cents. 

Koads  are  anuually  inspected  and  repaired  as  follows : 

From  25  to  20  consecutive  yards  out  of  every  4,000  or  5,000  yards  of 
pavement  are  taken  up  and  replaced  by  new  material.  On  roads  de- 
voted to  heavy  traffic,  paving  stones  7  by  6£  incbes  are  employed,  as 
also  on  inclines  averaging  less  tban  three-fourths  of  an  inch  per  yard. 
On  inclines  averaging  more  than  three-fourths  of  an  inch  per  yard, 
stones  6^  by  5.J,  or  heavy  oblong  stones  4f  by  3£  by  8£  by  7,  are  em- 
ployed. Where  the  soil  is  very  firm,  sandstone  blocks  7  by  (i\  inches 
are  preferred,  which,  with  heavy  oblong  stones,  are  also  used  on  inclines 
according  to  declivity.  Satisfactory  drainage  is  produced  by  deposit- 
ing a  deep  bed  of  ashes  prior  to  placing  pavement.  On  roads  of  light 
traffic  blocks  4|  by  4f  inches  are  used  on  the  level.  While  4£  by  3£ 
and  6£  by  5  inches  are  employed  on  inclines. 

Contract  for  keepiug  roads  in  repair  is  by  public  bid,  and  is  awarded 
to  lowest  bidder  for  a  term  of  three  years,  the  average  cost  of  repairs 
to  roadway  5  yards,  20  inches  wide,  as  follows:  Porphyry  blocks,  per 
square  yard,  6  cents ;  sandstone  per  square  yard,  5  cents.  The  value  of 
land  lying  near  or  adjacent  to  improved  roads  is  increased  according 
to  proximity  to  some  large  city  or  industrial  center. 

Geo.  W.  Roosevelt, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Brussels,  February  23,  1891. 


36 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


FLANDERS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  OSBORNE,   OF  GHENT. 
I.   CITY   STREETS. 

The  material  and  its  sources.— The  exclusive  paving  material  for  all 
the  towns  in  the  provinces  of  Bast  and  West  Flanders,  indeed,  prac- 
tically of  the  entire  kingdom,  is  Belgian  blocks.  These  are  of  sand- 
stone of  different  degrees  of  hardness.  There  are  three  recognized 
varieties.  First,  those  from  Bcoussines,  province  of  Hainaut,  which 
are  of  medium  hardness  and  smoothness.  It  is  these  quarries  which 
supply  most  of  the  paving  material.  The  same  locality  also  furnishes  a 
blue  limestone,  sometimes  called  Flemish  granite,  which  is  cut  into 
slabs  and  used  for  the  curbstones.  Second,  those  from  Quenast, 
province  of  Brabant,  which  are  very  hard  and  smooth.  Lastly,  those 
from  the  neighborhood  of  the  river  Ourthe,  province  of  Liege,  which 
are  least  hard  and  rather  rough.  Superior  blocks  for  sidewalks  are 
obtained  from  Lessines,  in  Hainaut. 

Methods  of  building  and  maintaining.— The  paving  stones  are  gener- 
ally in  cubic  form,  but  lately  rectangular  oues  are  preferred.  There  are 
eight  sizes  used  for  paviug,  of  which  I  give  below  the  dimensions  of  the 
five  principal  ones.  Numbers  3  and  4  are  those  used  in  Belgium,  espe- 
cially the  latter.    The  largest  size  is  only  used  in  large  cities. 


Dimensions. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

No.  4. 

No.  5. 

Paving  blocks : 

Inches. 
7  to  7. 8 
7 
7 

11.  8  to  15. 7 
7 
12.7 

Inches. 
6  to  7 
6 
6 

11  to  15 

6 
11.8 

Inches. 
5.7  to  G 
5.7 
5.7 

10  to  14 
5.7 
9.8 

Inches. 
4. 7  10  5. 7 

4.7 

4.7 

Blocks  for  border : 

9.4  to  13.4 

4.7 

7.8 

The  process  of  laying  the  pavement  is  simple.  First,  the  soil  is  re- 
moved to  a  convenient  depth  aud  the  "form"  is  prepared  by  leveling 
the  ground  in  the  shape  it  will  have  when  the  pave  is  completed.  A  bed 
of  sand  to  a  depth  of  half  a  foot  is  then  deposited.  On  this  the  blocks 
are  laid  in  transverse  rows  conveniently  close  together,  the  joints 
always  coming  to  the  middle  of  those  of  the  contiguous  rows.  Next, 
they  employ  an  iron  paving  ram  weighing  about35  pounds,  and  worked 
by  hand.  With  this  they  strike  each  stone,  strengthening  and  smooth- 
ing the  whole.  Lastly,  a  thin  coating  of  fine  sand  is  put  on,  which 
gradually  penetrates  the  crevices.    The  street  is  then  ready  for  use. 

The  stones  for  the  border  are  somewhat  larger,  as  shown  in  the 
above  table,  than  the  other  blocks.  Next  to  these  come  the  curb-stones, 
which  are  of  varying  dimensions  aud  are  placed  upright,  the  top  level 
with  the  sidewalk. 


EUROPE — BELGIUM. 


37 


The  sidewalks  are  constructed  similarly  to  the  roadway,  except  that 
the  blocks  are  usually  superior  aud  cemented  together. 

The  pave  is  a  durable  one  and  few  repairs  are  necessary  even  on  a 
street  of  heavy  traffic.  However,  when  they  are  made  it  is  a  simple 
matter,  generally  the  readjustment  or  substitution  of  a  few  blocks. 


The  streets  are  kept  scrupulously  clean,  usually  by  hand.  In  Ghent 
sweeping  machines  traverse  the  principal  streets  at  night.  The  city 
government  has  charge  of  this  work. 


38  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Cost  of  construction  and  repairing. — The  cost  of  construction  varies 
from  $1.04  to  $1.21  per  square  yard  for  the  ordinary  size  of  block  No.  4, 
the  materials  beiug  included. 

The  expense  of  repairs  averages  from  2  to  4  cents  per  square  yard. 

Both  the  building  and  repairing  are  at  the  expense  of  the  city.  No 
special  assessment  is  levied,  but  it  is  included  with  other  public  im- 
provements. On  the  contrary  the  expense  of  the  sidewalks  is  upon  the 
property-owners. 

Character  of  the  pavement. — As  has  been  stated,  it  is  a  substantial 
pavement.  On  the  streets  of  heavy  traffic  the  strain  of  ponderous  Bel- 
gian wagons  and  immense  Flemish  horses  must  be  considerable.  Con- 
versely, its  character  and  universality,  for  there  is  scarcely  an  unpaved 
street  in  any  town,  necessitate  strongly  built  carriages.  Therefore  an 
American  buggy  would  be  unsuitable  here. 

There  is  a  peculiar  danger  to  the  towns  in  the  event  of  riots,  as  has 
been  illustrated  in  the  past.  The  paving  stones,  when  once  one  is  re- 
moved, are  easily  detached  and  make  convenient  and  formidable  mis- 
siles in  the  hands  of  a  mob  for  the  destruction  of  life  and  property. 

II.   COUNTRY   ROADWAYS. 

The  number  of  roads  in  the  country  has  been  nearly  doubled  since 
1830.  There  are  four  kinds  to  be  considered,  those  made  respectively  by 
the  central  government,  the  provincial  government,  communal  author- 
ity, and  by  private  individuals.  The  roads  all  have  the  center  paved 
in  the  style  of  the  streets.  Except  on  the  great  highways,  the  width 
of  this  paved  portion  rarely  permits  the  passage  of  two  teams  upon  it. 
The  following  are  the  average  dimensions  of  the  great  government 
roads  traversing  the  city  of  Ghent : 


Width  of 
paving. 


Antwerp  to  Lille  via  Ghent  (France) 

Brussels  to  Ostentl  via  Ghent 

(Jhent  to  Valenciennes  (France) 


The  provincial  roads  connect  less  important  places  and  have  inferior 
dimensions.  The  communal  roads  or  chemins  vicinaux  comprise  all  the 
small  country  roads.  The  last  class,  those%iade  by  individual  enter- 
prise, or  Routes  concedees,  are  constructed  with  the  permission  of  the 
government  entirely  at  the  expense  of  the  individuals, who  also  engage 
to  keep  the  road  in  repairs  for  a  certain  period,  usually  99  years.  In  re. 
turn  they  are  allowed  to  charge  toll  for  this  period.  At  its  expiration 
the  road  becomes  the  absolute  property  of  the  Government. 

Method  of  construction. — The  manner  of  paving  the  central  portion  is 
the  same  as  that  employed  for  the  streets.  The  earth  taken  out  is 
thrown  on  either  side  upon  the  unpaved  strips. 


EUROPE — BELGIUM. 


39 


40  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

In  the  case  of  the  large  roads  ditches  are  made  on  both  sides  beyond 
the  un paved  portions.  A  sectional  view  of  a  government  road  is  ap- 
pended. 

Cost  of  building  and  repairing.— The  cost  of  paving  varies  from  $1.10 
to  $1.21  per  square  yard,  the  blocks  and  sand  being  included  and  size 
No.  4  being  used.  The  cost  of  making  the  unpaved  portions  is  conipara. 
tively  slight,  the  earth  used  being  at  hand. 

The  cost  of  repairs  in  the  pave  varies  from  5  to  8  cents  per  square 
yard,  according  to  their  nature. 

The  wages  of  road  laborers  are  G  and  7  cents  per  hour. 

Maintenance. — The  roads  are  kept  in  as  good  condition  as  can  be  ex- 
pected. The  unpaved  portions  easily  become  muddy,  owing  to  frequent 
rains  and  the  character  of  the  soil.  An  extraordinary  precaution  is 
taken  when  it  thaws,  which  is  no  less  than  a  law  regulating  the  weight 
of  loads  which  may  pass  during  the  continuance  of  the  thawing.  At  the 
moment  that  it  sets  in,  the  governor  of  the  province  issues  a  proclama- 
tion that  u  les  barrieres  sont  fermees,"  this  being  an  old  expression  signi- 
fying that  the  road  is  closed,  usually  for  au  indefinite  time.  This  is 
published  in  the  newspapers  and  iu  public  places.  The  law  provides 
with  exactness  what  are  the  maximum  loads  allowed  under  different 
conditions.  For  instance,  a  one-horse  cart  with  narrow  tire  can  not 
pass  with  a  load  of  more  than  880  pounds.  But  a  broad -tired  one  may 
weigh  1,540  pounds,  and  a  broad  tired  wagon  is  allowed  to  pass  with  a 
ton.  Exceptions  are  made  iu  tbe  case  of  the  mail,  coaches,  carriages, 
and  army  wagons,  but  the  last  must  be  furnished  with  a  permit  from 
the  governor  showing  the  weight.  Fines  are  established  for  a  violation 
of  these  provisions  which  apply  only  to  the  roads  in  the  country. 

John  B.  Osborne,  Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Ghent,  December,  16,  1890. 


LIEGE  DISTRICT. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  DANFORTH. 
PRELIMINARY  REMARKS. 

One  can  mount  his  wagon  at  the  English  Channel  and  drive  through 
the  breadth  of  Europe  (except  in  time  of  snow)  or  its  length,  without 
sinking  as  deep  as  the  fellies  of  his  wheels  in  mud  in  any  weather  or 
at  any  time  of  the  year.  The  roads  are  so  firm  that  rain  does  not  soften 
them ;  they  are  so  thick  that  frost  does  not  break  them  up.  There  are 
no  sloughs  to  wade  through*  no  periods  when  the  factory  and  the  farm 
are  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  world  by  an  impassable  sea  of  mud.  Two 
horses  start  with  a  cart  or  wagon  weighing  a  ton,  having  upon  it  a  load 
weighing  two  or  more  tons,  and  arrive  with  no  breakage  and  at  least 


EUROPE BELGIUM.  41 

friction  to  their  destination.  The  loss  in  breakdowns  of  vehicles,  of 
breakage  iu  harness,  in  time  to  labor,  in  increased  food,  shortened  life, 
and  injuries  to  horses  by  our  bad  roads  in  the  United  States  would 
amount  to  an  immense  sum  of  money  if  statistics  could  be  gathered  and 
formulated.  Without  doubt  the  economy  from  this  one  source  would 
go  far  towards  keeping  a  road  in  repair  when  once  it  was  thoroughly 
constructed  where  traffic  is  considerable. 

The  economy  of  good  country  roads  to  those  using  food  and  fuel  in 
our  large  but  more  especially  our  small  cities  is  also  to  be  emphasized. 
Kailroads,  also,  are  directly  interested  in  good  country  roads.  Whatever 
opens  up  the  remote  farm  lot  for  easy  hauling  to  the  railway  station, 
or  brings  an  additional  acre  of  arable  land  nearer  to  the  city,  cheapens 
the  market  for  the  poorest  and  increases  the  volume  of  trade  and  com- 
merce for  all.  The  whole  community  shares  in  the  benefit,  and  can 
therefore  afford  to  share  in  the  expense  of  building  and  keeping  such 
roads. 

PRESERVING  THE   LANDSCAPE. 

The  chief  material  for  the  construction  of  durable  roads  is  rock  of 
some  kind  ;  the  harder  the  rock  the  better  the  economy,  other  things, 
such  as  accessibility,  vicinage,  etc.,  being  equal.  A  hard-rock  country 
usually  possesses  a  beautiful  or  a  sublime  landscape.  Nature  has  taken 
thousands  of  years  to  construct  that  land  scape.  From  the  beautiful  val- 
ley of  the  Ourth,  not  far  from  Liege,  immense  supplies  of  stone  are  taken 
for  city  streets  and  country  roads.  Yet  the  great  picturesque  ledges  of 
rock  repose  untouched  in  the  same  sublime  forms  into  which  the  ages  and 
the  storms  have  fashioned  them.  Stone  quarries  have  been  opened  from 
ridges  behind  the  river  fronts  of  the  hill  ranges,  and  by  cars  attached  to 
wire  ropes  the  stone  is  passed  down  to  the  river  and  directly  into  the 
boats  and  carts  at  less  expense  than  it  would  have  taken  to  work  quarries 
neartheriverbank.  Gravity  does  most  of  the  work.  The  full  car  from  the 
high  hill  lets  itself  down  and  pulls  the  empty  one  up.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  improved  roads  will  not  result  in  damaged  scenery.  ^The  two  ad- 
vantages of  good  roads  and  uumarred  scenery  are  compatible  where 
the  spirit  of  taste  is  blended  wth  the  spirit  of  utility.  When  it  is  re- 
membered that  unblemished  scenery  has  its  market  value,  command- 
ing a  higher  price,  men  may  be  induced  to  veil  their  assaults  upon  the 
hills. 

STRBETS. 

The  extent  to  which  squared  hewn  stone  is  employed  for  street  and 
sidewalk  and  scarcely  anything  else,  creates  an  appalling  monotony  of 
Belgian  pavement  in  the  cities  of  this  consulate.  The  sidewalks  re- 
produce, in  miniature  cubes  of  U  inches  by  4£  inches,  the  appearance 
of  the  streets,  which  one  could  wish  himself  shod  in  iron  to  escape  the 
discomfort  and  pain  caused  by  the  inequality  of  these  torturing  cubes. 
The  stone  slab  and  the  asphaltuin  walk  are  luxuries  belonging  toother 


42  STREETS   AND   HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

parts  of  our  planet.  Nor  is  there  such  traffic  in  our  city  streets,  either 
in  weight  or  amount,  that  compels  resort  to  those  expensive  foundations 
employed  in  the  immense  cities  of  London  and  Paris. 

I  give  below  the  cost  in  construction  and  maintenance  of  this  city 
of  Liege  possessing  165,000  inhabitants.  It  is  in  the  midst  of  a  densely 
populated  industrial  district  and  heavy  loads  of  iron  and  coal  are 
trucked  upon  the  streets.  This  street  traffic  is  much  heavier  than  in 
most  cities  of  a  similar  size  in  the  United  States.  The  square  cubes  of 
stone  are  laid  upon  beds  of  broken  stone  or  ashes  in  the  more  promi- 
nent streets ;  in  other  streets  upon  the  natural  beds  of  the  earth  with 
a  slight  layer  of  sand  as  an  absorbent,  the  curve  being  about  1  in  30. 
Curbstones  measure  7£  inches  in  width,  3J  to  6  feet  in  length,  1  to  1£ 
feet  in  depth,  and  are  tougued  and  grooved  at  the  ends  to  about  1 J  inches. 
The  pavin  g  stones  or  blocks  still  used  here  have  been  rejected  as  too  large 
for  the  best  results  where  the  heavier  traffic  of  larger  cities  is  more  ex- 
acting. They  wear  round  and  knobby,  become  slippery,  and  are  moved 
to  inferior  streets,  whence  they  are  finally  removed  to  be  broken  into 
small  stones  for  roadbeds  and  for  park,  boulevard,  and  country  roads. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  natural  twofold  division  of  city  streets 
and  country  roads  suggested  by  the  department  can  not  be  strictly  fol- 
lowed in  this  report.  The  streets  and  roads  of  Belgium  are  peculiar. 
They  iuterblend.  We  have  city  streets  partly  constructed  of  paved 
ways  and  partly  of  broken  stone,  while  into  the  country  extend  the 
paved  crowns  of  square  blocks  of  stone  with  broken  stone  roadways 
upon  oach  side.  It  may  therefore  be  of  interest,  and  not  without  profit, 
if  the  classification  observed  in  Belgium  by  the  Government  is  outlined, 
bearing  in  mind  that  some  of  the  Belgiau  country  roads  resemble  some 
of  our  city  streets  lacking  curbstones. 

The  streets  and  roadways  of  Belgium  are  built  and  maintained  by 
three  different  authorities — the  state,  the  province,  and  the  commune 
(the  city  or  the  village). 

But  the  supervision,  in  the  last  resort,  belongs  to  the  state,  that 
through  its  engineers  and  supervisors  must  approve  of  all  that  has  been 
planned  or  accomplished  in  the  construction  and  repairing  of  roads, 
or  granting  concessions  for  small  rail  or  tram  roads  to  use  the  common 
roads.  No  material  can  be  used  in  building  or  maintaining  roads  unless 
the  state  approve  of  it.  It  is,  however,  generally  admitted  that  the 
material,  that  is  the  nearest,  has  to  be  considered  in  the  first  place; 
but  where  there  is  no  kind  of  material  near  the  place  the  very  best  is 
to  be  procured.  The  material  generally  used  is  granite,  grit,  and  lime- 
stone. 

The  building  as  well  as  the  maintenance  of  roads  is  done  in  three 
ways :  By  sealed  bids,  in  which  case  the  lowest  bid  is  considered  if  a 
responsible  person.  He  has  to  build  or  maintain  according  to  the  plans 
previously  published  in  conformity  with  detailed  specifications. 


EUROPE BELGIUM. 


43 


(2)  The  streets  or  roads  are  built  or  repaired  and  maintained  under 
the  supervision  of  the  state,  the  province,  or  the  commune.  This  way 
is  called  by  regie. 

(3)  Sometimes  the  two  methods  are  combined. 
Highroads  are  of  three  grades :       * 


First  grade,  width  within  the  borders  16.J  feet;  sidewalks,  8  to  11 J 
feet;  ditch,  5  feet;  depth,  1£  feet  to  1  foot  8  inches. 


Second-  Grade. 


Second  grade,  width  within  the  borders,  11 J  feet;  sidewalks,  C  to  8 
feet;  ditch,  3  to  4  feet. 
Third  grade,  width  within  the  borders  10  feet  or  even  less. 
New  road  destined  to  receive  a  small  railway  or  tram. 


Where  the  highroad  is  designed  to  receive  a  small  railway  a  sideway 
is  constructed  for  the  purpose,  whose  foundation  is  H  feet,  with  a  width 
of  10  feet. 

PA.VED   ROADS. 

The  paving  stones  6  to  65$  inches  in  width  and  6i  to  7  inches  in  depth. 
These  0i  to  7  inches  with  the  foundation  form  the  roadway,  which  is 
generally  12  inches. 

The  roadway  is  maintained  by  two  sets  of  borders,  having  the  lame 
width  as  the  paving  stones  and  11  to  14  inches  in  length;  in  height 
they  fill  generally  the  whole  depth  of  about  12  inches.     Under  the  pav- 


44  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

ing  stones  is  a  layer  of  sand,  gravel,  or  ashes  from  a  zinc  mill,  of  8 
inches ;  this  is  rammed  to  the  prescribed  curve  of  cross  section,  which 
is  one-fortieth  of  the  width  of  the  road. 

The  cost  of  these  roads  varies  according  to  the  material  and  the  dis- 
tance they  are  from  the  place  where  they  are  to  be  employed. 

The  average  cost  of  construction  is  $1.13  a  square  yard. 

MACADAMIZED  ROADS. 

Depth  of  the  roadway  12  inches,  limited  by  two  ranges  of  borders  ; 
thefoundation  consists  of  rough  stones  drawn  closely  together,verticall3r, 
of  about  7  to  8  inches  height ;  this  stone  bed  is  then  covered  with  a  4  to 
4£  inch  layer  of  broken  stones. 

The  curve  of  cross  section  is  also  one-fortieth  of  the  width  of  the 
road. 

The  cost  of  building  varies  as  in  the  case  of  paved  roads.  The  aver- 
age cost  is  40  cents  a  square  yard. 

MAINTENANCE  OF  ROADS. 

The  paved  roads  are  kept  in  repair  by  the  use  of  new  stones  where 
needed ;  the  rejected  stones  are  given  to  the  property  owners  bordering 
upon  the  main  road  if  they  wish  to  pave  the  sideroads,  or  are  given  to 
the  commune  to  pave  ways  connected  with  the  highroads.  In  the  con- 
tract the  quantity  of  old  and  new  stones  is  mentioned,  but  all  other 
repairs,  to  whatever  they  amount,  have  to  be  done  at  a  fixed  price  by 
the  contractor. 

The  average  cost  per  yard  is  $0.01775. 

However,  in  city  streets,  where  ouly  new  stones  are  employed,  the 
average  cost  of  maintenance  is  about  $0.011945  per  square  yard 

MAINTENANCE   OF   ROADS  OF  BROKEN   STONES. 

The  maintenance  of  this  kind  of  roads  consists  in  renewing  the  sup- 
ply of  broken  stones  to  keep  the  curve  of  the  cross  section  at  one- 
fortieth  of  the  width  of  the  road.  This  is  doue  by  contract  and  the 
contractor  has  to  fulfill  his  engagement,  whatever  may  be  the  amount 
of  work  to  be  done. 

The  cost  is  about  $0.0129  per  yard.  , 

Experience  has  shown  that  the  value  of  the  ground  is  in  direct  ratio 
to  the  good  condition  of  the  streets  and  roads  by  which  they  are  trav- 
ersed. 

"Indeed  it  depends  on  the  state  of  the  roads  and  ways  to  improve  the 

soil  to  put  to  profit  the  forests,  mines,  and  industrial  plants,"  are  the 

words  of  the  engineer  of  public  roads  and  highways,  with  which  I 

close  this  report. 

James  R.  Danforth, 

United  States  Consulate,  Consul. 

Liege,  February  24,  1891. 


EUEOPE — DENMARK.  45 

DENMARK. 

REPORT  BT  CONSUL  RYDER  OF  COPENHAGEN. 
HIGHWAYS. 

Tbe  construction  and  maintenance  of  the  public  roads  in  Denmark 
are  under  the  management  and  at  the  charge  of  the  local  municipal 
boards,  subject  however  to  State  supervisal,  and  these  roads  may  be 
divided  into  four  classes,  according  to  the  extent  and  nature  of  the 
traffic. 

In  the  first  class  are  placed  such  roads  as  have  a  daily  passage  of  at 
least  100  vehicles,  and  which  at  the  same  time  have  a  large  traffic  of 
heavily  laden  wagons.  Such  description  of  traffic  in  this  country  may 
now  be  confiued  to  the  limit  of  the  uearest  one-half  Danish  mile  (1  Dan- 
ish mile  =  4f  English)  leadiug  to  the  main  entrance  of  the  principal 
provincial  towns.  The  chief  characteristic  of  this  class  is  a  strongly 
built  substructure  capable  of  bearing  the  pressure  of  all  heavy  traffic 
(however  light  the  wear  aud  tear  superstructure  might  be)  with  a  good 
superstructure  of  broken  stone  of  about  10  inches  in  thickness. 

In  the  second  class  are  reckoned  such  roads  as  are  frequented  daily 
by  50  to  100  vehicles,  with  some  but  no  considerable  heavy  goods  trans- 
port. Such  description  of  traffic  may  be  said  to  embrace  all  the  more 
important- public  roads  beyond  the  one-half  mile  limit  leading  from  the 
towns.  The  main  feature  of  this  class  is  a  good  foundation  with  a  wear 
and  tear  superstructure  of  screened  rubble  or  of  small  broken  stoues  of 
about  8  inches  in  depth. 

To  the  third  class  belong  all  roads  with  slight  carriage  traffic,  say 
from  20  to  50  vehicles  daily,  and  without  any  goods  conveyance.  This 
class  has  a  strongly  constructed  superstructure  about  8  inches  thick, 
composed  either  of  screened  gravel  or  of  broken  stones,  with  a  sub- 
structure of  unscreened  rubble. 

To  the  fourth  class  belong  all  roads  with  a  daily  passage  of  less  than 
20  vehicles.  This  class  of  roads  has  only  a  superstructure  of  3  to  4 
inches  thick,  composed  either  of  screened  or  unscreened  rubble. 

In  the  substructure  of  these  different  classes  of  roads  a  greater  ex- 
cavated mass  than  of  10,000  cubic  fathoms  (about  00,700  cubic  metres) 
per  Danish  mile  for  the  first  class  seldom  occurs.  In  the  second  class 
the  excavated  mass  will  seldom  exceed  5,01)0  cubic  fathoms  per  Danish 
mile;  and  for  the  third  and  fourth  classes,  such  excavation  as  a  role 
will  be  under  15,000  cubic  metres  and  not  unfiecpiently  even  below  6,000 
cubic  metres  per  mile.     The  full  breadth  of  the  different  classes  of  roads, 


46 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


with  the  deductions  for  side  paths,  ditches,  etc.,  and  the  breadth  of  the 
carriage  road  are  as  follows,  viz : 


Description. 

Full  breadth 
of  highway. 

Deductions 
for  sides. 

Carriage 
road. 

Feet. 

32  to  40 
28 
24 
20 

Feet. 

16  to  20 
14 
12 
10 

Feet. 

The  drains  beneath  the  roadways  are  as  near  as  possible  of  similar 
construction  for  the  three  first  classes  ;  in  most  cases  with  granite  side- 
walks and  pavement,  the  whole  being  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of 
clay.  It  is  only  an  exception  when  the  drains  are  of  brickwork.  In 
the  later  years  glazed  drain  pipes  have,  however,  been  often  used  for 
drains  of  smaller  dimensions.  For  the  carriage  ways,  the  dimensions 
of  which  have  been  given,  in  the  first-class  roads  the  substructure  as 
a  rule  consists  of  irregularly  broken  stones  5  to  6  inches  in  diameter, 
packed  closely  by  hand ;  or  else  of  a  layer  of  coarsely  screened  gravel 
containing  stones  up  to  4  inches  in  diameter;  which  after  the  addition 
of  a  thin  layer  of  small  hand-broken  stone  of  1  to  2  inches  in  diameter 
is  rolled  until  well  bound  together;  whilst  the  wear  and  tear  super- 
structure will  gen  erally  consist  of  small  granite  road  metal  of  about  1£ 
inches  in  diameter.  This  layer  is  at  times  divided  into  two  parts ; 
namely,  of  a  lower  stone  layer  of  If  inches  with  an  upper  layer  of 
stones  of  1£  inches  in  diameter;  the  whole  being  firmly  bound 'together 
with  an  addition  of  sand  gravel  strewed  over  the  path  after  one  or  two 
passages  have  been  made  by  the  rolling  machine. 

For  the  second-class  roads  will  be  used  a  similar  wear  and  tear  super- 
structure of  hand-broken  road  metal  or  else  of  screened  gravel,  the  choice 
depending  in  great  measure  on  the  difference  in  cost  of  the  two  materials 
at  the  spot  where  the  work  is  carried  on.  Where  the  traffic  is  of  lighter 
nature  the  screened  gravel  is  found  a  very  good  material  once  the  road 
has  become  well  consolidated.  The  difference  in  price  is  matter  of 
some  importance,  the  cost  of  hand-broken  stone  varying  from  $8  to 
$21  per  cubic  fathom,  whilst  the  screened  gravel  may  be  obtained  for 
$2.68  to  $8. 

On  the  third-class  roads,  the  wear  and  tear  superstructure  as  a  rule 
is  simply  laid  on  a  foundation  of  3  to  4-inch  layer  of  coarse  screened 
gravel,  and  as  soon  as  this  is  somewhat  consolidated  by  traffic  or  roll- 
ing a  superstructure  is  laid,  consisting  either  of  hand-broken  stones  or 
of  screened  gravel  2  inches  in  thickness. 

The  cost  of  construction  of  new  roads  is  very  difficult  to  give  with 
any  certainty.  It  will  depend  not  alone  on  the  class  of  road,  but  also 
on  the  nature  of  the  ground,  as  well  as  the  difficulty  in  obtaining  the 
materials,  the  extent  of  drain  works,  etc. ;  but,  speaking  generally,  it  is 
said  that  a  first-class  road,  exclusive  of  expropriations,  will  cost  from 


EUROPE — DENMARK.  47 

80,000  to  100,000  kroners  ($21,440  to  $20,800)  per  Danish  mile  (4| 
English  miles) ;  the  second-class  roads  from  50,000  to  80,000  kroners 
($13,400  to  $21,440),  and  the  third-class  from  30,000  to  50,000  kroners. 
The  minimum  cost  of  the  fourth-class  byroads,  with  fairly  regular 
ground  and  good  approaches,  may  be  placed  as  low  as  5,000  kroners 
($1,340)  per  Danish  mile,  although  this  may  more  often  approach  to  the 
sum  of  10,000  kroners  ($2,680). 

The  repairing  of  the  roads. — Whenever  the  wear  and  tear  superstruc- 
ture, as  on  the  first-class  roads,  is  formed  of  a  layer  of  hand-broken 
stones  of  1  to  2  inches  in  diameter,  the  relaying  is  made.as  follows : 
Previous  to  the  relaying,  the  still  remaining  part  of  the  worn  super- 
structure is  scraped  loose,  after  which  the  new  material  is  laid  down 
and  leveled,  and  then  firmly  compressed  with  heavy  rollers.  It  is  then 
covered  with  sand  gravel  and  again  passed  over  some  five  or  six  times  with 
the  roller,  until  the  road  has  obtained  a  thorough  compactness.  The 
relaying  generally  takes  place  in  the  autumn,  in  moist  weather,  and  for 
the  proper  distribution  of  the  work  a  systematic  plan  is  prepared,  and 
the  repairs  undertaken  in  a  rotation  of  years  on  the  different  parts  of 
the  road,  according  to  the  extent  of  wear  and  tear  variously  shown.  The 
annual  supply  of  stone  metal  required  for  a  fixed  length  of  road  will 
differ  greatly.  In  the  Copenhagen  district,  where  the  traffic  is  large, 
the  annual  consumption  may  amount  to  123  cubic  metres  per  100  fathoms 
of  roadway,  whilst  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  more  important  provincial 
towns  it  will  be  about  80  cubic  metres,  and  at  a  greater  distance  from 
the  towns  the  consumption  will  fall  as  low  as  40  cubic  metres  every 
sixth  or  tenth  year  for  every  100  fathoms  of  road. 

The  public  roads  in  Denmark,  as  before  said,  are  now  managed  by 
and  at  the  expense  of  the  local  municipal  boards,  subject  to  state  su- 
pervision, as  follows : 

1.  The  highways  and  larger  public  roads  are  managed  by  the  county 
council  boards,  but  no  works  of  extension  or  limitation  can  be  pro- 
ceeded with  without  the  previous  sanction  of  the  home  secretary.  These 
highways  have  also  to  be  inspected  every  year  by  a  state  inspector,  who 
shall  notify  to  the  boards  any  existing  wants,  and  should  necessity  arise 
he  may  order  such  works  to  be  made  good  at  the  expense  of  the  default- 
ing board.  Each  county  board  has  also  its  own  inspector,  with  assistant 
inspectors  and  roadmen,  the  cost  of  new  works  and  repairs  being  borne 
by  the  county  contributory  fund,  raised  upon  the  taxed  valuation  of  the 
land  in  the  districts  concerned.  With  the  highways  are  also  connected 
such  main  streets  of  the  provincial  towns  as  are  a  continuation  of  the 
road  leading  into  the  town,  and  these  are  placed  uuder  the  joint  con- 
trol of  the  county  council  aud  town  council  boards,  the  expenses  being 
defrayed  by  county  as  well  as  town  councils,  each  with  the  half  part, 

2.  The  by-roads.— These  are  managed  by  the  parish  boards  of  guard- 
ians and  town  councils,  each  in  its  own  sphere.  All  extensions  or  lim- 
itations of  the  by-roads  are  made  at  the  recommendation  of  the  parish 


48  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

boards  and  with  the  sanction  of  the  high  sheriff  and  county  council, 
and  when  works  of  more  extensive  nature  are  called  for  the  county 
council  can  contribute  their  pecuniary  share,  the  work  being  then  per- 
formed under  the  direction  of  their  own  inspector. 

In  order  that  the  home  secretary  may  at  all  times  be  kept  acquainted 
with  the  financial  position  of  all  matters  relating  to  the  public  roads, 
the  county  council  boards  have  to  forward  to  the  home  department  a 
yearly  account,  drawn  up  in  an  approved  formula,  of  all  expenses  in- 
curred on  the  public  roads  in  their  district.  The  home  secretary  has 
also  the  deciding  of  all  matters  in  dispute  relating  to  the  roads.  For 
this  purpose  the  surveyor-general  appointed  by  the  state  has  to  give  bis 
opinion  on  all  road  questions,  aud  furthermore  has  to  inspect  yearly  a 
certain  quota  part  of  the  public  highways  (£-£  in  each  district),  and  at 
the  close  of  every  fifth  year  to  furnish  the  department  with  a  general 
report  over  the  kingdom's  highways  and  main  streets  for  the  previous  5 
years'  period,  with  statistical  and  financial  returns  appertaining  thereto. 

Expenses  on  road  works. — The  cost  of  yearly  maintenance  of  the 
highways  and  roads  does  not  alone  depend  upon  the  traffic  or  number 
of  personal  staff  employed ;  but  also  on  the  cost  of  materials  in  the  dif- 
ferent districts.  The  daily  repairs  are  made  by  permanent  road  labor- 
ers ;  of  which  iu  the  neighborhood  of  a  town  one  is  generally  employed 
to  every  one-half  or  three-fourths  of  a  Danish  mile,  which  proportion 
will  be  changed  as  by  degrees  one  withdraws  more  and  more  into  the 
country,  when  it  may  conclude  Avith  one  road  laborer  to  1  Danish  mile ; 
and  the  daily  attendance  on  the  road  may  be  reduced  to  an  attendance 
of  three  days  in  the  week.  The  superintendence  of  this  work  is  per- 
formed by  assistant  inspectors  to  every  5  to  20  Danish  miles,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  roads.  The  annual  cost  of  maintenance  varies  very 
much;  for  example,  in  the  Copenhagen  district,  where  the  traffic  in 
the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  city  is  exceedingly  heavy,  the  cost 
of  repairs  may  be  excessive,  running  up  to  20,000  kroners  ($5,360)  per 
Danish  mile,  when  on  the  other  hand  iu  the  thinly  populated  country 
districts  it  may  not  exceed  500  kroners  ($134)  per  Danish  mile;  and 
perhaps  the  average  annual  cost  of  maintenance  of  these  highways  for 
the  kingdom  at  large  may  be  fairly  placed  at  2,000  kroners  ($536)  per 
Danish  mile. 

It  can  scarcely  be  said  that  the  public  roads  in  the  present  time  have 
any  effect  on  the  land  values ;  such  may  be  more  justly  due  to  the  great 
connecting  railways,  which  have  unquestionably  exercised  a  favorable 
influence,  especially  on  the  value  of  landed  property  contiguous  to  the 
railway  stations.  The  highways  are  no  longer  the  great  medium  of  con- 
veyance for  passengers  and  the  great  internal  goods  movements.  This 
work  is  now  monopolized  by  the  great  railway  network  of  the  kingdom, 
the  highways  being  now  more  or  less  reduced  to  the  position  of  partial 
feeders  to  this  newer  dominating  medium  of  iuternal  intercourse. 


EUROPE — DENMARK.  49 

STREETS  OF   COPENHAGEN. 

It  will  be  sufficient  to  confine  my  remarks  to  tbose  of  this  capital. 
From  the  latest  official  returns  at  the  close  of  the  year  1886,  the  area 
comprising  the  public  streets,  boulevards,  etc.,  of  this  city  was  at  that 
date  about  20,100,000  square  feet  distributed  in  the  following  inauner, 
namely : 

Sqnare  feet. 

Carriage-ways,  gutters,  etc 12,000,000 

Side  foot-pavemeut 5,750, 000 

Planted  avenues  and  boulevards 2,370,000 

Total 20.120,000 

The  breadth  of  the  streets  varies  greatly.  In  the  older  parts  of  the 
town  very  narrow  streets  are  still  to  be  found,  whilst  in  the  new  quar- 
ters of  the  city  the  miuimum  regulations  under  the  present  building 
laws  will  be  found  to  exist,  namely,  a  breadth  of  40  to  50  feet,  and  where 
the  streets  have  a  more  important  carriage  traffic  a  breadth  of  GO  to  80 
feet.  The  streets  as  a  rule  consist  of  one  roadway  with  two  side  foot- 
pavements,  and  where  no  special  conditions  call  for  a  deviation  from 
these  rules  each  side  foot  path  will  have  a  breadth  of  one -fifth  of  the 
entire  street  breadth.  The  roadway  form  is  of  the  arch  of  a  circle,  the 
road  on  the  paved  ways  having  a  fall  of  1  in  30  to  1  in  40  and  on  the 
macadamized  ways  of  1  in  25  to  1  in  35. 

The  formation  of  the  different  classes  of  carriage-ways  are  as  follows, 
viz: 

THE   PAVED   ROADS. 

Materials. — For  the  paving  stones  granite  is  exclusively  used,  of  which 
the  chief  part  comes  from  Sweden.  The  heads  of  these  stones  have  a 
rectangular  form  with  a  length  of  7  inches  to  9  inches,  breadth  of  4 
inches  to  5  inches,  and  height  of  7  inches  to  8  inches.  As  between 
the  head  and  root  a  divergence  is  allowed  up  to  1  inch  in  the  length 
and  breadth,  and  the  cost  of  these  stones  per  square  fathom  is  $4.82 
for  first  sort  aud  $3.48  for  second  sort.  For  pavements  requiring  a 
special  foundation  a  better  class  of  stone  is  used,  namely  of  the  so-called 
class  "Euglish  hewing."  The  dimensions  of  these  are  3 J  inches  to 
A\  inches  in  breadth,  6  inches  to  12  inches  in  length,  and  G£  inches  to 
7  inches  in  height.  The  severer  conditions  demanded  for  this  class  of 
stones  have  naturally  an  influence  at  the  same  time  upon  the  cost,  the 
price  of  this  special  class  being  from  $5.90  to  $6.70  per  square  fathom. 

Carrying  out  of  the  icorks. — The  pavement  as  a  rule  is  laid  upon  a 
sand  layer  7  to  8  inches  in  depth  ;  the  stones  being  placed  thereon  at 
right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  street;  the  whole  being  stamped 
down,  with  heavy  butts  worked  by  I  nun. 

All  work  for  laying  of  new  pavements,  as  well  as  all  relayings  of  any 
importance,  is  always  submitted  to  contract  by  public  tender. 
33a 4 


50  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

In  individual  cases  of  much  frequented  thoroughfares,  it  Las  been  the 
practice  of  late  years  to  give  a  good  fouudation  underneath  the  upper 
paving.  This  foundation  in  some  cases  consists  of  4-inch  to  6-iuch  thick 
layers  of  Portland  cement;  but  more  frequently  of  a  bottom  layer  of 
stone  laid  flat  side  down,  the  whole  wedged  together  with  smaller  stones. 
Upon  this  a  layer  of  broken  stones  is  spread,  in  such  manner  that  after 
a  pressure  with  heavy  iron  rollers,  this  layer  will  remain  with  a  thick- 
ness of  3  inches  at  the  sides,  and  of  5  inches  in  the  center ;  and  on  this 
firmly  rolled  foundation,  the  paving  stones  are  placed  upon  a  1-inch 
thick  layer  of  gravel. 

THE  MACADAMISED   CARRIAGE  WAYS. 

Materials.— For  the  foundation  layers  of  granite  or  flint  are  employed, 
and  for  layers  of  broken  stone  exclusively  of  granite ;  the  broken  stones 
to  be  clean,  well-screened,  and  not  over  If  inches  large. 

Carrying  out  of  the  worJcs. — The  foundation  stones  and  layers  are  laid 
in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  the  pavement  ways  in  the  greatly  fre- 
quented thoroughfares.  The  keeping  in  repair  of  this  class  of  roads 
is  for  the  most  part  done  by  the  corporation's  own  work  people. 

THE  SIDE  FOOTPATHS. 

In  all  the  main  thoroughfares  and  principal  streets;  these  are  paved 
with  small  paving  flags  of  about  4  inches  square,  costing  $3.75  per  square 
fathom  ;  whilst  in  the  less  frequented  parts  of  the  city  a  considerable 
part  of  the  footpaths  are  macadamized,  having  a  3  inch  to  4  inch  thick 
layer  of  small-sized  broken  stone,  covered  over  with  earth  gravel ;  the 
whole  being  well  consolidated  under  passage  of  heavy  iron  rollers.  This 
footpath  covering  has,  however,  in  the  later  years  been  more  and  more 
displaced  by  tar-beton  pavements.  This  consists  of  an  undermost  layer 
of  untarred  small  stones  or  broken  brick;  thereupon  of  a  1£  inches 
thick  layer  of  £  inch  tarred  stones ;  this  again  with  a  1  inch  thick  layer 
of  i  inch  sized  tarred  stones,  and  over  the  whole  of  a  layer  of  tarred 
gravel ;  each  layer  being  separately  rolled  over  with  the  heavy  rollers. 
The  cost  of  such  tar  pavements  when  laid  down  may  be  reckoned  at  5 
to  6  cents  per  cubic  foot. 

The  expenses  entailed  upon  this  city  in  laying  out  of  new  streets  and 
sewage  works,  as  well  as  for  keeping  in  repair  of  the  street  ways,  as 
also  of  closed  and  open  drain  passages,  etc.,  in  the  year  1888  (the  latest 
printed  returns)  amounted  altogether  to  1,237,400  kroners  ($331,623), 
which  was  distributed  in  the  following  manner,  viz : 

Class  A,  cost  of  repairs  of  street  ways,  footpaths,  drains,  etc.,  water- 
ing  and  cleaning  streets,  salaries  and^wages,  etc.,  $161,953. 

Class  B,  cost  of  new  street  ways  and  sewerage  works,  $169,670. 

The  amount  under  Class  A,  constituting  the  running  expenses,  is  in- 
cluded with  .the  other  municipal  outlaysln  the  annual  budget  of  the 


.    EUROPE — FRANCE.  51 

city  to  be  covered  from  the  rates  levied  upon  the  inhabitants  for  these 
purposes,  whilst  the  amount  under  Class  B  for  the  undertaking  of  new 
and  extraordinary  works  is,  on  the  other  hand,  met  through  the  aid  of 
loans  contracted  by  the  corporation  for  such  outlays,  which  loans,  with 
the  high  credit  of  the  city,  can  be  obtained  at  about  par  rate  and  at  an 
interest  of  3^  per  cent,  per  annum. 

Henry  15.  Ryder, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Copenhagen,  April  15,  1891. 


FRANCE. 

REPORT  BY  COMMERCIAL  AGENT  LOOMIS,  OF  ST.  ETIEXNE. 
A  CENTURY  OF  SUCCESSFUL  ROAD  BUILDING. 

The  modern  road  system  of  France  was  inaugurated  by  the  First 
Napoleon  and  carried  forward  to  its  satisfactory  and  splendid  conclu- 
sion by  the  late  Emperor,  Napoleon  the  Third. 

The  roads  of  France  are  now  practically  all  built,  and  they  are  sub- 
stantial monuments  to  the  Napoleonic  foresight  and  shrewdness.  The 
work  of  the  engineers  in  the  department  of  public  works  in  France  to- 
day is  not  to  build  new  roads,  except  in  rare  instances,  but  to  keep 
those  already  constructed  in  a  state  of  high  efficiency.  There  have  been 
no  important  new  roads  opened  in  France  for  a  dozen  years,  and  the 
country  is  so  traversed  with  excellent  roadways  that  no  more  lines  of 
communication  are  likely  to  be  exploited  save  in  the  case  of  military 
necessity.  The  wagon  roads  of  France,  always  passable  and  reaching 
all  centers  of  population,  no  matter  how  small,  are  the  chief  competitors 
of  the  railways,  as  means  of  communication  by  water  are  not  numerous. 

VALUE  OF  FRENCH  ROADS. 

The  road  system  of  France  has  been  of  far  greater  value  to  the  coun- 
try as  a  means  of  raising  the  value  of  lauds  and  of  putting  the  small 
peasant  proprietors  in  easy  communication  with  their  markets,  than 
have  the  railways.  It  is  the  opinion  of  well-informed  Frenchmen  who 
have  made  a  practical  study  of  economic  problems,  that  the  superb 
roads  of  France  have  been  one  of  the  most  steady  and  potent  contribu- 
tions to  the  material  development  and  marvelous  financial  elasticity  of 
the  country.  The  far-reaching  and  splendidly  maintained  road  system 
has  distinctly  favored  the  success  of  the  small  landed  proprietors,  ami 
in  their  prosperity,  and  the  ensuing  distribution  of  wealth,  lies  tin-  key 
to  the  secret  of  the  wonderful  financial  vitality  and  solid  prosperity  of 
the  French  nation. 


52  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

TYPICAL  ROADS. 

The  French  roads  have  compelled  the  respect  and  admiration  of  for- 
eiguers  for  a  century,  and  of  all  the  roads  in  the  country  those  consid- 
ered the  most  excellent,  and  at  the  same  time  most  difficult  of  mainte- 
nance, happen  to  lie  in  this  consular  district,  which  contains  in  the 
Isere  some  of  the  most  rugged  of  the  French  Alps,  with  their  peaks 
forever  snow  clad  and  "rising  to  a  height  of  11,000  feet. 

Another  department,  that  of  the  Loire,  is  a  great  industrial  center, 
and  its  roads  are  subjected  to  the  wear  and  weight  of  vehicles  heavily 
laden  with  iron,  coal,  castings,  and  blocks  of  stone.  It  is  also  a  par- 
tially mountainous  region. 

The  French  road  engineers  consider  the  roads  in  these  two  depart- 
ments, the  Loire  and  the  Isere,  as  examples  of  the  highest  type  of  per- 
fection to  which  modern  road -making  has  reached  in  this  country. 

The  roads  in  these  departments  are  numerous,  of  easy  grade,  solidly 
built,  always  open  and  always  good,  save  when  temporarily  blocked 
with  snow.  They  are  subjected  to  the  most  changeful  and  violent 
forces  of  nature.  Snow,  frost, ice,  and  furious  glacial  torrents  springing 
suddenly  into  existence  at  unexpected  points  have  sought  for  a  decade 
to  destroy  them,  but  in  vain. 

Iu  the  high,  mountainous  regions  o  f  the  Isere  I  have  seen,  after  vio- 
lent summer  raiu  of  36  hours'  duration,  50  yards  of  national  road,  in- 
cluding a  small  bridge,  washed  away  by  a  fearlul  torrent  rushing  down 
from  a  cloud-capped  field  of  ice,  with  an  al  most  vertical  fall  of  2,000 
feet.  In  3  hours,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  severe  storm,  I  have  seen  that 
same  road  repaired  temporarily  and  made  passable  by  the  road  men  in 
this  remote  and  little  frequented  region. 

It  is  this  never-failing  watchfulness  and  promptness  in  repairing 
roads,  coupled  with  thorough  and  honest  construction,  which  gives 
France  a  system  of  roads  which  is  at  once  a  source  of  national  strength 
and  of  national  pride. 

From  the  road  records  of  the  departments  of  the  Loire  and  the  Isere, 
from  recent  observations  and  from  the  practical  communications  of  the 
working  engineers,  I  have  condensed  some  information  coveriug  the 
principal  points  in  the  methods  now  employed  iu  building  and  preserv- 
ing French  roads. 

DIVISIONS  AND   CLASSIFICATION   IN  FRANCE. 

In  France  the  ways  of  communication  are  divided  into  three  classes, 
as  follows:  First,  national  or  state  roads  constructed  and  maintained 
by  the  state ;  second,  department  roads  entirely  at  the  charge  of  the 
departments,  and,  third,  township  roads  which,  though  constructed  by 
the  communes,  receive  in  most  cases  support  either  from  the  state  or 
from  the  departments  for  their  maintenance. 

The  national  roads  radiating  from  Paris  communicate  with  all  the 


EUROPE — FRANCE  63 

important  cities  and  the  departments  in  the  country.  They  are  placed 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  ponts  et  chaussCes  (department  of  bridges 
and  roads),  which  is  attached  to  the  bureau  of  the  minister  of  public 
works.  The  second  and  third  class  of  roads  form  a  network  over  the  coun- 
try aud  are  under  the  supervision,  in  a  general  way,  of  the  prefects 
and  mayors.  However,  in  most  departments  these  roads,  too,  are  also 
intrusted  to  the  care  of  the  ponts  de  ehausseVs. 

Further,  there  exists  in  towns  of  a  certain  importance  a  municipal 
road  service,  the  business  of  which  is  to  construct  and  maintain  streets 
and  roads  within  the  limits  of  the  city. 

LEGAL  PRELIMINARIES. 

For  the  construction  of  a  road  two  principal  operations  are  required, 
viz  :  First,  the  formatiou  of  the  bed  of  the  road  as  well  as  the  construc- 
tion of  the  waterways  and  bridges  when  necessary;  secoud,  the  mak- 
ing of  the  road  with  paving  stones  or  by  the  method  of  Macadam  in 
order  to  render  it  fit  for  traffic.  When  the  need  for  a  new  road  felt  in 
a  given  district,  an  estimate  with  designs  is  drawn  up  and  forwarded 
to  headquarters,  together  with  evidence  justifying  the  demand.  When 
this  formality  has  been  gone  through,  civil  engineers  go  over  the  region, 
examine  the  direction  the  road  is  to  take,  draw  up  an  exact  estimate  of 
the  cost,  make  the  specifications,  and  write  out  in  detail  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  contractors  their  observations  on  the  manner  in  which  the 
road  should  be  constructed. 

The  report  of  the  engineers  is  sent  to  the  proper  authorities. 

Before  commencing  the  work  the  authorities  proceed  to  acquire  the 
necessary  lands  through  which  the  road  is  to  run  and  the  proprietors 
are  invited  to  sell  the  rights  of  way. 

If  a  landowner  demands  a  much  higher  price  than  the  estimafed 
value,  the  Government  appoints  a  special  jury  to  appraise  the  land 
and  it  is  condemned  on  their  valuation,  from  which  there  is  no  appeal. 
This  act  is  called  in  France  "  Acte  (V expropriation?  or  dispossession. 

The  work  is  then  placed  iu  the  hands  of  the  contractors,  who  must 
execute  it  under  the  supervision  of  the  engineers  and  according  to  the 
stipulations  of  the  estimate,  and  if  any  difference  arises  between  the 
contractors  and  the  engineers  it  is  brought  before  the  conseil  de  pre- 
fecture, from  the  decision  of  which  body,  however,  an  appeal  can  bo 
made  to  the  state  council. 

RUNNING  THE  LINE. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  go  into  the  political,  commercial,  or  industrial 
considerations  which  induce  the  Government  or  local  administration 
to  decide  upon  the  creation  of  a  road.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  Imagine 
two  given  points  which  it  is  desired  to  unite  by  means  of  a  new  road 
and  to  mark  out  within  these  limits  the  best  line,  bearing  in  mind  three 


54  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

cardinal  points,  economy  in  tlie  working  expenses,  security  for  the 
traffic,  and  the  cost  of  repairs,  whicb  should  be  reduced  to  the  lowest 
degree. 

To  trace  a  road  a  topographical  chart  is  first  studied  in  order  to  ob- 
tain the  exact  positions  of  the  extreme  points  and  their  relation  to  the 
neighboring  or  intermediary  points.  The  ground  is  then  gone  over  in 
order  to  complete  the  info  rmation  furnished  by  the  chart  and  to  dis- 
cover other  points  if  necessary  which  would  be  preferable  in  a  tech- 
nical or  commercial  point  of  view.  These  might  be  bridges,  which 
could  be  used  with  advantage  and  thus  realizing  a  certain  saving,  or 
in  the  case  of  a  stream  where  the  construction  of  a  bridge  presented 
more  facilities  than  at  the  points  originally  indicated,  or,  again,  certain 
depressions  in  the  ground  which  would  permit  the  road  to  pass  over 
a  hill  with  a  lower  gradient,  or,  lastly,  where  populous  centers  require 
that  the  proposed  road  should  run  through  them. 

A  careful  and  well  considered  examination  having  been  made  on  the 
main  points  of  the  line,  sections  of  more  or  less  length  are  studied  so 
as  to  unite  them  all,  finally,  with  more  facility. 

It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  a  general  and  absolute  rule,  to  obtain 
the  best  tracing  between  any  two  points.  The  nature  of  the  grouud 
and  the  intelligence  and  liability  of  the  operator  have  a  certain  bearing 
on  the  end  in  view.  However,  a  good  method  of  avoiding  grave  errors 
and  much  trouble  would  be,  trace  at  first  upon  the  plan  of  the  region 
between  the  two  points  a  straight  line  uniting  them ;  this  line  forms 
the  tracing  of  a  vertical  plan  in  which  the  axis  of  the  projected  road  is 
placed. 

The  next  thing  is  to  consider,  first,  if  it  would  be  possible  to  make 
on  this  plan  either  a  uniform  incline  or  a  series  of  inclines,  not  exceed- 
ing the  degree  of  inclination  previously  fixed  and  at  an  average  cost; 
second,  if  this  plan  did  not  encounter  material  obstacles,  such  as  swamps, 
mountains,  or  buildings,  which  could  not  be  overcome  without  consid- 
erable expense;  third,  if  by  going  to  the  right  or  left  of  the  line  it 
would  not  be  possible  to  obtain  a  more  gentle  incline  or  a  decrease  in 
the  expenses  of  the  construction  or  both  together. 

It  is  only  in  very  rare  and  exceptional  cases  that  a  road  can  be  ad- 
vantageously traced  in  a  direct  line  between  the  two  points,  even  when 
they  would  be  separated  by  a  short  distance.  It  is  generally  necessary 
to  deviate  in  order  to  avoid  difficulties  to  give  the  road  the  best  posi- 
tion to  escape  heavy  fillings  or  cuts. 

EARLY  DETAILS. 

It  is  especially  to  mountainous  districts  that  the  foregoing  considera- 
tions apply  in  deciding  on  the  tracing  of  the  road.  The  difficulties  to 
be  met  with  in  those  regions  can  hardly  be  explained  in  this  report. 
It  will  suffice  to  say  that  the  intelligence  of  the  engineer  reduces  those 
difficulties  as  much  as  possible.  The  lowest  points  of  the  ridges  are 
chosen  and  when  possible  the  lines  of  the  valleys  are  followed. 


EUROPE FRANCE. 


55 


In  general  where  the  points  intended  to  be  united  l»y  a  road  are  sit. 
uated  upon  flat  ground,  the  natural  indication  is  the  straight  line,  but 
more  frequently  the  ground  is  intersected  by  marshes,  streams,  or  build- 
ings, and  in  that  case  the  tracing  must  be  modified  to  suit  economical 
considerations,  convenience,  and  solidity. 


Demi  profile  of  a  pave (L  Roadway. 


Demi  profile  of  a  Tnacaclamized,  Moadwccy. 


i£        5       «       3  * 

6        1       *J       *  * 

3        *i       *i       S  H 

*  O:5(P<0;5Ok  V.50± &JQ «4  - 


Scale  x/so  ofametre. 


tf.00- 


Wbere  the  ground  is  not  very  uneven  the  tracing  can  be  made  w  Itli- 
out  much  difficulty,  but  it  would  be  well  here  to  remark  that  a  curved 
tracing  lengthens  but  slightly  a  road  and  should  be  preferred  to  a  zig- 
zag line. 


56  STREETS    AND   HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

THE  ENGINEERS'  WORK. 

When  the  termini  are  separated  by  sinuosities  the  grades  of  which  are 
greater  than  those  previously  fixed,  by  valleys,  ridges,  or  mountains, 
the  direction  of  the  tracing  is  difficult  to  determine.  A  simple  bird's- 
eye  view  is  not  sufficient ;  the  difficulties  increase  with  the  degree  of  the 
roughness  of  the  country.  If  the  road  has  to  cross  a  chain  of  mount- 
ains, the  lowest  point  must  be  determined  at  the  outset  in  order  to 
diminish  as  much  as  possible  the  expenses  of  the  cuttings.  To  effect 
this  object  the  following  points  will  be  found  useful  as  hints  in  order 
to  avoid  long  and  tedious  leveling : 

PRACTICAL  HINTS. 

1.  The  ridge  of  a  chain  of  mountains,  without  having  anything  geo- 
metrical about  it,  either  in  the  horizontal  or  vertical  sense,  is,  however, 
looking  at  it  in  the  ensemble,  nearly  straight.  It  inclines  always  in  the 
same  sense  as  the  valleys. 

2.  When  a  ridge  meets  at  the  same  point  two  or  more  secondary 
ridges  this  point  should  be  raised  to  the  maximum  level. 

3.  When  a  ridge  meets  two  thalwegs  (or  valleys)  situated  on  either 
side,  the  point  of  meeting  should  be  a  relative  minimum. 

4.  When  a  ridge  is  met  by  a  secondary  ridge  and  a  thalweg,  it  pre- 
sents a  horizontal  inflexion  at  the  point  of  encounter  without  present- 
ing anything  particular  in  the  vertical  sense. 

5.  When  two  thalwegs  after  having  been  parallel  diverge  in  opposite 
directions,  the  point  where  they  meet  the  ridge  is  necessarily  a  iniu- 
imum. 

6.  When  two  thalwegs  observe  paralleled  courses  for  a  certain 
extent,  but  running  in  opposite  directions,  the  ridge  ought  to  present 
a  minimum  point  in  the  interval  which  separates  the  two  thalwegs.  If 
the  points  chosen  are  situated  in  the  same  valley,  the  water  courses  must 
be  taken  into  consideration. 

The  question  of  choosing  the  site  of  bridges  is  very  important;  so  im- 
portant, that  if  the  river  to  be  crossed  is  considerable  the  direction  of 
the  road  must  be  rendered  subordinate  to  the  site  of  the  bridges.  If 
there  exist  several  practicable  points  of  passage,  they  must  be  compared 
carefully  in  order  to  select  the  one  most  suitable  and  conforming  to  the 
following  conditions:  Good  nature  of  the  ground  for  a  firm  foundation, 
normal  direction  of  the  current,  stability  of  the  bed  of  the  river,  and 
concentration  of  the  waters  in  the  same  bed.  If  one  terminus  be  situ- 
ated in  a  valley  and  the  other  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  the  solution  will 
depend  in  a  great  part  on  the  average  slope  of  the  ground  between  the 
terminal  points.  If  this  slope  conforms  in  general  to  that  already  fixed 
the  tracing  is  made  in  a  straight  line. 


EUROPE FRANCE.  57 

THE  OLD  WAY. 

In  short,  if  the  average  incline  is  inferior  to  the  limit  fixed  several 
solutions  are  possible. 

The  straight  line  might  be  taken,  but  this  tracing  is  not  much  ob- 
served today,  for  it  happens  more  frequently  that  the  points  to  be 
joined  are  separated  by  secondary  valleys  which  would  have  to  be 
crossed  with  a  great  deal  of  difficulty  and  inconvenience.  Many  of  the 
old  roads  were  constructed  on  this  system.  They  were  projected  over 
mountains  and  valleys  regardless  of  the  natural  obstacles  of  the  route 
or  the  interest  of  the  population,  and  as  they  were  pushed  on  boldly, 
they  were  constructed  at  the  expense  of  enormous  trouble  and  never 
were  they  satisfactory.  The  aim  supposed  to  be  in  view,  the  shorten- 
ing of  the  distance,  was  far  from  being  attained,  as  the  delays  arising 
from  the  up  and  down  hill  nature  of  the  road  lengthened  in  reality  the 
distance  much  more  than  the  curves  of  a  level  road. 

Another  system  consists  in  following  in  a  horizontal  line  as  much  as 
possible  the  ridge  in  its  length,  and  descending  to  the  second  point  by 
a  gradual  incline.  This  method  was  much  employed  formerly,  and  had 
the  advantage  of  crossing  the  streams  almost  at  their  source,  necessi- 
tating consequently  but  comparatively  unimportant  outlays  for  the 
crossing.  But  ridges  which  are  generally  sinuous  require  a  very  undu- 
lating tracing,  and  being  but  sparsely  inhabited,  the  road  loses  much 
of  its  importance. 

A  third  solution,  and  the  oue  generally  employed  to-day,  consists  in 
following  the  valleys  as  much  as  possible,  and  rising  afterwards  by 
gentle  grades.  This  tracing  traverses  the  cultivated  lauds,  regions 
studded  with  farm-houses  and  factories.  The  value  of  such  a  line  of 
communication  is  much  more  considerable  than  that  of  a  route  by  the 
ridges.  The  water  courses  which  flow  down  to  the  principal  thalwegs 
are,  it  is  true,  crossed  where  they  are  largest,  and  require  works  of  large 
dimensions,  but  also  they  are  fewer  in  number. 

MOUNTAIN   ROADS. 

The  terminal  points  may  be  situated  on  the  slopes  rising  from  the 
same  valley,  and  then  the  shortest  route  would  be  to  go  down  directly 
from  one  side,  cross  over,  and  ascend  the  other.  This  direction,  how- 
ever, is  often  impossible  on  account  of  the  inclines  being  too  great  on 
either  side,  and  would  necessitate  the  filling  up  of  the  valley,  causing 
thus  great  trouble  and  expense.  It  is  much  preferable  to  run  along  the 
side  of  the  hill,  observing  a  gradient  and  to  go  up  on  the  other  side  in  a 
similar  manner.  The  valley  can  be  crossed  then  without  requiring  a 
heavy  embankment.  But  of  course  the  length  of  the  road  is  thereby 
much  increased  as  well  the  expense  of  the  construction. 

Whenever  it  is  necessary  to  unite  two  given  points  situated  in  differ 
cut  valleys  separated  by  several  small  ridges  the  difficulties  are  wry 


58 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


great,  and  increase  with  the  importance  of  the  uneven  nature  of  the 
ground.  The  points  of  passage  over  the  ridges  are  first  determined, 
always  bearing  in  mind  the  probable  cost,  which  should  be  as  low  as 
possible.  When  they  are  fixed  upon,  the  outline  is  subdivided  into  dif- 
ferent lengths  and  examined  apart.  It  can  be  easily  inferred  then  that 
the  chief  difficulty  lies  in  choosing  these  points  of  passage  over  the 
ridges.  Moreover,  before  fixing  on  the  points  of  passage,  it  is  necessary 
to  be  assured  that  they  can  be  reached,  for  sometimes  this  is  impossible 
as  the  hillsides  are  too  steep. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  ROAD. 

When  the  outline  of  the  road  is  fixed  upon,  the  profile  of  the  length  is 
exactly  marked  out  as  well  as  that  of  the  breadth,  so  as  to  evaluate  the 
earthworks  and  the  works  of  art.  The  transverse  profile  of  a  road  af- 
fects generally  the  following  form: 


It  is  composed  of,  first,  a  roadway  varying  according  to  the  impor- 
tance of  the  road  from  3  to  6£  yards  in  width,  and  even  more  in  some 
cases,  where  the  circulation  requires  it;  second,  the  sides  are  also  of 
variable  width,  aud  the  ditch  destined  to  receive  the  water  coming  from 
springs  or  rain.  Sometimes  a  part  of  the  sides  is  higher  than  the  road- 
way (Fig.  2),  and  in  that  case  it  takes  the  name  of  footpath,  and  is 


generally  seen  in  towns,  or  in  their  neighborhood,  to  facilitate  the  cir- 
culation of  the  foot  passengers.  But  in  such  instances  it  is  necessary 
to  establish  a  gutter  to  receive  the  waters  of  the  street.  The  roadway 
is  barrel-shaped,  and  the  sides  are  sloped  transversely  in  the  proportion 
of  one  inch  to  the  metre,  to  facilitate  draining,  the  width  of  the  ditches 
or  gutters  being  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  water  to  be  received. 
The  slopes  or  embankments  are  pitched  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  in 
the  case  of  excavation.  In  mountainous  regions  a  rectilinear  profile  is 
given  to  the  road,  which  is  inclined  towards  the  side  of  the  mountain 
especially  in  the  curves,  the  convexity  being  on  the  side  of  the  valley. 


EUROPE FRANCE. 


59 


A  wall  confines  the  road  on  the  side  of  the  precipice,  and  a  ditch  runs 
along  by  the  hill.  In  the  case  of  largo  cuttings,  the  sides  of  the  road 
are  sometimes  suppressed  in  order  to  diminish  the  cube  of  excavation. 

It  is  not,  however,  always  possible  to  construct  a  road  on  the  above 
plan,  for  it  often  happens  that  the  sloping  of  the  ground  is  such  that  it 
would  require  a  very  large  and  steep  embankment  to  cross  the  ravines. 

In  such  cases  the  embankment  is  replaced  by  sustaining  walls  on 
either  side,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3. 


The  foundation  must  be  well  laid,  and  the  thickness  sufficient  to 
resist  the  weight  of  the  soil.  These  walls  are  built  wherever  tuey  cost 
less  than  the  embanking  process,  and  when  the  security  of  the  traffic 
requires  it. 

The  construction  of  a  road  brings  often  to  light  springs  which  appear 
at  first  sight  harmless,  but  little  by  little  they  saturate  the  soil  and  end 
by  washing  it  away.  In  such  cases  drainage  must  be  rigorously  applied 
so  as  to  prevent  inevitable  consequences. 

MODE   OF   CONSTRUCTION. 

The  greater  part  of  the  roads  in  France  are  macadamized  ;  it  is  only 
in  towns  that  paving  stones  are  used.    The  layer  of  broken  stones  com- 


60  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

posing  the  road  is  from  12  to  25  centimetres  thick.  This  layer  is  p_aced 
directly  on  the  beaten  ground.  In  exceptional  cases  a  layer  of  sand 
intervenes,  or  even  stones  of  a  certain  magnitude,  in  order  to  facilitate' 
the  drainage.  Sometimes  the  stones  are  undressed  cobbles,  such  as  are 
found  in  the  beds  of  rivers  or  on  the  seashore,  but  this  kind  of  pavement 
is  seldom  used  now.  The  paving  most  generally  used  is  made  of  hard 
granite,  and  laid  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  road.  The  cuuiform 
paving  stones  vary  from  10  to  20  centimetres  in  depth;  much  larger 
ones  are  sometimes  employed  in  the  principal  streets,  however. 

A  good  pavement  should  meet  the  following  conditions:  First,  it  must 
furnish  a  good  foothold  for  horses  drawing  heavy  loads;  second,  the 
stones  should  be  so  placed  that  the  wheels  shall  not  run  between  the 
interstices  for  any  distance;  third,  one  part  of  the  pavement  should  not 
be  more  resisting  than  another. 

The  construction  of  a  pavement  cousists  at  first  in  hollowing  out  the 
bed  for  the  stones  and  in  placing  a  layer  of  sand  of  from  15  to  25  centi- 
metres in  thickness.  The  stones  are  then  placed  side  by  side,  and  the 
interstices  filled  up  with  sand.  The  operation  is  completed  by  an  in- 
strument called  a  demoiselle,  which  drives  home  the  pavement  and  makes 
it  regular.  This  demoiselle  is  a  heavy  rammer  made  of  wood,  and  bourn 
at  the  bottom,  which  is  the  larger  end,  with  a  strong  iron  hoop,  and  on 
each  side  a  handle. 

REPAIRS  AND  ALTERATIONS. 

When  a  road  is  finished  and  opened  to  traffic  it  is  not  left  to  itself, 
for  otherwise  it  would  soon  deteriorate  and  become  bad.  To  keep  it  in 
proper  repair  two  operations  are  necessary,  that  of  removiug  the  wast* 
such  as  mud  aud  dust,  and  that  of  supplying  new  material  to  replace 
the  loss  by  wear  and  weather.  To  the  removal  of  mud  and  dust  the 
French  give  great  attention. 

When  a  road  is  run  over  freely  by  vehicles  for  several  days  and  the 
weather  is  dry  a  slight  layer  of  dust  is  formed.  This  dust  annoys  the 
passengers  and  the  horses  and  renders  the  road  heavy  for  traffic.  If 
rain  falls  the  dust  is  converted  into  mud,  producing  ruts  and  faults  of 
every  sort,  consequently  the  dust  must  be  removed,  and  the  instrument 
used  is  the  broom,  A  well  swept  road  leaves  no  mud  after  rain,  at  least 
not  for  several  days.  However,  if  the  humidity  continues  the  road  be- 
comes at  first  sticky  and  finally  is  covered  with  mud,  which  should  be 
promptly  removed,  as  the  mud  makes  the  tracks  of  the  wheels  appar- 
ent, and  as  those  tracks  constitute  a  smoother  surface  for  running  on 
than  the  rest  of  the  route  other  vehicles  follow  in  them,  and  after  awhile 
regular  ruts  are  formed,  which  injure  greatly  the  road.  All  the  while, 
moreover,  the  wear  and  tear  continues,  although  slowly,  and  conse- 
quently at  certain  periods  the  road  must  be  repaired.  As  a  rule  wet 
weather  is  chosen  for  this  operation,  aud  the  principle  which  ought  to 
guide  the  roadman  in  his  work  is  the  avoiding  of  creating  a  special 


EUROPE FRANCE.  61 

track  in  the  road  for  traffic.    The  vehicles  should  rim  over  any  part  of 
the  surface  to  prevent  the  depressions  alluded  to. 

THE   USE   OF   ROLLERS. 

Formerly  a  road  was  opened  to  traffic  immediately  after  construction 
while  the  stones  were  yet  loose,  but  the  inconvenience  of  this  method 
has  disappeared  since  use  has  been  made  of  heavy  rollers,  which  com- 
press the  material.  A  roller,  or  compresser  as  it  is  culled  here,  consists 
of  one  or  two  heavy  cylinders  drawn  by  horses  or  propelled  by  steam. 
The  cylinders  weigh  4  tons,  but  this  weight  is  subsequently  increased 
by  filling  the  large  box  over  the  cylinders  with  large  stones.  The  roll- 
ing machine  is  first  passed  over  the  road  with  only  its  own  weight) 
that  is  to  say  empty,  and  gradually  stones  are  added.  In  order  to  effect 
properly  the  operation  the  road  is  previously  well  watered.  Constant 
repairing  is  required,  especially  after  heavy  rains,  but  the  material  being 
always  at  hand,  the  work  is  promptly  executed  by  the  roadman. 

BASALT  VERSUS  GRANITE. 

Since  1846  the  French  eugineers  have  generally  used  basalt  instead 
of  crushed  grauite  on  the  roadways  which  are  built  for  heavy  traffic. 
This  basaltic  rock  is  found  in  great  quantities  in  the  adjoiniug  depart- 
ment of  the  Haute- Loire.  The  basalt  costs  $2.50  per  cubic  metre, 'and 
300  cubic  metres  are  used  for  each  kilometre,  or  sixth-tenths  of  a  mile. 
It  is  not  onlj  far  better,  but  about  30  per  cent,  cheaper,  than  the  crushed 
granite,  formerly  so  much  used. 

The  cost  of  constructing  a  paved  roadway  is  $2.35  per  square  metre 
and  the  cost  of  keeping  it  in  repair  is  8  cents  per  square  metre  per 
anuum,  while  that  of  a  macadamized  road  is  from  5  to  10  cents. 

THE   ROAD  SERVICE. 

The  road  and  bridge  service  of  France  is  a  strong  and  effective  or- 
ganization. Kesponsible  men  are  employed  iu  it,  thoroughly  trained, 
and  their  work  is  subjected  to  close  inspection  by  government  engi- 
neers. No  part  of  the  road  system  is  neglected ;  the  routes  are  divided 
into  sections  of  half  a  mile  to  3  miles  in  length,  according  to  the 
importance  of  the  road,  each  of  which  is  confided  to  a  man  or  number 
of  men,  so  that  every  foot  of  the  roadway  is  inspected  daily  and  is  kept 
in  thorough  repair. 

Cost  of  good  roads  in  France. 

Average  cost  of  building  a  r0ad  per  kilometre , $(>,  (>00.  00 

Cost  of  a  road  iu  the  valleys  per  kilometre 4,000.00 

a  road  iu  a  mountainous  region  per  kilometre 0,000.00 

keeping  in  repair  per  kilometre  and  per  annum Jin.  no 

.  embanking  per  cubic  metre .  ltf 

paving  streets  per  square  metre 2.  43 


62  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Cost  of  a  road  in  the  valleys  per  kilometre— Continued. 

paving  stones  (per  1,000  stones) $48.26 

ordinary  workman  per  day .58 

man  and  horse  hire  per  day 1.55 

foreman  per  month 20.00 

supervisor  of  roads  per  annum 600. 00 

engineer  of  roads  per  annum 1,000.00 

head  engineer 2,000.00 


BRIDGES. 

One  striking  and  satisfactory  feature  of  the  French  road  system  is 
that  furnished  by  the  substantial  and  often  beautiful  bridges  which  are 
seen  in  every  place  where  the  slightest  need  for  them  exists.  These 
bridges  are  generally  of  stone,  except  in  some  cases  where  large  streams 
are  to  be  crossed,  and  then  the  suspension  system  is  most  frequently 
employed  with  satisfactory  results.  However  in  the  case  of  road  bridges 
where  the  span  exceeds  a  certain  limit  iron  is  supplanting  stone  con- 
siderably  in  their  construction. 

The  French  bridges,  like  most  of  the  streams  which  they  cross,  "  go 
on  forever,"  and  1  have  thought  it  well  to  submit  some  information  con- 
cerning their  cost.  The  subjoined  estimates  refer  to  small  bridges 
only  less  than  a  hundred  feet  in  length. 

Cost  of  bridges  of  various  sizes. 


Nature  of  work. 


Aqueduct,  roofed  with  flags  — 
Aqueduct,  roofed  with  cut  stone 
Small  bridge,  arched 

Do 

Bridge,  arched 

Do 

Do.  

Do 

Do 

Do 


Span. 

Length. 

Metres. 

Metres. 

.60 

12 

.60 

13 

1 

18 

2 

15 

3 

10 

4 

11 

5 

10 

6 

12 

10 

14 

20 

6 

$117.00 

270. 00 

618.  00 

618.  00 

600.  00 

1,  000.  00 

1,  200.  00 

1,  650.  00 

5,  800. 00 

4, 900.  00 


The  foregoing  figures  were  extracted  from  the  official  record,  and  show 
the  cost  of  bridges  of  a  given  class  now  actually  in  use. 

Francis  B.  Loomis, 

Commercial  Agent. 
St.  Etienne,  France,  April  23, 1891. 


EUROPE — FRANCE.  63 

FRANCE. 

REPORT  BY  COXSUL  KXOWLES,  OF  BORDEAUX. 
ROADS   AND   ROAD  MAKING  IN  FRANCE. 

No  greater  builders  of  roads  have  left  their  mark  upon  the  annals  of 
time ;  none  have  regarded  them  of  more  vital  import  for  the  mainte- 
nance and  strengthening  of  an  empire;  no  more  forcible  examples  of 
topographical  engineering  have  been  so  indelibly  presented  to  modern 
generations  as  the  great  highways  of  the  Romans. 

The  finest  roadways  existing  to-day  in  France,  the  greater  arteries 
of  inland  traffic,  were  built  by  the  same  hands  that  constructed  the 
Appian  Way. 

If,  as  some  philosopher  has  wisely  observed,  roads  form  in  the  mate- 
rial advancement  of  a  nation  a  cardinal  element,  being  in  no  unimpor- 
tant degree  essential  to  its  development  and  natural  resources,  then  we 
may  attribute  to  these  mighty  thoroughfares  of  France  greater  distinc- 
tion than  has  ever  yet  been  given  them. 

But  France,  like  Carthage,  has  suffered  by  her  greatness. 

When  the  Prussian  forces  crossed  the  frontier  in  1870,  the  flue  mili- 
tary roads  (les  routes  nationales)  were  found  more  advantageous  to  the 
invaders  than  the  invaded.  The  enemy  profited  by  the  master  work  of 
their  aggressive  neighbors.  The  roads  afforded  not  only  direct,  but 
excellent  routes  to  the  French  capital. 

.  The  highways  of  France  are  remarkable  for  their  durability,  even- 
ness, and  "cleanliness.  They  are  swept  and  watered  every  day,  and 
kept  in  scrupulous  order.  No  rugged  eminences  or  depressions  jar  the 
nerves  of  the  traveler  riding  over  them.  Neither  dirt,  decay,  nor  rub- 
bish is  about  to  suggest  neglect  or  ill  care.  They  are  immense  garden 
paths,  amid  a  marvellous  landscape  of  verdure  and  cultivation. 

The  process  of  road  making  in  France  is  very  simple,  and  their  ex- 
cellence is  without  doubt  due  to  the  simplicity  of  construction  as  well 
as  to  the  superior  quality  of  the  material  used. 

The  method  is  briefly  thus :  The  materials  destined  for  the  making  of 
roads  are  brought  from  the  nearest  quarries  and  placed  at  either  side 
of  the  route  surveyed.  In  order  that  the  full  amount  contracted  for 
may  be  delivered,  the  stone  must  be  heaped  in  angular  piles  of  pris- 
matic shape  and  fixed  dimensions.  These  heaps,  placed  at  a  given  dis- 
tance from  one  another,  are  afterward  inspected  by  an  official  inspector, 
and  must  in  all  instances  fit  exactly  beneath  a  skeleton  frame  carried 
by  him.  The  stone  is  usually  marble,  flint  stone,  or  gravel.  Tlu>  ma- 
terial must  be  of  the  best  quality  and  cleansed  from  all  foreign  sub- 
stances. 

The  stone  must  be  broken  so  that  each  piece  may  pass  through  a 
ring,  2£  inches  in  diameter.    It  is  then  spread  evenly  over  the  road; 


64  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

the  interstices  being  carefully  filled  in  with  smaller  pieces  and  particles, 
so  that  the  whole  is  smooth  and  free  from  abrupt  eminences  or  depres- 
sions. A  steam  roller  then  crushes  and  further  evens  the  whole,  after 
which  a  superficial  layer  of  clay  and  earth  completes  the  work. 

According  to  a  mandate  issued  by  the  prefect  of  the  department  of 
the  Giroude,  France,  the  29th  of  December,  1871,  and  approved  by  the 
minister  of  the  interior  on  the  1st  of  January,  1872,  the  following  resolu- 
tion as  to  the  maintenance  of  country  and  crossroads  was  taken. 

The  cost  of  maintaining  and  keeping  in  order  of  roads  shall  be  borne 
by  the  inhabitants  living  in  the  section  or  district  through  which  said 
country  and  crossroads  are  laid.  Each  taxpayer  is  obliged  to  work  3 
days  each  year  for  the  maintenance  of  the  road,  or  has  the  option  to 
pay  an  amount  of  money  sufficient  for  or  equivalent  to  the  compensa- 
tion of  a  laborer  for  a  period  of  3  days. 

To  insure  faithful  fulfillment  of  such  services  there  is  prepared  in 
the  bureau  of  the  comptroller  of  taxes  a  schedule  of  taxpayers  who 
fall  under  the  obligations  of  3  days'  labor.  The  schedule  is  submit- 
ted to  the  director  of  "Direct  Contributions,"  who,  in  turn,  notifies 
each  person  of  the  3  days  he  is  obliged  to  work.  The  schedule  sets 
forth,  1st:  The  number  of  members  and  servants  in  the  family,  the 
number  of  beasts  of  burden,  and  those  used  under  the  saddle  or  har- 
ness, the  same  being  taken  as  a  basis  fortheamount  of  assessment. 
Each  taxpayer  is  notified  by  the  director  of  assessors  of  the  number 
of  days  he  is  obliged  to  serve,  or  of  its  equivalent  in  money.  The 
schedules  are  further  posted  in  public  places  for  the  inspection  of  tax- 
payers, who  may  address  any  objections  or  complaints  directly  to  the 
prefect. 

The  value  of  a  single  day's  work  is  estimated  as  follows :  Man,  2 
francs ;  horse,  2  francs ;  ass,  75  ceutimes  ;  cart,  1  franc ;  ox,  2  francs. 

The  services  of  those  taxpayers  who  desire  to  fulfill  their  obligations 
in  actual  labor  must  be  rendered  between  the  first  day  of  February 
and  the  first  day  of  July,  or  between  the  first  day  of  August  and  the 
thirtieth  day  of  November.  The  length  of  labor  is  fixed  at  ten  hours  a 
day  per  man,  and  eight  hours  a  day  for  beasts  of  burden.  The  tax- 
payer, five  days  before  his  services  are  required,  receives  orders,  signed 
by  the  mayor,  to  present  himself  on  such  a  day,  at  a  certain  place,  pro- 
vided with  certain  implements  and  prepared  to  perform  certain  work. 
If  a  taxpayer  be  prevented  by  illness  from  attending  to  these  duties 
he  can  send  a  substitute  to  replace  him,  being  at  the  same  time  respon- 
sible for  his  work. 

In  regard  to  reparations  of  roadways  in  France,  the  chief  road  in- 
spector every  year  must  furnish  to  the  prefect  of  the  department  a  list 
of  the  materials  necessary  for  the  making  and  reparation  of  the  various 
highways  and  crossroads  in  the  districts.  The  prefect  gives  the  same 
to  the  contractor,  who  can  not  extract  any  materials  from  or  open  quar- 
ries except  such  as  are  officially  indicated  to  him. 


EUROPE FRANCE.  65 

Every  man  who  receives  or  makes  a  contract  for  road  building  or 
repairing  must  give  good  security,  furnish  certificates  of  capacity,  and 
live  close  to  the  work  in  question.  Of  the  moneys  appropriated  for  the 
various  contracts,  1  per  cent,  is  retained  by  the  prefect  as  a  fund  for  the 
relief  of  the  widows  and  orphans  of  any  who  may  have  been  fatally  in- 
jured in  working  upou  the  roadways. 

The  material  used  in  the  making  and  repairing  of  roads  in  France  is 
usually  the  flintstone,  marble,  or  ophite,  quarried  in  Brittany  or  from 
the  Pyrenees  Mountains.  The  cost  of  this  material  can  scarcely  be 
estimated.  In  regions  contiguous  to  the  quarries  roadmaking  is  nat- 
urally cheap.  The  greater  the  transportation,  the  higher  the  price  of 
material  carried  and  delivered  at  the  proper  place. 

The  following  formula  may  be  employed  in  determining  the  price  of 
material : 

x_P(2D+d)       T 
LxO 

X  represents  the  price  to  be  determined ;  P,  the  price  of  cartage  and 
labor;  D,  the  distance  of  transportation  ;  d,  loading  and  unloading;  L, 
trajectof  cart  in  continual  motion  ;  C,  cubic  measurement  of  the  land; 
and  T,  the  corresponding  price  of  labor  in  loading  and  unloading. 

The  streets  in  the  larger  cities  of  France  are,  as  a  rule,  paved  with  the 
ordinary  cobble  stones,  resting  on  a  6-inch  deep  bed  of  sand  and  earth. 
The  stones  are  quarried  principally  in  Belgium,  and  vary  in  size  from  5 
by  3£  iuches  in  length  and  breadth  and  4J  in  depth  to  7£  by  44  in 
length  and  breadth  and  6  in  depth. 

The  maintaining  of  the  city  streets  and  of  the  routes  nationales  of 
France  is  distinctly  different  than  the  maintenance  of  the  roads,  such 
as  I  have  just  described.  The  routes  nationales,  the  principal  road- 
ways between  the  more  important  cities,  are  repaired  and  kept  in  order 
by  the  state;  the  expense  of  the  same  being  defrayed,  not  by  special 
taxation,  but  from  the  general  funds.  The  same  applies  to  local  muni- 
cipal governments  regarding  city  streets. 

I  find  difficulty  in  obtaining  definite  information  regarding  the  pro- 
portionate increase  in  land  values  after  the  cutting  through  of  new 
roads  in  France.  That  there  is  an  increase  is  beyond  all  doubt.  Exactly 
what  it  is,  however,  I  can  not  determine. 

Comparatively  few  new  roads  are  made  in  the  vicinity  of  Bordeaux, 
and  many  of  the  older  ones  date  from  before  the  Christian  era.  The 
routes  of  inland  communication  are  already  quite  sufficient,  and  as  the 
population  of  the  French  Republic  is  on  the  decrease,  geographical  con- 
tour remains'almost  unchanged. 

Horace  G.  Know l is. 

CoitSUL 

U.  S.  CONSULATE,  Bordeaux;  January  2'J,  lS'Jl. 
33a 5 


G6  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

ARRONDISSEMENT  OF  HAVRE. 

REPORT  BT  CONSUL  WILLIAMS. 
INTRODUCTORY. 

I  have  the  honor  to  state  that  my  reply  to  the  State  Department 
circular  of  November  8,  1890,  entitled  "  Street  and  roadway  circular," 
has  been  purposely  delayed  in  order  that  I  might  make  full  personal 
inspection,  thus  making  my  reply  as  valuable  as  possible  to  whom  it 
may  concern. 

•In  passing,  and  perhaps  to  emphasize  the  attention  paid  by  me  to  the 
circular  mentioned,  it  may  be  here  stated  that  for  years  I  have  been 
connected  with  the  movement  in  the  State  of  New  York  and  with  its 
legislature  to  secure  State  action  regarding  the  improvement  of  country 
highways  in  that  Commonwealth  as  well  as  to  an  extent  with  like 
efforts  in  the  city  of  Rochester. 

In  order  to  reply  properly  I  have  inspected  road  construction  and 
repair  in  Havre  and  other  cities  of  my  consular  district,  and  have 
journeyed  into  the  country  in  company  with  Engineer  M.  Vacossin,  who 
is  trustee  in  charge  of  435  miles  of  public  roads  of  various  makes  and 
classes  in  the  arrondissement  of  Havre,  and  thus  inspected  in  several 
localities  and  under  a  variety  of  conditions  both  repair  and  road 
making. 

I  prepared  a  list  of  forty  questions  to  which  Engineer  Vacossin  made 
written  answer,  the  manuscript  and  translation  inclosed  herewith ; 
parenthetically  I  have  added  notes  to  the  translation  and  reductions 
of  metric  units  for  the  reader's  benefit.  Certain  conclusions  from  my 
inspection  here,  and  as  modified  by  my  experience,  are  subjoined. 

FRENCH  VS.  AMERICAN  ROADS. 

New  roads  here  are,  if  of  block  stone,  made  substantially  the  same  as 
in  the  American  cities  and  as  outlined  in  my  inclosures;  if  of  broken 
stone,  are  made  by  first  grading  and  draining,  then  spreading  on  a 
7-inch  coating  of  broken  stone,  rolliug  with  heavy  rollers,  and,  finally, 
sprinkling  thickly  a  binding  of  sand,  clay,  or  soil,  which,  rolled  down 
and  somewhat  rolled  in,  forms  the  bearing  surface;  but  such  a  coating 
would  neither  withstand  the  sharp  pressure  of  loaded  wagons  having 
narrow  tires  nor  the  upheaval  of  the  usual  frosts  of  the  Northern  Amer- 
ican winter. 

The  American  pavements  are  very  much  better  constructed  than  are 
those  of  France,  all  classes  being  considered.  They,  however,  become 
destroyed  in  a  short  time,  while  those  of  France  increase  in  excellence 
with  age,  until  the  difference  is  very  marked.  These  differences  arise 
from  neglect  with  our  authorities  to  promptly  and  properly  repair  and 
from  the  constant  damage  inflicted  by  the  narrow  tires  of  freighting 
vehicles. 


EUROPE — FRANCE.  67 

111  France  all  roads  Lave  perpetual  attention.  If,  from  weight  of  load, 
from  rain,  or  other  cause,  a  hollow,  rut,  or  sink  is  formed,  it  at  once  re- 
ceives attention,  its  surface  usually  roughened  by  picking,  so  that  new 
material  will  adhere,  and  then  the  depression  filled  slightly,  rounding 
with  broken  stone  or  stone  chips.  If  the  space  repaired  be  of  limited 
area,  the  rolling  of  the  new  coating  is  left  to  the  wide  tires  of  the  heavy 
carts,  but,  with  extended  areas,  a  steam-roller  is  brought  for  use. 

If  a  broad  economy  should  be  followed  with  the  objective  to  make 
the  highways  of  the  United  States  like  those  of  France,  the  first  labor 
should  be  given  to  establish  easy  grades  by  cutting  hills  and  filling 
valleys.  This  once  done  is  forever  done,  and  no  road  should  be  made 
until  a  grade  not  greater  than  1  in  20  should  be  made,  for  to  Change  the 
grade  of  an  improved  road  makes  waste  of  all  the  expense  before  in- 
curred in  its  making.  Thus  grading  is  economy 'sjirst  law,  and  is  here 
the  engineer's  primary  act. 

The  next  step  is  to  reduce  the  water  evil  to  a  minimum  by  either  cen- 
ter blind  ditch  or  side  open  ditches,  or  both,  both  especially  in  low  sec- 
tions and  in  springy  soils,  with  capacious  bridges  and  culverts  of  most 
durable  material. 

Then,  having  proper  grade  on  a  line  free  from  water,  less  material  and 
that  of  a  less  expensive  kind  can  be  properly  used,  and  gravel  rolled 
by  wagon  tires  regulated  as  to  width  will  do  much,to  make  a  road. 

Every  freighting  and  market  cart  here  is  a  road-maker.  Its  tire  is 
from  3  to  10  inches  in  width,  usually  from  4  to  6,  and  so  rolls  the  road,. 

With  the  few  four-wheeled  freight  vehicles  used  the  tires  are  rarely 
less  than  6  inches,  and  the  rear  axle  is  about  14  inches  longer  than  the 
fore,  so  that  the  rear  or  hind  wheels  run  in  a  line  about  an  inch  outside 
of  the  line  rolled  by  the  fore  wheels;  thus  with  a  6-inch  tire  2  feet  of 
road  width  is  well  rolled  by  every  passing  wagon. 

The  varied  gauge  is  also  usually  observed  with  cabs,  hacks,  and  other 
four-wheeled  vehicles,  so  that  they  become  road-makers  instead  of  rut- 
makers,  as  in  our  country. 

The  narrow-tired  wagon  rides  more  smoothly  over  a  bad  road  because 
its  narrower  pressure  levels  obstacles  rather  than  surmounts  them, 
while  the  wide  tire,  having  less  proportional  leveling  force,  surmounts 
and  creates  the  jolt;  but  just  in  the  proportion  that  obstacles  become 
.  leveled  and  road  smoothed,  as  by  the  roller  service  of  wide  tires,  the 
jolt  disappears,  and  with  such  wheels  on  even  an  uncoated  country 
road  its  bed,  if  kept  rounded,  soon  becomes  a  watershed  not  likely  to 
be  materially  softened  by  surface  waters,  while  if  to  the  surface  a  coat- 
ing of  gravel  or  stone  chips  be  added  and  rolled  the  water  is  excluded, 
so  that  damage  by  winter's  frosts, becomes  minimized  and  on  firm  soils 
even  neutralized. 

The  cost  of  prepared  material  and  of  all  labor,  both  for  making  and 
maintaining  a  road,  in  the,  United  States  is  considerably  more  than 
double  the  like  cost  in  Frauce,  but  labor  here  is  less  active  and  efficient 


68  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Then  a  road  made  as  a  pavement  of  broken  stone,  to  withstand  the 
frosts  prevalent  in  all  the  United  States  north  of  about  the  latitude  of 
Baltimore,  must  be  at  least  twice  the  depth  and  constructed  with  twice 
the  quantity  of  material  as  here,  with  proportionate  outlay  for  labor ; 
hence,  allowing  three  elements  of  increase  of  costin  our  Northern  States 
above  cost  in  France,  of,  first,  double  cost  of  labor ;  second,  double 
cost  of  material  delivered  ready  for  use,  and  third,  double  depth  or 
strength  of  road  in  order  to  resist  frost  and  to  resist  the  almost  wedge- 
like tires  of  American  wagons,  and  you  have  a  fairly  accurate  estimate 
that  a  road  after  the  French  fashion,  and  made  in  our  country  so  as  to 
serve  as  durably  there  as  roads  serve  here,  will  cost  2  by  2  by  2,  or  8 
times  thetsost  here. 

I  anj  aware  that  such  a  report  has  little  in  it  to  encourage  our  mak- 
ing of  good  roads,  but  Europe  has  been  centuries  making  hers,  and  in 
France  frosts  are  trifling  when  contrasted  with  those  which  heave  and 
destroy  our  roads  every  winter  and  spring  ;  and  the  excellence  of  Eu- 
rope's roads,  as  I  learn,  ranks  in  a  graded  scale  from  the  frost  latitudes 
southwards,  those  of  Britain,  Sweden,  and  Kussia  bearing  no  favorable 
comparison  with  those  further  south. 

Then  again  the  dense  and  old  settlement  of  Europe,  whereby  farm 
ponds  are  so  located  as  to  catch  surface  water,  ditches  made  and  gut- 
ters paved  to  prevent  damage  by  floods,  and  every  spring  confined  and 
utilized,  vastly  tends  to  prevent  the  destruction  of  roads,  for  in  the 
main  water  is  the  sole  destroyer  of  American  highways,  and  the  owners 
of  abutting  lands  instead  of  confining  all  water  for  farm  and  other  uses, 
turn  it,  if  possible,  into  the  highway,  where  it  flows  unrestrained  and  by 
permeation  softens  every  roadway,  and  often  by  its  violence  undermines 
and  sweeps  away  portions  of  the  roadbed. 

Inclosures  A  and  B  are  questions  propounded  by  me  and  answered 
by  Engineer  Vacossin,  of  this  arrondissement,  while  inclosures  C  D  and 
E  are  digests  of  my  own  observations  on  roads  and  roadways. 

Oscar  F.  Williams, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Havre,  May  29,  1891. 


ROAD  MAKING  IN  THE  ARRONDISSEMENT  OF  HAVRE. 

[Five  inclosures  in  Consul  Williams'  report,  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E,  viz:  A,  general  questions  and  answers 
as  to  roads  ;  B,  preparation  of  road  before  placing  thereon  any  paving  materials  ;  C,  considerations 
in  road  making  ;  D,  considerations  in  road  keeping ;  E,  general  considerations  of  roads.J 

A.— General  Questions  and  Answers. 

(1)  Do  the  frosts  of  winter  heave  up  and  destroy  your  roads  ?— Answer.  Rarely; 
however,  every  winter  the  frost  does  some  damage  on  roads  to  a  depth  of  about  15 
centimetres  (5.9  inches),  especially  in  the  parts  where  the  subsoil  is  of  a  clayey 
nature. 


EUROPE- 


FRANCE. 


69 


70  STREETS    AND   HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

(2)  What  are  the  legal  requirements,  if  auy,  as  to  width  of  tires  ?— Answer.  Since 
1853  such  regulation  has  been  set  aside. 

(3)  Does  the  weight  of  cart,  truck,  or  load  change  the  requirement  as  to  width  of 
tire  ?— Answer.  Such  regulations  were  set  aside  in  1853. 

(4)  Is  there  a  tax  upon  narrow  tires  or  a  bounty  given  for  use  of  wide  ones! — 
Answer.  No  tax  ;  no  bounty. 

(5)  Are  all  people  and  occupations  permitted  use  of  all  roads  for  loads  of  every 
weight  at  all  times  and  without  tax  ?  If  not,  indicate  exceptions,  restrictions,  and 
tax. — Answer.  Restrictions  can  be  marie  to  regulate  the  use  of  roads  having  great 
declivity  or  imperfect  lines ;  for  extraordinary  damage  a  fine  or  tax  is  collected 
which  goes  toward  the  expense  of  repair.     (Art.  14th,  law  of  21st  May,  1886.) 

(6)  Are  owners  of  abutting  lauds  taxed  for  road  building  and  repairs  ? — Answer. 
No. 

(9)  Are  country  roads  swept  of  dust  and  mud  or  is  the  dust  removed  by  winds  and 
rains? — Answer.     The  road  men  are  obliged  to  take  away  the  dust  and  mud. 

(10)  At  what  distances  apart  are  heaps  of  broken  stone  deposited  for  use  in  re- 
pairs ?— Answer.  The  materials  are  laid  according  to  necessity  per  lots,  1  cubit  metre 
(1,308  cubic  yards)  alternately  from  right  to  left  at  a  distance  of  50  metres  (9,942 
rods),  and  outside  of  the  lines  of  the  road. 

(11)  Will  you  supply  me  a  profile  of  a  road  ?— Answer.  A  type  profile  of  a  road  is 
hereto  annexed.     (An  inclosure.) 

(12)  Supply  me,  if  convenient,  with  brief  general  directions  such  as  furnished  to 
your  under-directors  as  guides  in  making  and  repairing  roads,  as  well  as  for  the 
preparation  of  the  materials  therefor.— (Not  answered  except  as  within.) 

(13)  After  a  new  road  is  completed  is  it  ever  again  entirely  made  new,  or  is  it  per- 
petually maintained  by  repair  of  its  surface  '—Answer.  The  surface  of  the  road  is 
constantly  kept  in  repair. 

(14)  For  what  average  time  in  years  have  the  principal  roads  of  this  portion  of 
France  been  kept  up  by  means  of  scientific  state  supervision  ? — Answer.  Since  1836; 
application  of  the  law  of  May  21,  1836. 

B. — Preparation  of  line  of  road  before  placing  thereon  any  paving  ma- 
terials, etc. 

(A)  Is  it  center-drained  ?— Answer.  No. 

(B)  Is  it  drained  other  than  by  side  ditches  ?— Answer.  Yes,  for  departmental 
roads ;  the  communal  roads  have  no  ditch. 

(C)  Is  the  center  arched,  and  if  so,  to  what  height  above  the  gutter  ?— Answer.  No. 

(D)  What  is  the  usual  width  between  gutters  ?— Answer.  Six  metres  (19.68  feet)  for 
the  departmental  roads.  The  communal  roads  are  of  variable  width,  from  4  to  6 
metres  (13.12  to  19.68  feet)  exclusive  of  ditches. 

(E)  What  incline  is  allowable  ?— Answer.  The  profile  in  length  presents  no  decliv- 
ity above  5  centimetres  per  metre  (equals  1  foot  in  20  feet) ;  the  width  profile  having 
the  form  of  an  arc  of  a  circle  given  a  convexity  of  13  ceutimetres  at  the  axle,  so  1  in 
31  of  the  width. 

(F)  Is  more  than  one  sort  of  paving  material  used;  how  combined  or  placed? — 
Answer.  Generally  the  paving  stones  used  come  from  the  quarries  of  May  St.  Valeny 
en  Caux  or  Cherbourg;  the  paving  stones  are  laid  close  to  each  other  on  a  layer  of 
sand  15  to  20  centimetres  (5.904  to  7.872  inches)  in  thickness. 

(G)  What  is  the  thickness  of  the  paving  coating,  and  how  is  it  compressed  and  to 
what  weight  per  square  centimetre  of  contact  with  roller  or  compress? — Answer.  The 
paving  stones  have  generally  the  folio  wingdimensions,  viz :  Length  24  centimetres  (9.45 
inches), width  17  ceutimetres  (6.69  inches),depth  18  centimetres  (7.08  inches) ;  or,length 
20  centimetres  (7.87  inches),  width  13  centimetres  (5.12  inches),  depth  18  centimetres 
(7.08  iuches).  The  pavement  is  leveled  with  a  beetle,  the  weight  of  which  is  30  kilo- 
grams (66  pounds)  and  which  firmly  imbeds  every  stoue. 


EUROPE — FRANCE.  71 

(H)  What  ia  the  cost  per  cubic  metre  (1.308  cubic  yarda)  of  excavating  soil  for  new 
road8 T— Answer.  For  digging,  shoveling  out,  aud  loading  the  average  is  50  centimes 
(10  cents)  per  cubic  metre  (1.303  cubic  yarda).  The  transport  expenses  are  cal- 
culated by  the  following  formula} : 

Wheelbarrow  :  X  =~ ^ ( *  Cartload  :    X  =  *■■£  ^t" 

Whcelbarrow  :  P  =  price  of  a  day's  work  ;  d  =  transport  distance ;  C  =  cubical  load 
(■sV  cubic  metre) ;  D  =  distance  to  run  with  wheelbarrow  loaded  half  way  ami  emptj 
half  way.  Cartload:  P1  =  hire  of  cart  and  driver;  d  =  transport  distance;  I 
distance  600  to  800  metres  (119.304  to  157.072  rods),  according  to  time  lost  in  loading 
aud  unloading  ;C'=  cubical  load  .7  to  .8  cubic  metre  (.9150  to  1.0464  cubic  yards)  for 
one  horse,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  material ;  P1  =  distance  to  run  with  the 
cart  during  one  day  aud  when  loaded  halfway  and  unloaded  half  way. 

(I)  What  ia  the  cost  per  cubic  metre  (1.308  cubic  yards)  of  breaking  stone  to  suit- 
able size? — Answer.  1.75  francs  ('M  cents). 

(J)  What  is  the  cost  of  the  broken  stone  per  cubic  metre  (1.308  cubic  yards)  placed 
on  the  new  road  ?— Answer.  20  centimes  (4  cents)  for  placing  in  the  prepared  form 
without  roller.     (Note. — Question  evidently  not  fully  understood.) 

(K)  What  is  the  variety  of  stone  so  used  ?— Answer.  Country  flint,  or  the  aand- 
Btoue  of  May  or  Cherbourg. 

(L)  To  what  size  ia  it  broken?  If  more  sizes  than  one  are  used,  give  extreme 
sizes  aud  proportions  of  each  as  used.— Answer.  Uniform  size,  the  minimum  4  centi- 
metres ;  the  maximum  7  centimetres  (that  is  about  1^  iuchos  and  2£  inches). 

(M)  What  material  ia  used  to  bind  the  broken  stone,  and  in  what  manner  and 
wheu  is  such  binding  material  supplied  ?— Answer.  Clay,  saud,  or  earth  from  the  ex- 
cavation when  such  is  suitable.  These  materials  are  put  on  after  the  steam-roller  has 
been  once  over  the  road  and  then  continued  until  complete  aggregation. 

(N)  What  wages  are  paid  per  day  to  common  laborers  employed  iu  road  making, 
and  how  many  hours  constitute  a  day's  work  ?— Answer.  Three  and  a  half  francs  (68 
cents)  for  10  hours'  labor. 

(O)  What  is  the  total  cost  per  kilometre  (198.84  rods)  of  a  section  of  uew  country 
road? — Answer.  Twelve  thousand  francs  (per  kilometre)  for  all  sorts  of  work  which 
concern  the  establishing  of  a  road  like  the  type  profile  hereunto  annexed.  (Note. — 
This  equals  70J  <  ents  per  lineal  foot ;  $11.64  per  lineal  rod  ;  $3,725.64  per  lineal  mile.) 

(P)  What  is  the  average  total  cost  of  such  a  completed  new  road  per  square  metro 
(L.ly6  square  yards)  ? — Answer.  The  above  price  is  to  a  minimum  of  8,000  metres 
(square  per  kilometre  of  road  distance;  aud  gives  1.50  fraucs  (39  cents)  per  square 
metre.     (Note.— This  equals  $7.32  per  square  rod.) 

(Q)  Management  of  road  when  completed,  etc. 

(a)  For  what  length  of  time  after  completion  ia  such  new  road  permitted  t<>  In- 
used  without  rej?air? — Answer.  The  roads  are  immediately  put  under  constant  super- 
vision. 

(&)  In  what  manner  is  its  cost  paid  ;  by  whom  ?— Answer.  The  cost  of  the  depart  - 
mental  roads  is  paid  with  part  of  the  communal  budget  united  with  the  depart  mental 
subsidy  (approved  budget  by  the  general  council). 

The  communal  roads  are  paid  for  from  an  appropriation  from  taxes  collected  In 
the  locality.     (Approved  budget  by  the  municipal  council.) 

(c)  In  what  manner  are  repairs  paid  ;  by  whom  ? — Answer.  The  same  answer  as 
paragraph  (6). 

(.d)  What  ia  the  average  annual  cost  for  repairs  of  such  a  road  per  square  metre  I 
Answer.  Departmental  roads,  in  country,  10  centimes  (2  cents) ;  in  town,  17  centimes 
(3£cents);  communal  roads,  ti  centimes  (l\   emits).     These  prices   include  sweeping, 
removing  mud,  watering  materials,  and  the  maintenance!  of  all  works.  (NOTS 


72  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

age  yearly  expense  of  repair  equals  departmental  roads.  In  country,  $248.48.  In 
town,  $422.41.     Communal  roads,  $149.09  per  mile  of  road  the  widtb  as  considered. ) 

(e)  What  length  of  such  road  can  one  man  keep  in  repair  throughout  the  entire 
year? — Answer.  Departmental  roads,  4,000  metres  (2.485  miles).  Communal  roads, 
8,000  metres  (4.97  miles). 

(/)  What  yearly  wages  does  such  a  man  receive,  he  boarding  himself  ?— Answer. 
The  road  men  are  employed  10  months  per  year,  at  an  annual  salary  of  650  francs 
($125.45). 

(g)  How  many  hours  per  day  does  he  work? — Answer.  Ten  hours'  labor. 

(h)  How  many  days  of  the  year  does  he  actually  work  on  the  road  ? — Answer.  Two 
hundred  aud  fifty  days  of  labor  (two  mouths'  leave  of  absence  during  harvest  time). 

(i)  In  what  manner  are  the  road  engineers,  su  perintendents,  assistants,  and  work- 
men chosen? — Answer.  The  engineers,  agents,  clerks,  etc.,  are  chosen  by  compe- 
tition. The  road  men  and  superintendents  are  generally  chosen  from  among  country- 
men who  know  all  about  this  kind  of  work. 

(j)  How  much  are  they  severally  paid,  how  long  do  they  ser^e,  and  by  whom  are 
they  paid  ? — Answer.  The  service  organization.  One  chief  trustee  of  roads  to  the  chief 
town  of  the  department  ;  one  trustee  of  roads  to  the  chief  town  of  the  neighborhood; 
one  trustee  of  roads  to  the  principal  district  of  the  neighborhood ;  one  brigadier  per 
brigade  of  ten  roadmen  to  superintend  40  kilometres  (24.8548  miles)  of  road.  This 
gang  has  to  do  all  that  is  required  for  the  communal  roads.  The  employed  are  paid 
from  funds  explained  above.  Salaries  are  as  follows,  viz:  Chief  trustee  of  roads,  yearly 
salary  is  10,000  francs  ($1,930)  :  trustees  of  roads,  neighborhood,  salary  5,000  francs 
($965)  per  year ;  trustee  of  roads  of  district,  2,000  to  3,200  francs  ($386  to  $617.60)  per 
year;  employ6s,  agents,  1,200  to  1,800  francs  ($£31.60  to  $347.40)  per  year;  chief  road 
men,  900  francs  ($173.70)  per  year.  Indemnity  of  residence  and  office  expenses  are 
paid  according  to  the  importance  of  the  locality.  The  employed  have  a  pension  after 
30  years  of  service. 

C— Considerations  in  road  making. 

(1)  The  perpetual  advantage  of  an  easy  grade  should  be  secured  at  the  beginning. 

(2)  Straight  lines  are  best  and  on  like  grades  are  cheapest ;  it  is  economy,  however,  to 
secure  easy  grades  at  the  expense  of  straight  lines  where  such  grade  is  otherwise  un- 
obtainable, because  the  perpetual  advantage  to  all  users  of  the  road  more  than  off- 
sets the  disadvantage  to  the  land  owner  from  ill-shapen  fields. 

(3)  Capacious  middle  blind  drains  in  all  roads  will  dry  the  soil  in  summer  and 
minimize  the  damage  by  frost  in  winter. 

(4)  Side  drains  should  never  be  omitted.. 

(5)  If  natural  soil  of  road  be  arched  at  center  its  drainage  will  be  easier. 

(6)  All  stones  liable  to  disintegrate  the  road  surface  should  be  rejected. 

(7)  Comparatively  large  cost  is  unavoidable ;  cheaply  made  roads  will  prove  the 
most  expensive  roads. 

(8)  Material  should  be  carefully  selected,  durability  and  cheapness  when  prepared 
being  first  considered ;  then  by  using  local  stone  local  labor  may  be  employed,  and  so 
by  outlay  for  stone  and  labor  each  locality  will  to  an  extent  be  benefited  directly  by 
the  distribution  of  the  money  cost  of  the  road  in  such  locality. 

(9)  The  common  field  bowlder,  more  or  less  a  nuisance  on  American  farms,  is  of  a 
strength  and  durability  equal  to  the  average  quarry  stone;  both  its  purchase  and 
removal  would  benefit  the  farmer  and  its  preparation  would  benefit  the  local  laborer, 
and  thus  go  far  to  reconcile  both  to  the  expense  of  the  improved  road. 

(10)  Every  county  should  own  and  operate  at  least  one  steam  road-roller. 

(11)  Road  sweepings,  except  manure,  and  common  sand  and  clay  make  suitable 
binding  material  over  broken  stone. 

(12)  In  making  a  new  road  wetting  down  or  sprinkling  has  been  proven  injurious; 
such  practice  is  wise  in  repair,  as  then  the  binding  material  is  solidified  while  the 
water  does  not  penetrate  the  surface  coatiug  to  soften  or  weaken  it. 


EUROPE FRANCE.  73 

D.— Considerations  in  road  keeping. 

(1)  Repair  should  never  be  dolayed. 

(2)  Scientific  supervision  is  essential. 

(3)  Wetting  down  aids  repair  by  helping  the  new  added  material  to  adhere  to  the 
old. 

(4)  For  repair,  especially  of  large  areas,  as  well  as  for  construction,  a  steam  roller 
effects  great  economy. 

(5)  The  use  of  wide  tires  should  be  encouraged  either  by  bounty  on  such  or  by  tax 
on  narrow  ones. 

(6)  Four-wheeled  freighting  vehicles  should  not  track;  the  hind  wheels  should  roll 
outside  the  track  of  the  fore  wheels. 

(7)  Local  tax  for  maintenance  tends  to  prevent  local  misuse,  promotes  local  super- 
vision, and  prompts  repair. 

(8)  Our  people  may,  in  order  to  equitably  adjust  cost  of  road,  fix  a  tax  upon  their 
use  so  that  he  who  drives  much  and  owns  little  assessed  property  may  pay  a  just  share 
for  the  road  he  uses. 

E.— General  considerations  of  roads. 

(1)  Increase  of  railroad  mileage  seems  to  lessen  local  interest  in  highways,  but  it 
should  not  be  forgotten  that  nearly  all  railroad  freight  has  been  previously  carted 
over  highways. 

(2)  As  steam  road  engines  become  more  in  vogue,  roads  and  bridges  should  be 
strengthened  accordingly. 

(3)  As  bicycles  and  other  "  wheels"  become  used  by  business  men,  roads  should  be 
fitted  therefor  to  every  reasonable  extent. 

(4)  The  use  of  springs  on  freight  wagons  greatly  diminishes  the  jolt  or  falling  force 
inroad  depressions,  prevents  ruts,  and  preserves  roads. 

(5)  The  effects  of  wheels  of  large  diameter  and  width  of  tire  is  to  greatly  diminish 
spot  pressure,  and  the  breakiug  of  the  road  surface  is  thus  obviated. 

(6)  The  reduction  of  cost  of  transit  of  persons  and  freight  by  lower  prices  for  liv- 
eries and  for  hauling  would  be  beneficial,  and  as  transportation  is  a  large  element  of 
cost  to  every  one  not  a  producer,  good  roads  would  much  cheapen  living. 

(7)  The  cost  of  transporting  products  or  of  hauling  to  market  is  by  tenfold  the  high- 
est tax  now  paid  by  our  farmers  and  hucksters. 

(8)  The  cost  of  highway  transportation  over  the  properly  built  roads  of  France 
does  not  exceed  one- third  the  like  expense  in  the  United  States,  it  being  common 
in  the  rural  districts  of  France  to  haul  3  tons,  and  in  the  cities  from  3  to  5  tons,  net 
freight,  with  one  horse. 

(9)  In  this  way  the  good  road  saves  the  farmer  each  year  much  more  than  its  cost, 
and  we  may  ignore  the  increased  pleasure  in  its  use. 

(10)  If  2  horses  haul  the  load  of  4, 1  wagon  of  2, 1  set  of  harness  of  2, 1  driver  serve  for 
2,  and  if  6  miles  instead  of  3  be  passed  per  hour,  the  aggregate  saving  would  doable 
the  net  income  of  the  average  huckster  or  farmer. 

(11)  Land  values  are  increased  by  improved  roads.  This  effects  1st.  Increased  as- 
sessment and  taxes  on  lands  abutting  because  most  benefited.  2d.  This  increased 
assessment  reduces  per  cent,  of  tax  and  *ax  on  lands  not  abutting,  and  which  are 
hence  less  benefited. 


74  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

BOUCHES-DU-RH6NE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  TRAIL,  OF  MARSEILLES. 
HISTORY   OF   FRENCH  PUBLIC   ROADS. 

The  history  of  public  roads  in  Frauce  dates  back  to  the  Eoman  occu- 
pation. So  solidly  did  the  .Romans  construct  them  that  parts  of  a  few 
of  them  are  still  to  be  found  in  a  good  state  of  preservation.  They 
were  made  by  the  Roman  generals  to  facilitate  the  rapid  movement  of 
their  large  armies.  Thus  the  first  roads  made  in  France  were  for  mili- 
tary purposes  solely,  and  this  object  has  never  been  lost  sight  of;  so 
that,  although  in  modern  times  their  use  as  the  means  of  communica- 
tion for  the  people  accouuts  for  their  great  and  increasing  number,  it 
is  largely  owing  to  their  military  character  that  the  French  Govern- 
ment expends  the  enormous  sums  it  does  yearly  on  the  national  roads. 

After  the  Romans  were  driven  out  of  France  there  is  nothing  to  note 
on  the  subject  of  roads  until  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  This  monarch 
bad  several  fine  roads  made  in  the  environs  of  Paris  for  his  personal 
use  and  pleasure.  They  were  very  wide,  probably  so  laid  out  from  sim- 
ple ostentation,  and  paved  only  in  the  center  for  the  royal  coaches. 
Shortly  after  the  construction  of  these  royal  roads  the  nation  began  to 
appreciate  the  advantage  of  paved  ways,  as  the  use  of  vehicles  was 
becoming  more  general,  and  the  commencement  was  then  begun  by  the 
French  people  of  the  magnificent  network  of  public  roads  now  to  be 
seen  covering  the  whole  of  France,  and  not  equaled  by  any  other  coun- 
try in  the  world.  The  roads  of  Louis  XIV  were  made  for  the  king  by 
means  of  the  corvees  exacted  from  the  peasants.  At  the  present  time 
they  are  for  the  peasants  by  means  of  subsidies  and  heavy  taxes  exacted 
from  the  government  and  the  public.  Thecorv6e  has  degenerated  into 
the  three  days  of  prestation.  At  the  present  time  the  public-road  sys- 
tem in  France  is  a  luxury  which  the  people  can  ill  afford;  but  the  peas- 
ant who  derives  the  greatest  benefit  from  it  uses  his  political  influence 
not  only  to  see  that  the  roads  already  made  are  maintained,  but  to  cause 
the  construction  of  new  ones  that  are  little  needed. 

There  are  five  classes  of  French  public  roads :  (1)  The  national  high- 
ways; (2)  the  departmental  highways;  (3)  the  chemins  vicinaux  (coun- 
try roads)  de  graude  communication,  maintained  by  the  department 
under  the  direction  of  the  conseil-g£n6ral ;  (4)  the  chemins  vicinaux 
d'interet  commun,  maintained  by  the  group  of  communes  interested, 
and  (5)  the  chemins  vicinaux  ordinaires,  at  the  charge  of  each  com- 
mune. 

The  highways  are  under  the  geueral  control  of  the  department  of 
public  works,  which  has  an  agent  voyer  in  each  department  (state)  to 
superintend  all  that  concerns  roads  and  bridges. 

The  five  classes  of  roads  finished  in  1867  had  a  length  of  323,400  kilo- 
metres, and  of  unfinished  roads  there  were  281,100  kilometres. 


EUROPE FRANCE.  75 

The  average  outlay  or  first  cost  per  kilometre  for  these  roads  was : 
for  those  of  the  first  class,  20,000  francs;  second  class,  15,000  francs; 
third  class,  10,000  francs ;  4th  class,  5,500  francs ;  fifth  class,  4,000 
francs ;  and  the  average  cost  of  maintenance  per  annum  per  kilometre 
for  the  five  classes  was,  for  the  first  class,  GOO  francs;  second  class, 
450  francs;  third  class,  306  francs  ;  fourth  class,  190  francs;  fifth  class, 
140  francs. 

So  much  for  France  at  large.  Three  notes  are  added  concerning  the 
subject  in  the  department  des  Bouehes-duRhoiie,  and  three  sectional 
drawings  of  roads  in  different  parts  of  France. 

DEPARTMENT  DES  BONCHFS-DU-Rn6NE. 

The  Department  des  Bouches-du-Rhdne  is  about  the  size  of  the  State 
of  Delaware,  with  a  population  of  604,857.  More  than  half  this  num- 
ber, 370,143,  are  in  the  city  of  Marseilles.  The  population  of  Delaware 
is  about  168,000,  and  of  this  number  43,000  are  in  Wilmington.  The 
density  of  population  for  the  Bouches-du-Rhone  is  119  to  the  square 
kilometre,  while  that  of  Delaware  is  32  to  the  square  kilometre. 

The  annual  expenditure  for  maintaining  the  highways  and  country 
roads  in  the  Department  is  $456,000.  This  does  not  include  the  streets 
of  Marseilles.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  the  annual  expenditure 
of  Delaware  on  roads. 

According  to  Adolphe  Joanne  there  were  in  1886  in  the  Department 
4,329  kilometres  as  means  of  communication,  to  wit: 

Kilometres. 

17  lines  of  railway 4l;j 

5  national  highways 284 

20  departmental  highways 41U 

Country  roads: 

Chemins  vicinaux  degrande  communication 878£ 

Chemins  d'interet  commun B50 

Chemins  vicinaux  ordinaires 1,3524 

1  navigable  river  (Rhone) 85 

3  canals  for  navigation 56 

COUNTRY  ROADS.* 

In  the  Bouches-du-Rhone,  as  in  all  the  departments  of  France,  there 
are,  besides  the  national  and  department  highways,  country  or  village 
roads,  divided  into  three  classes  according  to  their  importance:  (1)  Les 
chemins  de  grande  communication;  (2)  les  chemins  d'interet  commun  ; 
(3)  les  chemins  vicinaux  ordinaires  ou  de  petite  communication. 

All  these  roads  are  made  with  layers  of  stone  broken  very  small  after 
the  formula  of  MacAdam,  and  maintained  by  the  application  of  new- 
beds  of  broken  limestone.     The  level  of  the  roadbed  is  kept  up  by  the 
constant  use  of  the  same  material  in  filling  in  the  anevennesfi 
irregularities  that  occur. 

*  Tlio  information  in  regard  to  country  roads  was  kindly  given  to  me  l>y  the  prefect 
of  this  department. — C.  13.  T. 


76  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  road  superintendents  make  tbe  necessary  repairs  and  look  after 
the  materials  to  be  employed.  The  section  of  road  that  each  one  has 
under  his  charge  varies  in  length  according  to  the  importance  of  the 
road  from  5  to  10  kilometres  (or  from  nearly  3  miles  to  6£  miles). 

Generally  speaking  the  roads  are  made  and  maintained  with  the  ma- 
terials nearest  at  hand,  and  of  these  limestone  is  preferred. 

The  cost  of  road  making  in  the  Bouches-du-Kh6ne  is  on  the  average 
per  linear  yard,  for  les  chemins  de  grande  communication,  10  francs; 
les  chemins  d'in6tret  commuu,  8  francs ;  les  chemins  de  petite  com- 
munication, 6  francs,  50  centimes. 

The  chemins  de  grande  communication  have  a  total  length  of  1,108 
kilometres  140  metres  cor  about  700  miles),  of  which  999  kilometres  977 
metres  are  in  a  perfeet  condition,  and  108  kilometres  163  metres  open 
for  travel,  but  work  on  them  not  completed.  They  necessitate  an 
annual  outlay  of  578,000  francs  ($115,600),  or  52  centimes  (10  cents)  per 
linear  metre. 

The  chemins  d'interet  commun  have  a  total  length  of  944  kilometres 
468  metres,  of  which  756  kilometres  259  metres  are  in  perfect  condition, 
and  188  kilometres  209  metres  open  for  travel,  but  work  on  them  not 
completed.  Their  maintenance  causes  an  annual  expenditure  of  256,500 
francs,  or  27  centimes  (5  cents)  per  linear  metre. 

The  chemins  de  petite  communication  have  a  total  length  of  1,012 
kilometres  413  metres,  of  which  342  kilometres  442  metres  are  in  per- 
fect condition,  and  669  kilometres  971  metres  open  for  travel,  but  not 
completed.  On  these  the  sum  of  351,80  0  francs  is  annually  expended, 
or  34  centimes  (7  cents)  per  linear  metre.  The  commune  of  Marseilles 
alone  expends  on  the  chemins  de  petite  communication  250,000  francs 
per  annum. 

It  is  certaiu  that  the  effect  of  improved  public  roads  has  been  to 
increase  land  values ;  but  from  the  lack  of  statistics  on  this  subject, 
there  is  no  way  of  estimating  just  what  this  increased  value  may  be. 

The  chemins  vicinaux  de  grande  communication  and  those  of  intOet 
commun  are  made  with  the  communal  funds  aud  the  department  sub- 
sidies, and  in  certain  cases  the  national  government  also  subsidizes 
these  roads.  The  making  of  the  chemins  de  petite  communication  is 
left  to  the  charge  of  the  communes,  which  are  authorized  to  impose  an 
extra  tax  of  3  centimes  for  this  purpose  to  the  principal  of  the  four 
direct  taxes.*  The  government  and  department  also  subsidize  these 
roads. 

As  for  their  maintenance,  this  is  provided  for  with  special  funds 
voted  by  the  communes  aud  the  department.  The  department  imposes 
an  extra  tax  of  7  centimes  to  the  four  direct  taxes,  and  the  communes 

*  The  four  direct  taxes:  Les  quatre  contributions  directes;  sa  voir ;  la  contribution 
fouciere;  la  contribution  des  porteset  feuetres;  la  contribution  person nelle-mobiliere ; 
et  la  contribution  des  patentee. 


EUROPE — FRANCE.  77 

5  centimes  and  3  days  of  prestation.*  The  maintenance  of  the  ehe- 
inins  de  grande  communication  et  d'interet  commune  absorbs  the  7  cen- 
times from  the  department,  two-thirds  of  the  5  centimes  from  the  com- 
mune, and  2  days  of  prestation.  This  leaves  for  the  chemins  de  petite 
communication  one-third  of  the  5  centimes  from  the  commune  and  1 
day  of  prestation. 

HIGHWAYS.t 

In  the  Bouches-du-Rhdue  the  highways  are  paved  or  macadamized. 
Paving  is  used  only  where  the  traffic  is  very  heavy  or  where  the  mac- 
adam would  be  difficult  to  keep  in  good  condition  and,  consequently,  too 
onerous.  In  some  sections  where  the  winds  are  very  violent,  the  mac- 
adam has  been  found  to  be  very  objectionable  on  account  of  the  dust 
and  its  wearing  away  rapidly  when  subjected  to  violent  winds  that 
blow  continually  for  a  certain  length  of  time. 

The  paving  is  maintained  in  one  of  two  ways.  When  the  defect  is 
only  a  slight  one  it  is  remedied  by  simply  pickiug  out  a  few  blocks,  re- 
leveling  the  bed,  and  resetting  the  same  blocks;  but  when  the  damage 
is  considerable  and  the  road  has  been  worn  into  ruts  from  rough  and 
heavy  use,  the  entire  defective  section  is  taken  up  and  repaved  with 
the  same  care  given  the  original  paving. 

The  macadam  is  maintained  by  constantly  filling  up  any  slight  de- 
pression with  the  small  broken  stone  in  order  to  keep  the  level  and  to 
favor  the  regular  use  of  the  road.  When  the  road  is  worn  down  quite 
thin  an  entirely  new  bed  of  stone  is  spread  over  it  and  pressed  down 
and  worked  in  by  means  of  heavy  rollers. 

In  the  Bouehes  du-Rhone  the  national  highways  have  a  length  of 
283  kilometres  848  metres.  Over  these  pass  daily,  on  an  average, 
688  horses.  The  annual  expense  for  their  maintenance  amounts  to 
702,120  francs.  The  department  highways  are  413  kilometres  174 
metres  in  length,  and  the  daily  travel  on  them  amounts  to  232  horses, 
and  for  their  maintenance  391,470  francs  are  expended  annually. 

These  highways  are  kept  up  by  means  of  funds  provided  for  in  the 
budgets  of  the  national  government  and  the  department.  There  is  no 
prestation  for  these  highways  as  there  is  for  the  country  roads. 

STREETS  OF  MARSEILLES,  f 

In  Marseilles  the  streets  in  which  the  traffic  is  heavy  are  paved  with 
porphyry  from  the  quarries  of  St.  Raphael,  situated  about  a  hundred  miles 
to  the  east  of  Marseilles.  This  stone  forms  a  very  hard  pavement  that 
resists  wear  very  well,  but  it  has  the  inconvenience  of  becoming  very 

*  Prestation  :  The  3  days  of  work  ou  the  roads  that  every  proprietor,  fanner,  etc., 
is  required  to  give  free. — C.  B.  T. 
tFrom  information  kindly  supplied  l»y  the  prefeoi  of  the  Department  of  Bouohea- 

tlu-Rhdne.— C.  B.  T. 
t  From  information  kindly  supplied  by  tho  mayor  of  Marseilles.— C.  B.  T. 


78  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

smooth  ami  slippery  with  constant  use,  and  this  can  only  be  obviated 
to  a  small  extent  by  using  small  stones,  i.  e.,  cutting  the  squares  down 
to  small  dimensions,  in  order  to  have  numerous  joints. 

The  streets  in  which  traffic  is  light  are  paved  with  a  stone  called 
"  Gr^s  de  la  Ciotat,"  a  hard  kind  of  sandstone  from  the  quarries  of  La 
Ciotat,  situated  about  30  miles  to  the  east  of  Marseilles.  Tbis  stone  re- 
sists wear  in  lesser  degree  than  porphyry  (proportion  1  to  3.30),  but 
not  becoming  smooth  and  slippery  so  easily,  is  used  also  wherever  a 
steep  incline  in  the  street  occurs. 

Where  an  incline  exceeds  7  per  cent,  the  streets  are  macadamized. 
Side  streets,  where  traffic  is  very  light,  and  cross  streets,  are  also  mac- 
adamized. 

The  macadam  is  composed  of  a  layer  of  about  25  centimetres  thick 
(8£  inches)  of  calcareous  stones,  broken  to  2  to  6  centimetres,  from  the 
quarries  around  Marseilles,  and  a  thin  layer  of  light  quarry  waste  as 
surface  binding  material,  the  whole  firmly  compressed  by  steam  rollers. 

The  cost  of  a  street  paved  with  porphyry  amounts  to  1G  to  18 
francs  per  square  metre  (say  $3  to  $3.50  per  square  yard),  according  to 
the  size  of  the  paving  stomes,  including  cost  of  all  materials  and  labor. 
The  cost  of  a  street  paved  with  La  Ciotat  sandstone  amounts  to  13  francs 
(say  $2.50)  per  square  yard,  including  materials  and  labor.  The  cost 
of  maintaining  paved  streets  averages  65  centimes  per  square  metre 
per  annum  (say  13  cents  per  square  yard  per  annum),  but  reaches  2.50 
francs  (50  cents)  in  streets  where  traffic  is  the  heaviest. 

The  cost  of  St.  Raphael  porphyry  stone  delivered  in  the  city  of  Mar- 
seilles is,  crude  (rough  hewn),  11  francs  ($2.10),  and  cut  to  proper  dimen- 
sions 13.20  francs  ($2.55)  per  square  yard;  that  of  La  Ciotat  sand- 
stone, crude,  6.60  francs  ($1.28),  and  cut,  7.92  francs  ($1.55)  per  square 
yard. 

The  cost  of  macadamized 'roads  is  as  follows:  The  calcareous  stones, 
broken  and  ready  for  use,  cost  6  francs  ($1.16)  per  cubic  metre,  and  the 
cost  of  a  road  made  of  such  stones,  iucluding  layer  of  light  stones, 
rolling,  and  all  labor,  amounts  to  2.5S  francs  (52  cents)  per  square  yard. 
But  as  the  macadamized  streets  of  Marseilles  are  generally  bordered 
on  each  side  with  paving  stones  of  La  Ciotat  sandstone,  forming  a 
shallow  gutter  about  2  feet  6  inches  broad,  in  order  that  running  water 
should  not  wash  the  sides  away,  the  cost  of  such  a  macadamized  street 
of  20  feet  breadth,  exclusive  of  sidewalks,  amounts  to  5.09  francs  ($1) 
per  square  yard.  The  cost  of  maintaining  a  macadamized  street  aver- 
ages 19  centimes  for  the  materials  and  14  centimes  for  labor,  say  33 
centimes  in  all,  per  square  metre  per  annum  (6£  cents  per  square  yard 
per  annum),  but  reaches  1.65  francs  (33  cents)  for  streets  that  are  very 
frequented. 

The  city  streets  are  maintained  exclusively  by  the  city  funds  (the  city 
budget),  and  no  special  tax  is  levied  for  them,  unlike  village  and  coun- 
try roads  (chemins  vicinaux),  for  which  an  additional  fax  is  collected. 


EUROPE — FRANCE. 


79 


The  foregoing  estimates  of  cost  do  not  include  the  value  of  the  land 
occupied  by  the  public  streets,  as  same  is  too  varied  to  be  given  accu- 
rately. 

The  following  notes  are  sectional  drawings  of  a  national  highway,  a 
departmental  highway,  and  a  country  road. 

C.  B.  Trail, 

Conxul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Marseilles.  March  4,  1891. 


ymOJt&JOj 3.50_  _  _  \j  _  _3^45_  _  I  _  3A5_  _   n_  _  3.50 


0.50075(1*50^ 


.■ction  Route  Nationals.  No.  138.  Department  of  Eure.    (Measures  and  heights  given  in  metres, 


LOO  QSyojiO^ 

Section.  Route  Departeinentale,  No.  18,  Basses-Pyrenees,     (Measures  given  In  metres.) 


r  _  _  -$$K-  -  --^-T—l  -  AQ&-  i  L  -  ?-°P_ i 


2.00  {        2.09    >,  pj'o.sp* 


Section  ,,1  Cbemin  \  iciii.tl.  Seine  <  t-oi ,.-.     i  Measures  given  in  metres.) 


80  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

COGNAC. 
REPORT  OF  CONSUL  PRESTON. 

In  France  there  are  three  kiuds  of  public  roads :  (1)  The  grand  roads 
of  the  state,  which  are  maintained  at  the  cost  of  the  state  by  a  special 
tax;  (2)  the  departmental  roads,  or  roads  of  the  departments  leading 
from  one  principal  town  to  another,  are  maintained  at  the  expense  of 
the  departments,  also  provided  for  by  a  special  tax ;  (3)  the  commu- 
nal roads  and  streets  of  the  communes,  or  cities  and  villages,  are  also 
provided  for  by  a  special  tax  on  tl^e  inhabitants.  Some  of  the  city 
streets  are  paved  with  Belgian  pavement,  square  blocks  of  stone;  oth- 
ers are  macadamized  simply  by  covering  with  broken  stone,  which  is 
soon  worn  down  smooth  by  passing  carriages,  making  a  very  perfect 
roadway. 

In  the  country  it  is  permitted  to  the  inhabitants  to  make  these 
roads  themselves  instead  of  paying  a  tax.  In  this  district  there  is 
plenty  of  soft  stone  found  along  the  roads,  which,  being  broken  up  and 
spread  over  the  roads  once  a  year,  generally  in  the  fall,  keep  the  roads 
in  perfect  order.  I  have  never  seen  better  country  roads  anywhere. 
The  expense  is  trifling,  the  stone  being  found  on  the  spot,  and  the  day 
laborers'  wages  being  small,  say  2  to  2.50  francs  per  day. 

The  effect  of  good  public  roads  upon  land  values  is  of  course  to  in- 
crease the  value  of  such  lands,  to  what  extent  I  am  unable  to  say,  as 
the  roads  all  over  the  country,  as  far  as  my  experience  goes,  are  in  per- 
fect condition. 

The  country  being  so  thickly  settled,  good  roads  are  indispensable. 
I  regret  that  I  am  unable  to  give  any  more  particular  information. 

Wm.  S.  Preston, 

Consul, 

United  States  Consulate, 

Cognac,  December  17,  1890. 


DEPARTMENT  DU   NORD. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  ATWELL,  OF  ROUBAIX. 
COUNTRY  ROADS. 

In  France  roads  may  be  classed  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  as 
follows : 

1.  National  roads. — These  are  the  great  arteries  of  the  system,  and 
connect  the  most  distant  points  of  the  country.  They  are  the  property 
of  the  government,  by  which  they  are  constructed  and  maintained. 

2.  Department  roads. — These  connect  different  points  of  the  same 
department  or  of  two  adjoining  departments.  These  roads  belong  to 
the  department  through  which  they  run,  and  are  constructed  and  main- 
tained by  funds  appropriated  by  the  department. 


EUROPE — FRANCE.  81 

3.  Highways. — Highways  belong  to  the  township  or  commune  which 
they  traverse.  In  theory  these  roads  are  built  by  the  commune,  but  in 
point  of  fact  they  are  made  and  repaired  by  the  department  from  taxes 
levied  on  the  commune,  supplemented  by  a  department  subsidy.  In 
the  department  du  Nord  this  subsidy  amouuts  to  two-thirds  of  the  cost 
of  the  maintenance  of  the  road. 

4.  Public  roads,  the  property  of  the  commune  through  which  they 
run,  are  made  and  repaired  by  the  department  in  which  the  commune 
is  situated  from  assessments  on  the  commune  and  by  a  department  sub- 
sidy. In  the  department  du  Nord  the  commune  bears  only  one  half 
the  cost  of  repairs.  The  com  mou  council  establishes  the  rate  and  dis- 
tribution of  assessments  for  the  purpose  of  building  uew  roads. 

5.  Crossroads. — These  are  maintained  by  sums  derived  from  the  ordi- 
nary revenues  of  the  commune,  ud  when  necessary  by  additional  tax- 
ation authorized  by  law.  In  a  >ecial  cases  the  department  makes  a 
grant  from  funds  appropriated  f6j  the  maintenance  of  crossroads.  The 
cost  of  building  these  roads  is  divided  between  the  department  and  the 
commune,  the  department  assuming  four-fifths  of  the  indebtedness,  the 
remaining  fifth  being  a  charge  against  the  commune. 

6.  Country  roads. — These  are  kept  in  condition  by  the  commune. 
When  they  are  impaired  by  unusual  traffic  the  town  administration 
may  claim  an  indemnity,  which,  in  case  of  disagreement,  is  established 
by  a  commission  named  by  the  department. 

Construction. — These  roads  are  inalienable  and  imprescriptible.  Pub- 
lic roads  in  general  have  a  central  roadway,  the  minimum  width  of 
which  must  be  3  metres  or  3  yards  9  inches,  bordered  when  necessary 
by  lateral  ditches.  They  are  either  of  broken  stone  or  of  paving 
blocks.  Wherever  traffic  is  heavy  blocks  are  employed  ;  they  rest  upon 
a  foundation  of  gravel,  broken  brick  and  glass,  slag  and  sharp  sand, 
the  depth  of  which  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  upon  which  it 
is  superposed.  In  a  soil  of  sandy  clay,  like  that  of  Koubaix,  the  foun- 
dation is  from  10  to  12  inches  in  depth.  The  paving  in  use  in  this 
department  is  usually  Belgian  porphyry-granite  from  the  Vosges  and 
Brittany,  and  the  different  stones  from^the  north,  east,  and  northeast 
of  France.  The  price  per  surface  yard  varies  with  the  material  em- 
ployed. 

Macadam  roads,  built  wherever  travel  is  light  or  wherever  the  cost  of 
transporting  the  material  would  increase  the  cost  of  the  road  to  too 
great  an  extent,  cousist  of  a  layer  of  crushed  material  from  1.4  to  2£ 
inches  in  depth,  resting  upon  a  foundation  like  that  already  described. 
This  is  packed  down  by  steam  rollers  weighing  from  10  to  15  tons. 
Under  favorable  conditions  this  road  is  rapidly  made,  is  durable, and 
costs  little  for  repairs. 

CITY  STREETS. 

These  are  classified  and  private  ;  the  former  belong  to  the  oity  and 
are  constructed  and  maintained  by  the  city;  the  seeond  are   the   prop- 
33a Q 


82  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

erty  of  private  individuals,  who  are  compelled  by  law  to  keep  them  in 
good  condition. 

In  the  town  of  Eoubaix  macadam  is  employed  for  light  travel  and 
paving  blocks  for  heavy  traffic.  The  sidewalks  are  of  sandstone  and 
granite  blocks  or  of  cement  or  asphalt  blocks. 

The  broken  stone  or  macadam  roads  have  a  foundation  of  furnace 
refuse  or  broken  brick  from  10  to  12  inches  in  depth.  Upon  this  is  a 
layer  of  silicious  gravel  from  St.  Oiner,  or,  better  still,  broken  porphyry 
from  the  Belgian  quarries,  worth  $2.56  the  cubic  metre.  The  average 
price  of  macadam  roads  maybe  estimated  at  $1  the  surface  metre.  The 
work  of  repairing  is  met  by  a  general  assessment  and  is  relatively  high 
in  Roubaix  on  account  of  the  defective  manner  of  construction  owing 
to  the  employment  of  rollers  of  too  little  power. 

Paved  streets  are  upon  a  foundation  like  the  above,  about  10  inches 
in  depth  and  worth  38  cents,  American  value,  the  cubic  metre;  this 
foundation  is  covered  by  a  layer  of  sand  4  inches  deep,  at  $1.14  the 
cubic  metre ;  paving  blocks  are  then  pounded  into  position  by  a  paving 
beetle  weighing  10  kilograms.  The  material  in  use  in  Roubaix  comes 
from  the  granite  quarries,  situated  in  Pas-de-Calais,  Ardennes,  and  in 
the  neighbor  hood  of  the  Oise  and  Vosges.  Theprice  per  surface  metre 
may  be  estimated  at  about  $2.09. 

These  paved  streets  are  kept  in  condition  by  taking  them  up  in  part 
or  whole.  As  a  rule,  the  blocks  keep  their  place  well  and  where  there 
is  a  slight  depression  workmen  are  employed  to  raise  the  block  and  put 
sand  underneath ;  when  the  depression  is  general,  the  street  is  torn  up 
and  remade  upon  a  new  foundation.  In  the  first  instance,  the  work- 
man receives  a  trifle  less  than  3  cents,  American  value,  the  square  yard; 
in  the  second,  he  is  paid  9  cents  per  square  yard.  The  materials  are 
estimated  apart  and  paid  by  the  cubic  metre. 

For  the  above  information  I  am  indebted  to  the  supervisor  of  streets 
and  engineer  of  roads  and  bridges. 

VY.  P.  Atwell, 
Commercial  A  (jent. 

United  States  Commercial  Agency, 

Roubaix,  February  2,  1891. 


NANTES    DISTRICT. 

REPORT  BY  ACTING  OOSSVL  BENXETT. 
COUNTRY  ROADS   OR  HIGHWAYS. 

The  routes,  country  roads,  or  highways  of  this  consular  district  are 
most  excellent  and  well  worthy  of  study  and  imitation.  They  are  made 
for  heavy  or  light  traffic,  are  as  smooth  as  asphalt,  and  nearly  as  solid 
and  durable  as  granite.    It  has  evidently  required  many  years  of  toil 


EUROPE FRANCE. 


83 


and  experience  to  arrive  at  the  state  of  semi  perfection  In  which  we  find 
the  roads  at  present,  but  notwithstanding  the  time  required  and  labor 
expended  the  results  are  most  satisfactory. 

Each  state  or  department  has  charge  of  its  own  highways,  the  con- 
struction aud  maintenance  of  which  is  confided  to  a  chief  surveyor  of 
the  highways,  who  is  under  the  direct  authority  of  the  prefect  of  the 
department.  There  are  two  or  three  classes  of  roads,  the  making  of 
each  being  essentially  the  same,  varying  only  as  to  width  and  as  to 
details  of  maintenance.  For  the  practical  purposes  of  this  study  we 
will  class  them  as  two  only,  the  large  national  or  departmental  routes, 
aud  the  vicinal  or  rural  roads  connecting  village  with  village,  or  mak- 
ing connection  with  the  large  national  thoroughfares.  The  depart- 
mental routes  are  8  metres  in  width,  the  rural  roads  6  only;  the  mak- 
ing of  the  two  roads  is  the  same,  but  the  maintenance  of  the  national 
roads  is  often  the  more  carefully  attended  to. 

The  methods  adopted  in  this  consular  district  for  the  making  of  roads 
are  briefly  as  follows :  After  the  survey  and  tracing  of  the  line,  the 
ground  is  carefully  leveled  and  graded  as  much  as  is  possible  to  avoid 
too  abrupt  ascents  and  descents.  If  a  wide  road  of  8  metres  is  being 
made,  a  trench  4  metres  in  width  and  7  or  8  inches  deep  will  be  exca- 
vated in  the  middle,  leaving  for  walks  a  space  of  2  metres  on  each 
side ;  this  trench  is  filled  with  broken  stone — stone  broken  to  about 
the  size  of  1£  inches  square.  This  mass  of  broken  stone  is  then  solidly 
forced  into  position  by  the  use  of  heavy  iron  cylinders,  which  are  rolled 
backwards  and  fowards  over  these  stones  until  they  become  settled  into 
one  solid  mass,  smooth  and  durable. 

These  iron  cylinders  when  empty  weigh  from  2,800  to  3,000  kilo- 
grams (6,150  to  6,600  pounds),  and  are  sufficiently  large  to  admit  of  an 
equal  weight  of  stoue  being  packed  in  the  iuterior,  which  makes,  when 
ready  for  use,  a  weight  of  from  12,000  to  13,000  pounds. 

A  transversal  diagram  of  a  road  as  made  here  would  be  something 
like  the  following : 


Fig.  1  representing  the  roadbed  of  broken  stone,  slightly  rounded  ; 
tigs.  2,  the  walks  on  each  side  usually  shaded  with  trees;  tigs.  3,8 
ditch  and  hedge  or  stone  wall,  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  first  cost  of  making  a  road  of  this  class  is  from  $1.25  to  $1.75 
per  square  metre,  the  price  varying  according  to  the  amount  of  grad- 
ing required  and  to  the  facilities  of  procuring  the  proper  kind  of  broken 
stone,  Cor  it  seems   that  some  kinds  of  stone   give  better  results  than 


84 


STKEETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


others.  A  species  of  quartz  gives  the  best  results  as  to  uniformity  and 
durability.  Within  1£  miles  from  Nantes  is  fouud  an  immense  granite 
quarry,  which  furnishes  excellent  blocks  for  monuments,  building  pur- 
poses, etc.,  also  small  blocks  for  city  street  paving,  where  it  resists  in 
a  manner  perfectly  satisfactory ;  but  this  same  grauite,  broken  small 
and  pressed  into  a  roadbed,  is  soon  reduced  to  powder  under  heavy 
traffic  and  is  often  in  need  of  repair,  while  quartz  resists  satisfactorily 
for  a  number  of  years. 

The  system  employed  in  this  district  for  maintaining  the  roads  in 
good  condition  is  very  simple  and  inexpensive.  The  roadbed  is  allowed 
to  wear  away  some  2  or  3  inches,  when  a  new  layer  of  broken  stone  is 
broughtinto  requisition  in  the  same  manner  as  at  first,  they  being  pressed 
into  uniform  smoothness  by  the  use  of  the  heavy  iron  roller.  This 
repairing  is  more  successful  when  performed  during  the  rainy  months 
of  the  winter  season- 

The  cost  of  repairs  is  about  5  cents  per  square  metre. 

H.  D.  Bennett, 

United  States  Consulate,  Acting  Consul, 

Nantes,  February,  1891. 


PARIS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  KING. 


Average  price  per 

Surface, 

Kind   and   thick- 

Kind  and  thickness  of  materials 

square  metre. 

Kind  of 

Annual 

pavement. 

Jan.  1,  lfc90. 

uess  of  foundation. 

forming  revetment. 

First  estab- 
lishment. 

expenses, 
including 
general 
repairs. 

Sq.  metres. 

((X)  Sand  20  to  30 
centimetres 
iu  thickness. 

Paving   stones  of  hard   sand- 
stone, of  "  arkose"  of  granite, 

Francs. 
(           20. 00 

1 

Francs. 
1 

(2)  Concrete  of 

and  of  porphyry,  as  follows  : 

24.00 

lime,  15  cen- 

Large:   Length,  23  centime- 

timetres   i  n 

tres  ;  width,  16  to  23  centime- 

thickness. 
1  (3)  Concrete  of 

tres:  height,  23  centimetres. 

Stone 

6,  336, 900 

Medium  :    Length,    16  to  20 

24.50 

J.        0.74 

Portland  ce- 

centimetres;  width,  14  to  18 

ment,  15  cen- 

centimetres ;  height,  16  to  20 

timetres. 

centimetres.    Small:  Length, 
16  to  20  centimetres;  width, 

(4)  Ballast, 

24,00 

rolled,  15  cen- 

12 to  14  centimetres  ;  height, 

timetres    af- 

12 to  18  centimetres. 

I        v 

ter  rolling. 

j 

Wood 

484,  900 

Concrete  of  Port- 
land cement,  15 
centimetres    in 
thickness. 

Blocks  of  wood :  Length,  17  to 
27  centimetres  ;  width,  8  cen- 
timetres;   height,    15   centi- 
metres. 

20.50 

2.50 

Asphalt  . . . 

301,400 

Concrete  of  Port- 

5 or  6  centimetres  after  heing 

Thickness  of 

2.00 

land  cement,  15 

rolled. 

5  centime- 

centimetres   in 

tres,    20.50 

thickness. 

f  r  ancs; 
thicku  ess 
of  6  centi- 
m e  tres, 
21.50  francs. 

("This  pavement,  1 

'Porphyry, 

[        3.70 

or  roadway 

8.30  francs. 

Gravel 

1,  510,  200 

1  restsdirectlyon  1 

Porphyry,  millstone,  pebble,  25 

Mill-stone, 

|        2.47 

]  thesoilinwhich  j 

to  30  centimetres  in  thickness. 

6  65  francs. 

|  thegravelpack-  I 

P.-bble,  4.65 

|        1.30 

( ing  is  placed.     J 

L  francs. 

*    EUROPE FRANCE.  85 

Stone. — The  cost  of  stone  pavement  on  sand  foundation  varies  from 
1G.60  to  24.80  francs.  The  extremes  of  these  prices  correspond  to  speci- 
mens of  paving  stones  which  are  now  only  exceptionally  employed. 
The  same  holds  good  for  the  three  other  kinds  of  pavement  for  which 
the  average  prices  only  differ  from  the  figure  of  20  francs  by  reason  of 
the  supplementary  cost  for  the  foundation.  The  pavements  on  coucrete 
or  on  rolled  gravel  (the  latter  are  rarely  adopted)  have  been  made  only 
a  few  years  ago,  and  form  but  a  relatively  small  surface.  The  trials  had 
with  these  revetments  up  to  the  present  time  are  not  yet  conclusive 
enough  to  allow  a  possibility  of  pronouncing  definitely  on  the  advan- 
tages and  inconveniences  they  present.  However,  the  results  obtained 
up  to  date  seem  to  indicate  that  recourse  should  be  had  to  solid  foun- 
dations only  in  the  three  cases  following:  (1)  When  the  soil  is  clayey 
or  insufficiently  resistant;  (2)  when  there  are  Hues  of  tramways;  (3) 
when  the  circulation  or  traffic  is  very  iutense  and  at  a  rapid  pace.  It 
is  now  considered  as  indispensable  to  interpose  between  the  foundation 
and  the  pavement  a  layer  of  sand  of  5  to  10  centimetres  in  thickness. 

Wood. — The  extremes  of  the  prices  paid  to  the  lessees  who  have 
constructed  these  pavements  under  contract,  and  who  keep  them  in 
repair  under  the  same  conditions,  are  2.08  and  2.95  francs  for  each 
of  the  18  annuities,  comprising,  moreover,  not  only  the  ordinary  keep- 
ing up,  but  also  the  repairs  throughout  the  duration  of  the  contract. 
The  new  wooden  pavements  are  now  constructed  and  kept  up,  with 
very  rare  exceptions,  exclusively  under  the  self-management  {"regie") 
of  the  city  of  Paris,  which  realizes  by  this  combination  an  economy 
of  about  15  per  cent,  on  the  average  price  of  20.50  francs  indicated 
under  this  heading.  The  paving  blocks  rest  always  directly  on  the 
foundation,  which  is  covered  over  with  a  smooth  plastering. 

Asphalt. — The  asphalt  pavement  is  kept  in  repair  by  the  contractors. 

Gravel. — Porphyry  and  millstone  do  not  always  form  the  total  thick- 
ness of  the  road.  This  is  generally  composed  of  a  first  layer  of  crude 
pebble  15  to' 20  centimetres  thick  laid  on  the  soil,  and  of  a  second 
layer  about  15  centimetres  thick,  either  of  porphyry,  millstone,  or 
pebble.    It  is  the  second  layer  that  gives  its  name  to  the  revetment. 

Adam  King, 

Consul- General. 
United  States  Consulate-General, 

Far  is,  January  11,  1891. 


RHEIMS. 

MEPORT  BY  CONSUL  ANOIER. 

CITY   STREETS. 


Generally  in  the  cities  and  towns  of  (his  consular  district  the  streets 
are  substantially  and  beautifully  paved  with  granite  "Belgian  blocks" 
from  the  famous  quarries  of  "  Vosges,"  a  department  of  France  in  this 


86  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

consular  district  bordering  Alsace,  the  granite  being  of  excellent 
quality  and  lasting  a  long  time. 

The  manner  of  constructing  these  streets  is  as  follows :  First  an  ex- 
cavation is  made  to  the  depth  of  about  16  inches  from  the  proposed 
surface  of  the  street  when  finished ;  a  sand  foundation  or  bed  is  then 
thrown  in  to  a  depth  of  8  inches  (the  soil  here  is  of  chalky  formation, 
well  disposed  to  hold  the  sand  well,  without  any  primary  layer  of  tar 
and  gravel)  and  then  the  Belgian  blocks  are  carefully  laid  on  the  sand. 
These  Belgian  blocks  are  8  inches  in  deptb,  6  inches  in  breadth,  and  6£ 
inches  in  thickness.  A  heavy  granite  curbing,  a  little  raised  from  the 
street,  is  the  dividing  line  between  the  street  and  the  "sidewalk."  The 
"  sidewalks,"  by  the  way,  are  x>aved  much  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
streets.  After  the  Belgian  blocks  have  been  laid  in  the  streets,  sand 
is  thrown  on  to  the  depth  of  about  £  an  inch,  which  is  swept  and  re- 
swept,  back  and  forth,  with  heavy  brush  brooms,  until  every  crevice 
and  interstice  between  the  blocks  is  filled.  In  a  few  months  after- 
wards sand  is  again  thrown  on  and  the  sweeping  process  renewed  until 
the  whole  is  very  compact. 

A  street  made  in  this  manner  will  last  from  30  to  40  years,  very  little 
repairs  needed,  aud  costs  $3.17  per  square  metre  (a  square  metre  is 
10.7642  square  feet),  the  cost  divided  as  follows: 

31  Belgian  blocks $2.52 

Sand 42 

Labor 23 

Total 3.17 

The  laud  owners  are  not  required  to  pay  any  proportion  of  the  cost 
for  making,  paving,  and  maintaining  the  streets,  but  are  required  to  pay 
one-half  of  the  expense  for  making  and  paving  the  sidewalks. 

COUNTRY  ROADS  OR  HIGHWAYS. 

In  the  open  country  the  maiu  highways  used  to  be  paved,  as  are  the 
streets  now  in  the  cities,  but  this  was  abandoned  years  ago,  and  the 
roads  are  now  made  simply  of  crushed  stones  of  an  average  size  of  4 
inches,  and  then  the  heavy  "steam  roller-crusher"  is  run  over  it,  back 
and  forth,  several  times.  Sometimes  when  the  natural  soil  is  not  com- 
pact or  solid  enough,  a  good  foundation  is  made  for  these  crushed  stones, 
but  this  does  not  occur  often  in  this  section.  This  foundation,  when 
needed,  may  be  quite  a  pavement  of  rough  stones,  or  sometimes  only  a 
bed  of  sand  or  gravel  is  used  for  a  foundation  in  places  where  it  is 
sought  to  preserve  the  underground  from  the  frost. 

The  main  highways  are  Governmeut  roads,  and  were  constructed  and 
are  maintained  by  the  departments  of  France  in  which  they  are  located 
and  through  which  they  run,  and  cost  in  this  department  (Marne)  an 
average  of  about  $9,300  per  mile  for  their  first  establishment  or  con- 
struction. 


EUROPE — GERMANY.  87 

The  smaller  roads  are  maintained  by  "la  commune"  (the  people) 
through  whose  lands  the  roads  run,  and  cost  about  $3,200  per  mile  for 
their  primary  establishment  and  construction. 

The  maintaining  of  the  Government  highways  in  good  condition 
requires  about  850  cubic  feet  of  broken  stones  per  mile  per  annum.  The 
broken  stones  (or  ballast)  used  for  this  purpose  are  obtained  either  from 
the  flint  stone  quarries  in  the  mountains  near  Rheims,  or  from  quartz 
brought  from  the  department  of  Ardennes. 

The  statements  made  in  this  report  and  the  figures  given  may  be 
relied  on  as  quite  acurate,  nearly  all  of  my  data  of  information  having 
beeu  obtained  from  the  Government  engineer  of  bridges,  roads,  streets, 
and  canals,  having  charge  and  control  of  all  the  bridges,  roads,  streets, 
and  canals  in  a  part  of  this  consular  district. 

Though  I  have  tried  to  get  the  information  on  which  to  base  a  report 
as  to  "  the  effect  of  improved  public  roads  on  land  values,"  I  can  not 
make  any  report  on  that  point.  I  am  writing  of  roads  located  in  and 
running  through  a  country  that,  it  is  said,  was  overrun  by  the  soldiers 
of  Julius  Caesar,  50  years  before  Christ,  and  a  later  effort  of  the  same 
sort,  it  is  also  said,  was  attempted  in  the  fifth  century  by  the  Huns, 
from  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  under  the  leadership  of  Attila, 
and  these  roads  have  been  maintained  in  their  present  good  condition 
for  so  long  a  time  it  is  difficult  to  approximate  their  effect  upon  land 
values. 

Alton  Angler, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate. 

Rheims,  December  22,  1890. 


GERMANY. 

AIX  LA  CHAPELLE. 

REPORT  BY  OOXSUL  ZEIGLEB. 

CITY  STREETS. 

They  are  built  of  hard  sandstone,  where  level  or  nearly  so,  but  for 
heavy  grades  of  somewhat  softer  quality.  They  are  built  and  kept  in 
repair  by  the  city,  and  a  general  tax  is  levied  for  that  purpose. 

The  stone  used  have  a  surface  of  4  by  0§  inches  by  7  inches  deep, 
and  about  45  are  laid  to  the  square  yard,  in  courses  across  the  street 

The  foundation  is  of  sand,  about  8  inches  deep. 

The  stone  is  hauled  G  miles  by  team,  is  cut  by  hand  to  tin-  proper 
size,  and  costs  the  city,  delivered,  $1.82  per  square  surface  yard. 

The  laying  of  stone  and  sand  furnished  is  usually  done  by  contract, 
at  a  cost  of  42  cents  per  yard,  making  total  oost  $2.26. 


88  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

All  new  streets  are  built  alike,  whether  for  light  or  heavy  traffic. 

The  sidewalks  vary  from  2  to  12  inches  above  street,  with  curbstone 
7  inches  wide  and  of  various  depths,  and  foundation  consists  of  cement 
4  inches  thick  or  deep,  covered  with  sandstone  4§  inches  square  by  3J 
inches  deep. 

This  is  a  very  ancient  city,  and  many  of  the  old  streets  and  sidewalks 
are  made  entirely  different  from  the  foregoing. 

It  is  impossible  to  obtain  figures  as  to  cost  of  repairs. 

As  a  rule,  but  very  little  is  required  for  many  years  after  a  street  is 
newly  built,  no  matter  how  heavy  the  traffic,  as  they  are  well  made, 
and  I  am  informed  that  in  many  cases  where  streets  were  built  over  50 
years  ago  but  few  repairs  have  been  needed. 

The  tires  used  on  wagons  for  heavy  traffic  are  usually  about  5  inches 
wide,  which  may,  to  some  extent,  account  for  the  durability  of  the  stone 
on  the  street  bed. 

The  city  pays  its  laborers  who  repair  streets  from  60  cents  to  $1  per 
day  of  9  hours. 

UOUNTY  ROADS  OR  HIGHWAYS. 

There  are  eight  main  roads  leading  out  from  this  city,  but  no  one 
living  here  now  can  remember  of  either  one  of  them  being  built. 

They  are  hundreds  of  years  old,  built  by  the  Government,  and  kept 
in  repair  by  it. 

Four  of  them  are  constructed,  quite  a  distance,  the  same  as  the  city 
streets  or  nearly  so,  and  cost  of  same  would  be,  say,  $2.25  per  square 
yard. 

The  others  are  macadamized  about  7  inches  deep,  with  small,  hard 
sandstone,  and  present  cost  to  construct  or  build  would  be  45  cents  per 
square  yard. 

They  are  kept  in  repair  by  supervisors,  appointed  by  the  Government, 
for  the  various  road  districts,  with  but  little  expense. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  give  any  data  or  figures  as  to  effect  of  im- 
proved roads  upon  real  estate  or  the  surroundings,  all  having  been 
built  so  long  ago. 

S.  B.  Zeigler, 

United  States  Consulate,  Consul, 

Aix  la  Chapelle,  December  30,  1890. 


BAVARIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BLACK,  OF  NUREMBERG. 
STREETS  OF  NUREMBERG. 

The  streets  of  the  city  of  Nuremberg  which  are  located  withiu  the 
old  walls  are  all  paved ;  those  outside  are  only  paved  where  the  traffic 
on  them  is  extraordinarily  heavy. 


EUROPE GERMANY.  89 

The  entire  paved  area  is  583,875  square  yards.  Granite  and  sand- 
stone (quartzite)  are  tbe  materials  which  have  been  mostly  used,  for 
the  last  15  years  the  former  has  been  exclusively  used.  It  is  brought 
from  the  Bavarian  Mountains. 

The  granite  paving  stones  are  of  a  shape  resembling  a  parallelopiped, 
with  sharp  corners,  having  a  length  of  from  6  to  8  inches,  a  width  of  from 
5£  to  6£  inches,  and  a  height  of  from  5£  to  6  inches.  The  tops  and  sides 
have  a  smooth  finish,  the  bottoms  are  more  roughly  cut;  they  must  be 
flat,  however,  and  never  more  than  1£  inches  smaller  than  the  tops. 

These  stones  are  of  the  hardest  blue  granite,  and  cost  $1.57  per  1,550 
square  inches  free  Nuremberg.  All  the  material  used  in  paving  the 
streets  is  supplied  by  the  city ;  in  fact,  it  does  all  the  work  with  the 
exception  of  the  actual  laying  of  the  stones,  which  is  given  out  to  con- 
tractors. 

The  paving  sand  is  a  clayey  kind  of  arenaceous  quartz  peculiar  to 
the  Pegnitz  Valley,  and  the  place  from  which  it  is  obtained  is  the 
property  of  the  city.  The  sand  under  the  stones  is  loosely  spread,  at  a 
thickuess  of  from  6  to  8  inches. 

The  cost  of  paving  with  granite  block  of  a  street  already  opened, 
including  all  work  and  material,  is  $1.98  per  1,550  square  inches.  In 
the  year  1889  there  was  expended  for  paving  streets  not  previously  pa  ved 
the  sum  of  $38,841 .60,  and  during  the  same  period,  for  repairing,  the  sum 
of  $17,136  was  expended. 

There  are  macadamized  streets  in  the  new  portion  of  the  city  to  the 
extent  of  503,516  square  yards.  These  streets  have  been  opened  from 
time  to  time  as  the  growth  of  the  city  demanded.  The  owners  of  the 
land  through  which  they  run  are  not  only  compelled  to  cede  tbe  bed, 
but  are  also  required  to  bear  the  expense  of  making  the  street.  The 
amount  assessed  to  each  property-holder  is  reckoned  according  to  the 
size  of  his  holdings  ;  the  amount  charged  per  yard  varies  according  to 
the  size  of  the  street.  Contractors  desiring  to  have  a  street  opened  in 
order  to  erect  houses  thereon  must  deposit  with  the  authorities  a  sum 
equal  to  the  whole  cost  of  making  the  street,  and  until  this  condition 
is  complied  with  the  building  permit  is  not  granted. 

The  foundation  of  such  streets  consists  of  a  layer  of  6  to  8  inches  of 
quartzite,  a  sandstone  which  is  quarried  at  Wendelstein,  near  Nurem- 
berg, and  upon  this  a  layer  of  Jura  limestone  6  to  7  inches  thick  is 
placed.  The  whole  is  then  thoroughly  rolled  with  a  large  cylinder 
(pulled  by  horses)  weighing  14,330  pounds.  The  cost  of  such  a  roller 
is  $500. 

The  curbing  used  is  hard  granite.  The  gutters  are  10A  inches  in 
width  and  are  paved  with  granite  stones. 

The  foundation  stones  cost  71  cents  per  1,308  cnbie  .yards,  the  small 
broken  Jura  limestones  $1.43  per  1,308  cubic  yards,  and  the  curbstones 
$1.04  per  3.28  feet,  all  free  Nuremberg. 


90  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

These  streets  vary  in  their  width  from  18.01  feet  to  61  feet,  and  cost 
from  $7.10  to  $10.90  per  width  of  3.28  feet  running  across  the  whole 
street. 

Repairs  of  macadam ized  streets  are  never  made  with  Jura  limestone, 
basalt  always  being  used  for  that  purpose. 

The  cleaning  of  paved  streets  up  to  26.25  feet  from  the  footway  falls 
upon  the  owners  of  the  adjoining  property;  any  over  that  is  done  by 
the  city.  A  few  streets  where  the  traffic  is  very  heavy  are  cleaned 
entirely  at  the  ex  pense  of  the  property-owners. 

Macadamized  streets  are  cleaned  at  the  expense  of  the  city.  For  this 
purpose  the  city  is  divided  into  fifteen  districts,  each  district  having 
an  overseer. 

In  autumn  and  spring  he  has  two  assistants.  The  removal  of  the  dust 
and  dirt  from  these  streets  is  done  by  contractors.  The  city  pays  for 
the  same  according  to  the  distance  hauled  and  the  size  of  the  carts. 

No  special  mechanical  methods  are  used.  In  the  year  1889  the  cost 
of  cleaning  macadamized  streets  was  $7,473. 

Footways.— Footways  vary  from  3.28  feet  to  16.4  feet  in  width,  ac- 
cording to  the  width  of  the  street.  Curbstones  are  laid  at  once  upon 
the  opening  of  a  street,  but  the  paving  of  footways  is  only  required 
when  the  city  deems  there  is  a  need  for  it,  and  that  work  is  doue  at 
the  expense  of  the  owner  of  the  adjoining  property. 

In  the  old  streets  where  new  curbstones  are  required  the  expenses 
for  the  same  fall  half  upon  the  city  and  half  upon  the  owner  of  the 
property,  while  the  cost  of  the  pavement  is  entirely  upon  the  property- 
owner. 

The  footways  when  paved  are  done  with  cement  and  clay  plates ; 
when  not  paved  they  are  generally  made  of  clinkers.  No  asphalt  is 
used  excepting  upon  some  iron  bridges. 

As  a  rule,  proprietors  of  adjoining  land  pay  for  the  cleaning  of  all 
sidewalks. 

HIGHWAYS. 

The  highways  within  the  limits  of  this  consulate  are  of  a  width  of 
from  13.12  feet  to  23  feet,  according  to  the  traffic  passing  over  them,  and 
have  upon  either  side  footways  of  from  3.28  feet  to  5  feet  in  width. 

The  foundation  of  these  roads  consists  of  hard  stones  which  are  never 
affected  by  the  weather.  They  are  separately  set  one  by  one,  points  up- 
wards, and  are  of  a  length  of  7.87  inches.  Upon  this  is  placed  a  layer 
of  small  pieces  of  basalt  or  Jura  limestone  of  a  thickness  of  from  3.93 
inches  to  5.91  inches,  the  former  stones  being  used  for  highways  upon 
which  there  is  a  heavy  traffic,  the  latter  upon  those  where  the  traffic  is 
light. 

Basalt  is  broken  by  special  machines  into  pieces  varying  in  size  from 
1.18  inches  to  1.77  inches  in  diameter.  That  used  here  is  broken  by  the 
Basalt  Company,  Limited,  located  at  Steinmuehle,  near  Bayreuth,  in 


EUROPE GERMANY. 


91 


Bavaria.  The  cost  at  the  factory  is  $1.70  per  1.308  cubic  yards;  the 
cost  including  that  of  delivering  at  the  place  where  they  are  to  be  used 
is  from  $2.45  to  $3.18  per  1.308  cubic  yards. 

Jura  limestone  is  delivered  in  larger  pieces  than  basalt  and  is  broken 
into  small  pieces  by  means  of  steel  hammers  at  the  place  <>f  delivery. 
The  cost  of  same  is  from  $1.43  to  $2.14  per  1.308  cubic  yards,  according 
to  the  distance  of  the  quarries  from  the  place  of  destination. 

Small  piles  of  these  stones  for  repairing  purposes  are  constantly  kept 
upon  the  sides  of  the  highways.  The  work  is  usually  done  in  t  he  spring 
or  autumn,  when  the  ground  is  soft  and  moist.  The  roads  are  thoroughly 
scraped  and  swept  before  the  stones  are  spread,  which  is  usually  of  a 
thickness  of  from  1.18  inches  to  2.36  inches.  They  are  loosely  but  evenly 
thrown  on  and  the  traffic  is  depended  upon  to  work  them  into  the 
ground.  If  this  be  heavy,  the  road  is  made  smooth  in  two  or  three  days, 
but  if  light,  two  or  three  weeks  are  liable  to  be  consumed  in  getting  the 
material  well  worked  in.  The  roadway  is  constantly  dressed  in  this. 
manner  until  it  becomes  perfectly  level.  Should  it  happen,  however. 
during  this  time  before  the  stones  are  well  set  that  frost  or  dry  weather 
should  render  the  ground  impervious,  all  the  loose  new  material  is  re- 
moved aud  not  again  spread  until  the  weather  becomes  wet  and  the 
ground  soft. 

The  roadway  is  bordered  on  either  side  by  what  are  called  "  frame 
stones."  They  are  very  hard  and  are  not  influenced  by  the  atmosphere. 
The  depth  at  which  they  are  planted  is  11.81  inches;  their  width  is 
3.93  inches.  The  footways  of  39  .37  inches  in  width  have  an  incline  of 
1.97  inches. 

I  give  you  herewith  a  rough  sketch  of  a  highway  which  will  elucidate 
more  fully  what  I  have  written. 

These  methods  apply  only  to  the  main  highways,  which  are  kept  up 
at  the  expense  of  the  state.  In  the  hands  of  an  experienced  staff  the 
best  results  are  obtained.  Practice,  however,  is  necessary,  in  order  to 
become  acquainted  with  the  best  time  and  manner  in  which  to  spread 
the  stones. 

Cross-roads  are,  as  a  rule,  not  macadamized,  and  are  kept  up  by  and 
at  the  expense  of  the  respective  communities. 


United  States  Consulate, 

Nuremberg,  March  10,  1891. 


Frcanestone. 


Wu  .i.  Black, 

Consul. 


92  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

BERLIN. 

RE  POUT  1SY  CONSUL-GENERAL  EDWARDS. 

The  laying  out  and  building  of  new  streets  within  the  city  limits  is  a 
public  interest  only  so  far  as  the  existing  streets  no  longer  suffice  for  the 
requirements  of  traffic  and  intercourse. 

Nevertheless  the  street  commission  of  the  city  of  Berlin  has  been  for 
many  y  ears  extending  the  paving  in  a  large  circuit  where  it  was  not  a 
public  interest. 

So  long  as  the  proprietors  of  land  situated  on  proposed  streets  repre- 
sented on  the  building  chart  of  the  city  could  build  houses  without  con- 
sidering if  the  streets  were  paved,  if  they  were  drained,  if  they  were 
connected  with  an  actual  street,  conditions  were  bound  to  arise  which 
were  very  inconvenient  for  the  inhabitants  of  such  houses. 

They  regarded  it  as  an  injustice  that  they  should  not  enjoy  the  same 
privileges  as  other  citizens,  and  by  their  petitions  exerted  such  a  moral 
pressure  on  the  commuual  authorities  that  their  demands  were  granted. 

A  change  could  first  be  made  after  the  passage  of  the  law  of  July  2, 
1875,  concerning  the  building  and  alteration  of  streets  and  squares  in 
towns  and  country  places,  and  of  the  local  statute  of  October  S-No- 
vember  19,  1875,  and  after  the  issuance  of  the  police  regulation  of 
September  12,  1879. 

While  under  the  cabinet  order  of  December  31,  1838,  proprietors  of 
laud  bordering  on  newly  paved  streets  were  responsible  only  for  the 
expenses  incurred  by  the  community  in  building  such  streets,  they  are 
now  legally  held  for  almost  the  entire  sum  expended  by  the  town  in 
finishing  the  street,  and  especially  for  the  costs  arising  from  the  pur- 
chase of  the  street  surface.  As  furthermore  the  building  of  dwelling 
houses  is  permitted  only  in  such  streets  as  are  entirely  paved  and  suit- 
ably drained,  it  is  in  the  interest  of  the  land  owners,  if  they  wish  to  use 
their  property  in  this  way,  not  to  wait  until  by  chance  the  streets  on 
which  their  property  lies  are  paved  by  the  municipal  street  commission, 
but  to  have  this  work  done  themselves. 

That  the  effect  of  this  law  upon  the  extension  of  municipal  and  pri- 
vate streets  has  been  gradual  is  due  to  the  fact  that  there  was  a  con- 
siderable number  of  streets  in  which  dwelling  houses  had  been  built 
prior  to  the  passage  of  this  law  still  to  be  put  in  order,  and,  on  the 
other  side,  that  it  required  a  number  of  years  before  land  owners  real- 
ized that  in  consequence  of  the  new  law  it  was  in  their  interest  of  their 
own  accord  and  without  municipal  assistance  to  build  the  streets  on 
which  their  property  was  situated. 


EUROPE — GERMANY. 


93 


How  important,  however,  with  time  the  effect  has  been  can  be  seen 
from  the  following  table,  which  exhibits  construction  and  expense  from 
1882  to  1889,  inclusive: 


For  account  of — 

Total. 

Amount  of 

Year. 

The  city. 

Private  per- 
sons, street- 
oar  i'ii  Hi' 
panics,  etc. 

incurred  by 

i  In-  iii. 

for  paving 

streets. 

Sq.  metres. 
34, 283 
32,158 
13,9:19 
14,  709 
*42,  980 
20,  200 
33,  350 

Sq.  metres. 
11,919 
8,204 
12,781 

17,919 
34,  849 

26,  656 

59, 686 

Sq.  Viet  res. 
40,182 
38,  162 
26,  7.0 
82,  628 
177,  829 
52.910 
93,  030 

Marks. 
169, 861 

474,ls! 

286, 204 

282,  629 

M9.US8 

197, 629 

170, 134 

367,  703 

3,  413,  500 

*  While  heretofore  private  streets  were  often  constructed  by  the  municipal  street  commission  at  the 
expense  of  the  private  parties  concerned,  in  later  years  this  custom  has  been  abandoned.  Only  pav- 
ings which  are  to  be  made  simultaneously  by  street  car  companies  and  by  the  city  are  laid  by  tho 
latterat  the  expense  of  the  former.  From  other  parties  constructing  streets,  for  superintendence  of 
the  work  by  the  city  street  commission,  a  charge  of  20  pfennige  per  square  metre  of  paving  is  col- 
lected. 

tin  this  sum  is  included  the  paving  of  York  street,  which  alone  represented  an  area  of  23,452square 
metres.  Of  this,  16,929  was  constructed  by  the  city  at  its  own  cost,  and  6,523  square  metres  at  the 
cost  of  the  "Great  Berlin  Street-Car  Company." 

J  The  amount  expended  by  the  city  in  the  year  1888-'89  for  paving  can  not  yet  be  stated  exactly. 
From  the  fiscal  balance,  however,  it  may  be  estimated  at  about  576,000  marks. 

If  the  subject  of  private  paving  is  considered,  it  will  be  found  from 
the  above  table  and  from  the  table  already  published  for  the  years 
1877  to  1881,  that  there  has  been  considerable  fluctuation.  While  the 
years  1877  to  1880  showed  unusual  activity  on  the  part  of  private  per- 
sons in  this  direction,  in  these  4  years  127,346  square  metres  of  paving 
were  laid  at  the  expense  of  private  parties,  making  an  annual  average 
of  31,836  square  metres.  In  1881  the  amount  fell  off  to  3,900  square 
metres,  and  from  this  time  on  it  has  risen  to  60,000  square  metres  in 
1888-'89. 

This  rising  tendency,  moreover,  at  present  seems  to  continue,  as  is 
shown  by  the  applications  already  received  by  the  municipal  street  com- 
mission. 

The  number  of  streets  proposed  in  the  first  three  quarters  of  the 
year  1889  for  paving  in  this  manner  was  21.  Their  total  length  amounts 
to  6*  kilometres,  and  their  total  area  to  about  69,000  square  metres. 

Nevertheless  the  expenses  incurred  by  the  city  for  new  pavings 
amounted  in  the  7  years  covered  by  the  above  table  to  about  3,410,000 
marks,  or  an  average  of  487,000  marks  per  annum. 

These  expenses  naturally  are  really  only  outlays,  as  proprietors  of 
Urd  bordering  on  such  streets  upon  building  on  their  property   must 

•  The  completion  of  these  streets  hy  private  speculators  would  add  12  kilometre*; 

to  the  street  fronts  of  tlio  city,  while  the  si  rccts  finished  by  the  city  and  by  private 

persona  between  1hh2-'h:$  and  l888-'89  have  a  length  of  lOkih ties  or  ahoul  6  <■■  rm 

man  miles  (over  25  English  miles;. 


94 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


pay  the  expenses  already  incurred  by  the  community  in  constructing 
the  street. 

The  following  table  shows  the  amount  paid  into  the  city  treasury 
under  the  statute  of  March  7,  1877,  by  land  owners  for  the  opening  of 
new  streets,  as  well  as  under  cabinet  order  of  December  31,  1838 : 


Tear. 

In  accordance 

with- 

Statute  of  March 
7-9,  1877. 

Cabinet  order  of 
December  31,  1838. 

Marls. 

95,  930 
100,  674 

80,  523 
100,  258 
211,388 
227,  840 
416,  092 

Marks. 

109,  493 
57, 383 
50,  395 
14,  609 
13,  827 
17,  966 
16,  742 

1886-87 

1887  '88 

1888-'89 

If  the  figures  of  column  two  of  the  above  table  are  compared  with  those 
of  the  last  column  in  the  preceding  table,  it  will  be  seen  that  in  no  year 
has  the  amount  paid  into  the  city  treasury  under  the  statute  of  March 
7,  1877,  equaled  the  amount  expended  by  the  city  in  paving  streets.  In 
making  this  comparison  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  accordance  with 
the  provisions  of  the  statute,  when  streets  are  more  than  26  metres 
broad,  the  area  beyond  this  breadth  must  be  paved  solely  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  community.  Also  with  such  parts  of  streets  as  border  on 
tracts  which  by  law  or  nature  are  not  capable  of  being  built  upon,  open 
squares,  promenades,  parks,  railway  stations,  water  courses,  etc.,  no 
claim  can  be  made  by  the  city  for  recompensation  beyond  this  limit. 

The  sums  given  in  column  two  of  the  above  table  represent  not  only 
the  amounts  repaid  to  the  city  for  expenses  incurred  in  the  purchase  of 
the  land  on  which  the  streets  are  constructed,  but  also  construction  and 
first  paving  costs.  Yet  the  latter  are  not  fixed  for  persons  building  on 
the  street  exactly  in  accordance  with  the  amounts  in  the  bills,  but  at  a 
price  per  square  metre  which  is  fixed  every  year  by  communal  order. 
This  price  differs  for  principal  and  side  streets,  and  it  can  not  exceed 
the  cost  of  the  lowest  quality  of  paving  permissible  for  such  streets.  ■ 

At  first  the  price  unit  per  square  metre  of  paving  was  fixed  at  11.50 
marks  in  side  streets  and  13  marks  in  principal  streets.* 

These  prices  were  originally  adopted  because  it  was  thought  that  they 
would  approximate  but  never  exceed  the  actual  cost  price.  Ten  years' 
experience  has,  however,  shown  that  these  price  units  fall  considerably 
behind  the  real  cost.  Accordingly,  the  prices  have  been  raised  to  13 
marks  in  side  streets  aud  14  marks  in  principal  streets. 

In  similar  manner  payment  of  the  costs  of  drainage  is  regulated 
where  such  in  new  streets  is  obtained  through  connection  with  the  gen- 

•  These  are  such  iu  which  the  paving  rests  upon  a  rolled  substructure,  such  as  is 
used  for  public  highways,  while  in  the  side  streets  the  substructure  is  merely  a  grave] 
bed. 


EUROPE GERMANY.  95 

eral  municipal  canalization.  The  land  owners  in  new  streets  could  not 
well  be  asked  to  pay  the  costs  of  an  entire  radial  system  which,  per- 
haps, had  come  to  be  a  necessity,  without  regard  to  the  new  streets. 
In  like  manner  the  amount  actually  expended  in  this  way  could  not  be 
charged  to  the  persons  having  property  bordering  on  such  streets,  he- 
cause  the  laud  owners  on  the  streets  near  the  pumping  stations  would 
be  burdened  with  the  cost  of  the  expensive  masonry  canals,  while  per- 
sons having  property  in  the  upper  part  of  the  radial  system  would  have 
to  pay  only  for  the  construction  of  the  much  cheaper  earthenware  tube 
drains,  although  these  would  be  useless  without  the  costly  canals. 

It  had  been  learned  from  the  canalization  commission  that  in  radial 
system  III — which  is  relatively  the  cheapest  of  the  systems— exclusive 
of  the  cost  of  the  pump  station  and  the  forcing-pipe  connections,  the 
cost  of  the  drains  was  4,154,073.44  marks.  As  the  street  front  in  this 
radial  system  amounted  to  78,443  metres,  the  cost  per  metre  was  52.96 
marks.  Hence  it  was  decided  on  February  29,  1884,  whenever,  upon 
building,  the  repayment  of  these  costs  becomes  due,  in  such  streets  in 
which  drains  are  laid  simultaneously  with  or  soon  after  the  paving, 
the  sum  to  be  paid  is  50  marks  per  metre  of  street  front. 

If  the  foregoing  tables  show  that  the  activity  of  the  municipal  com- 
mission in  laying  new  pavings  has,  since  the  second  half  of  the  decade 
beginning  with  1870,  materially  deceased,  yet  since  the  same  period  in 
the  matter  of  repaving  there  has  been  an  enormous  increase. 

With  the  transfer  of  the  streets  to  the  municipality  in  1876,  on  ac- 
count of  the  increased  traffic  aud  the  growing  demand  of  the  public,  it 
became  necessary  to  begiu  replacing  with  good  suitable  paving  the  old 
paving,  which  was  almost  all  very  bad,  most  of  it  having  beeu  laid  dur- 
ing the  first  half  of  the  century. 

In  the  years  1877-'81  the  average  annual  amount  of  bad  pavement 
replaced  by  good  was  55,200  square  metres.  In  the  period  1882-'89 
this  annual  average  has  increased  to  133,630  square  metres. 

The  following  table  shows  for  the  separate  years  the  area  repaved,  and 
the  amount  paid  out  by  the  city  for  the  purpose  on  its  own  account  and 
for  the  account  of  street-car  companies,  the  latter  being  responsible  for 
the  costs  of  paving  between  aud  near  the  rails  in  those  streets  in  which, 
simultaneously  with  the  repaving,  the  laying  of  the  tracks  takes  place  : 


96 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Kepaved 
in 

For  account  of  city. 

For  account  of  street- 
car companies. 

Total. 

Cost  of  repaying  for  account 
of  city. 

the  year. 

Asphalt. 

Wood.* 

Stone. 

Asphalt. 

Wood.* 

Stone. 

Wages. 

Stone. 

Total. 

1882-'83... 
1883--84... 
1884-'i-5... 
1885-'86... 
1886-'87... 
1887-'88 . . . 
1888-'89  . . . 

Sq.  met. 
55,  445 
63,  764 
71,971 
36,  943 
50,  041 
71,  400 
77,  402 

Sq.  met. 
7,306 
11,  837 
3,028 
1,319 
3,945 
1,631 
1,757 

Sq.  met. 
27,  238 
43,  649 
46,  725 
41,  083 
91,  689 
46, 479 
52,  950 

Sq.  met. 
7,669 
1,570 
1,838 
496 
4,555 
17 
5,324 

Sq.  met. 

888 

4,361 

3,197 

380 

8,  647 

55 

Sq.  met. 

11,121 
8,527 
5,313 

31,057 

19.379 
3,210 

10, 232 

Sq.  met. 
109,  667 
133,  708 
132,072 
111,278 
178  256 
122,  792 
147,  665 

Marks. 

958,  531 
1,  815,  271 
1, 353,  766 
1,  261,  535 
1,  266,  478 
1, 698,  801 
1,  785, 140 

Marks. 
639,913 
597,  750 
818,  692 
914,  924 
1,146,900 
740,  031 
927, 631 

Marks. 

1,  598,  444 
2,413,021 
2, 172,  658 

2,  206,  459 
2,413.378 
2,  438,  832 
2,712,771 

Total.. 

426, 966 

30,  823 

349,  813 

21, 469 

17,  528 

88.839J  935,438 

10, 139,  522 

5,  816,  041 

15,  955,  563 

*  Under  the  date  of  April  17,  1891,  Consul-General  Edwards  sent  the  following,  translated  from  a 
Berlin  journal :  It  is  reported  that  the  wood  pavement,  which  was  laid  in  many  streets  of  Ber'.in,  has 
worn  so  badly  that  the  municipal  street  commission  has  decided  to  entirely  stop  using  this  material  for 
paving  purposes.  Every  sort  of  wood  which  has  yet  been  tried  has  rotted  in  a  comparatively  short 
time,  and  its  upper  surface  has  become  so  much  injured  that  repairs  are  hardly  possible.  Also,  tho 
horses  fall  upon  it  much  more  easily  than  upon  asphalt  pavement. 

For  this  reason,  "The  Great  Berlin  Horse  Car  Stock  Company's"  petition  that  the  space  between 
the  rails  of  its  tracks  on  Spandauer  and  Konig  streets  be  repaired  this  time  with  asphalt  has  been 
granted,  and  this  work  will  be  finished  during  the  coming  summer. 

Large  as  is  the  sum  thus  used,  nevertheless,  iu  view  of  the  immense 
old  tracks  to  be  repaved,  the  fraction  repaved  each  year  is  small.  Hence, 
the  deciding*  each  year  which  streets  are  to  be  repaved  in  the  following 
year  is  very  difficult,  and  the  solution  of  the  difficulty  is  not  rendered 
more  easy  by  the  fact  that,  year  in,  year  out,  countless  petitions  are 
received,  in  which  officials,  societies,  real-estate  owners,  and  residents 
declare  that  exactly  that  street  in  which  they  live  or  carry  on  business 
is  one  of  the  very  worst  in  the  city,  and  that  they  must  consider  it  an 
unfair  distinction  in  favor  of  other  taxpayers  if  their  application  does 
not  receive  immediate  attention. 

From  the  foregoing  table  it  will  be  seen  that  of  the  materials  used  in 
repaving,  the  principal  was  asphalt,  although  the  excess  of  this  mate- 
rial over  stone  was  small.  Iu  the  years  1882-'89  over  448,000  square 
metres  of  asphalt  paving  were  laid,  while  over  438,000  square  metres 
of  stone  paving  were  laid  in  the  same  period.  The  victory  of  asphalt 
is  due  to  the  silence  which  prevails  in  the  streets  which  are  paved  with 
it,  to  its  comparative  cheapness  as  compared  with  stone  paving,  and 
most  of  all  to  its  great  popularity  with  the  public. 

Asphalt  pavements. — On  account  of  the  great  importance  which  this 
sort  of  paving  has  won  in  Berlin,  the  following  remarks  in  regard  to 
its  technical  preparation  may  be  found  of  interest : 

In  laying  asphalt  pavings  in  Berlin  the  heated  asphalt  powder  is 
poured  over  the  previously  prepared  concrete  sub-bedding,  and  by  beat- 
ing or  rolling  is  reduced  to  a  surface  unbrofeen  by  seams.  Since  the 
year  1887  this  work  was  done  by  four  contractors  only,  who  used  asphalt 
stone  from  Bal  de  Travers  in  Switzerland,  Pyrimont-Seyssel  in  France, 
and  Bagusa  in  Sicily,  and,  as  their  bids  were  the  same,  the  areas  to  be 

"  This  decision  was  formerly  made  by  tho  street  commission,  but  for  several  years 
it  has  been  made  by  the  city  council. 


EUROPE GERMANY.  97 

paved  were  given  out  iu  equal  parts.  To  these  contractors— of  whom 
the  one  who  used  stone  from  Pyrimont-Seyssel  has  entirely  given  up 
street  work — recently  three  new  ones  have  been  added,  one  of  which— 
an  English  stock  company— uses  limestone  from  the  quarries  of  9 1.  Jean 
Marmejols,  Department  Gard,  France,  while  the  other  two,  local  man- 
ufacturers, use  asphalt,  manufactured  the  one  from  Sicilian  stone  and 
the  other  from  stone  found  near  Aucona  in  Italy.  As  the  new  contract- 
ors have  made  decidedly  lower  offers  for  the  sample  pavings  under- 
taken by  them  than  the  prices  of  the  older  contractors,  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  in  future  the  municipal  street  commission  will  succeed  in  having 
all  its  asphalt  paving  done  at  reduced  rates,  and  in  this  way,  without 
increasing  expenses,  be  able  to  have  considerably  larger  area  of  bad 
paving  replaced  each  year. 

As  the  places  where  natural  asphalt  stone,  which,  when  iu  pulverized 
form,  heated  and  stamped,  reassumes  a  solid  form,  is  found  on  oar  globe 
seem  to  be  very  few,  human  ingenuity  has  been  exercised  by  artificial 
means  to  increase  the  supply;  and  here  in  Germany,  as  well  as  else- 
where, such  attempts  have  been  made.  In  reply  to  frequent  applica- 
tions for  permission  to  test  such  artificial  asphalts  in  Berlin,  the  munici- 
pal commission,  recognizing  its  importance  not  only  in  a  technical  and 
economic  way  but  also  in  its  effects  on  home  industry,  has  offered  some 
of  the  public  streets  of  Berlin  for  such  experiments,  but  naturally  at 
the  risk  and  expense  of  the  parties  directly  interested. 

None  of  these  attempts,  though,  have  produced  satisfactory  results. 

An  American  company,  according  to  municipal  reports,  laid  a  paving 
in  the  Laudsberger  street,  which  before  the  end  of  a  year  had  to  be 
removed  and  replaced  with  natural  asphalt  paving.  Also  the  paving 
in  Koeuig  street,  with  artificial  stamped  asphalt,  which  was  laid  in  the 
year  1883  by  a  German  contractor,  did  not  stand  the  wear  nearly  so 
well  as  natural  asphalt  pavements,  and  has  already  been  many  times 
entirely  renewed.  How  satisfactory  such  paving  materials  may  prove 
to  be  in  streets  where  traffic  is  light  has  not  yet  been  determined. 

Greater  durability  seems  to  be  possessed  by  an  asphalt  pavement  re- 
cently laid  by  a  German  company  in  Wall  street,  near  its  junction  with 
Spittclmarkt.  A  final  judgment,  however,  can  not  as  yet  be  given  in  re- 
gard to  this  any  more  than  in  regard  to  the  so-called  "  caoutchouc- 
stamped  asphalt  pavement"  tested  on  the  Liietzorr  Ufer. 

Wood  pavements. — If  asphalt,  however — so  far  as  natural  asphalt  is 
concerned — has  shown  a  satisfactory  degree  of  durability  as  compared 
with  stone,  the  same  can  not  be  said  of  wood. 

In  the  municipal  reports  for  the  years  IS77  to  1881  information  was 
given  in  regard  to  wooden  block  pavements  laid  in  the  years  L879  and 
1881.  In  the  following  years  until  L883  Other  trials  were  made  with  this 
material,  especially  in  the  squares  before  the  Armory  .Museum  and  the 
Royal  Opera  House.  For  the  former  American  cypress  wood  was  used, 
and  for  the  latter  Swedish  pine. 
33A 7 


98  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

In  tbe  year  18S4-'85  the  area  of  such  wooden  pavements  in  the  city 
of  Berlin  was  about  42,480  square  metres.  Already  in  1S83  the  wooden 
pavement  laid  in  1879  in  Oberwall  street  bad  become  so  much  damaged 
that  half  of  it  bad  to  be  relaid,  the  other  half  being  renewed  in  the 
following  year.  The  wooden  pavement  laid  in  the  same  year  (1879)  in 
the  street  east  of  the  Eoyal  Opera  House  was  in  such  a  rotten  condition 
in  1884  that  the  street  commission  was  compelled  to  remove  the  com- 
pletely rotted  and  useless  wooden  blocks  and  to  replace  it  with  stamped 
asphalt.  In  the  same  way  the  pavement  ou  Friedrich's  bridge,  and  on 
Fried  rich  street  between  lot  103  and  Behren  street,  after  respectively 
7  and  6  years'  use,  had  to  be  completely  renewed. 

This  experience  shows  why  the  municipal  commission,  while  not  ex- 
actly hostile  to  the  extension  of  wooden  pavements,  still  prefers  to  wait. 
It  has,  however,  permitted  the  Great  Berlin  Street  Car  Company,  which 
desired  it  in  the  interest  of  its  horses,  in  streets  which  are  otherwise 
paved  with  asphalt,  to  pave  the  area  within  and  between  the  rads  with 
wood.  Here  also  results  have  been  unsatisfactory,  and,  instead  of  wood 
of  the  pine  family,  impregnated  beech  wood  has  been  tried.  The  first 
experiments  of  this  kind  were  in  the  year  1886-'87  at  the  Miiellen  I)amm, 
in  Louisen  and  New  William  streets.  Under  these  circumstances  the 
area  of  wood  pavements  has  not  materially  increased  since  1884.  On 
April  1,  1889,  as  above  shown,  it  amounted  to  62,33G  square  metres. 
For  keeping  nearly  half  of  this  area  in  repair  the  Great  Berlin  Horse 
Car  Company  is  responsible. 

The  experiments  in  the  use  of  beech  wood  areas  yet  incomplete,  though 
it  appears  that  in  frosty  and  snowy  weather  such  pavements  are  more 
slippery  than  any  other. 

Iron  pavements. — The  iron  paving,  which  was  laid  in  the  year  1877 
for  a  short  distance  on  u  Unter  den  Linden  "  by  the  King's  and  Laura 
smelting  houses,  was  removed  at  the  request  of  the  experimenters  yery 
recently.  In  continuance  of  their  experiment,  however,  they  were  per- 
mitted in  1887,  at  their  own  risk  and  cost,  to  lay  a  steel  pavement  on  Lange 
street  where  it  crosses  the  Wood  Market  and  Marcus  street.  This  steel 
pavetaent  is  composed  of  woodeu  impregnated  blocks,  in  the  form  of  pav- 
ing stones,  which,  on  their  upper  surface,  are  capped  with  steel.  These 
blocks  are  laid  upon  a  concrete  under-bedding,  and  the  seams  are  filled 
with  a  bituminous  mass.  This  pavement,  however,  has  not  yet  gotten 
beyond  the  experimental  stage. 

Area  and  cost  of  pavements.—  Concerning  the  street  areas,  which  at 
the  close  of  the  period  covered  by  this  report  (April  1,  1889),  were 
paved  with  asphalt,  with  wood,  and  with  stone  of  different  sorts,  as  well 
as  concerning  the  areas  to  be  kept  in  repair  by  the  city,  by  street-car 
companies  (in  consequence  of  contracts  to  that  effect),  and  by  contract- 
ors (in  consequence  of  the  guaranty  required  of  them — for  stone  pave- 


EUROPE GERMANY. 


99 


meets  3  years,  for  asphalt  pavements  4  years),  the  following  table  gives 
information.     On  the  first  of  April,  1889,  there  were  in  existence: 


Description. 


Good  pavement: 

Asphalt 

Wood J 

Stone: 

Class  I,  on  broken  stone  sub-bedding 
Classes  II  and  III: 

Broken  stone  sub-bedding 

Gravel  sub-bedding 

Total  area  good  pavement 

Bad  pavement: 

Class  IV 

Class  V 

Classes  VI  and  VII 

Classes  VIII  and  IX 

Total  area  bad  pavement 

Total  area  of  pavement 


Kepi  by 
city. 

Kept  by 

contractors, 

si  reel  car 

companies, 

and  private 

persons. 

Total. 

Sq.  tnetrei. 

260,  000 
32,  701 

193, 844 

?58, 103 
562,694 

Sq.  metres. 
313.  919 

106, 273 

139,920 
184,513 

Sq.  inrtrex. 
573.919 

300,  ]17 

717,  .'07 

l,3u7,402 
170,  639 

357,  865 

1,209, 4»1 

660, 116 

775,  200 

30,  547 
95,641 
71,292 

17,  343 

2,082,602 

207, 186 

1,280,  '■■:: 
677,459 

2,404,111 

3,711,513 

214,  823 
990,  023 

2,618,934 
1,701,536 

From  this  table  it  appears  that  of  the  pavings  kept  by  the  city 
1,307,000  square  metres,  or  about  35  per  cent.,  are  of  good  quality,  while 
2,404,000,  or  about  65  per  cent.,  are  of  more  or  less  bad  stone.  It  is 
therefore  apparent  that  the  latter,  which,  with  small  exception,  is  at 
least  15  years  old— a  larger  part  being  very  much  older — every  year 
requires  more  and  more  repair  and  renovation.  Even,  1  oerefore,  if  only 
the  absolutely  necessary  repairs  are  made,  the  longer  its  replacement 
with  good  paving  is  deferred,  so  much  the  higher  from  year  to  year  will 
the  necessary  outlay  for  repairs  be.  To  what  extent  such  repairs  have 
been  made  in  the  separate  years  covered  by  this  report,  and  what  ex- 
pense has  thereby  accrued  to  the  city,  is  shown  by  the  following  table: 


Street  pavement. 

Repairs. 

Improve- 
ment. 

Expenses. 

Tear. 

In  general. 

To  bo  kept 
by  city. 

No. 

Area. 

Wages, 

gravel, 

Band,  c-tc 

Obtaining 

ii.  u  stones 

Total 

1882-'83...  . 
1883-  '84.... 
884-85.... 

[886  '87.... 

1888-89.... 

Sq.  met. 
4.  158,000 
1,294,000 
1,366,300 
4,396,  BOO 
4,  148.000 
4,  529,  000 
4,599,600 

Sq.  met. 
3,  6(10,  900 

3,565,500 
3,  545,  5oo 
3,728.000 
3,623,700 

3,  608,4  00 

3,  528 
2,  383 

2,  162 

1,805 

•    2,007 

2,  107 

2,388 

8q.  met. 
515,  200 
526,  000 
414,800 
389,800 
386,  LOO 
418.700 
4U9,  600 

Per  cent. 
14.3 
14.8 
11.6 
11.0 
M.4 
11.9 
11.4 

Marks. 

392.519 

384,  H5 

439,  072 

Mark§. 
253,  092 

178,888 
194,061 

129,298 
236,714 

Mark$. 
639,  L96 
607,  158 
671,407 

As  the  outlay  represented  in  the  next  to  thelasl  column  was  only 
for  new  8 tones  in  order  to  obtain  the  actual  money  value  of  repairs  in 
the  period  1882-'89,  to  the  sum  4^333,740  marks  must  be  added  the  value 


100 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


of  old  stones  used  again,  850,016  marks,  which  gives  a  total  of  5,184,356 
marks.* 

The  cost  of  repairs  per  square  metre  was  therefore  1.416  marts  ex- 
clusive of  the  value  of  old  stones,  and  1.094  marks  inclusive  of  such 
value.  The  average  cost  of  repairs  on  the  entire  street  area  w;is,  ex- 
clusive of  the  value  of  old  stones,  17.2  pfennigs,  and  inclusive  of  such 
value  20.7  pfennigs  per  square  metre. 

The  labor  and  cost  represented  by  the  above  table  were  expended 
in  the  interest  of  street  intercourse  owiug  to  damages  to  the  paving 
from  traffic  and  atmospheric  influences.  But  the  streets  of  a  modern 
city  serve  other  public  purposes  than  those  of  intercourse.  Under  the 
streets  are  the  gas-pipe,  canalization,  pneumatic-tube,  telegraph,  tele- 
phone, electric-light  and  water-pipe  systems.  The  laying  and  repair- 
ing of  these  subterranean  systems  render  a  frequent  breaking  of  the 
street  pavement  necessary.t 

Especially  upon  the  better  pavements,  however,  such  breaking  open 
has  a  bad  effect,  because  they  affect  not  only  the  street  surface,  but  also 
the  sub-bedding  of  the  street. 

Every  effort  has  been  made  to  bring  the  pipe  and  cable  systems  away 
from  the  streets  and  under  the  sidewalks.  Yog  at  every  street  crossing 
the  paving  must  be  broken,  and  in  most  cases  the  municipal  water 
pipes  can  not  be  laid  under  the  sidewalks  as  they  are  not  permitted  to 
come  within  5  metres  J  ot*  the  houses  and  a  very  large  proportion  of 
sidewalks  are  4  metres,  or  less,  \vide.§ 


Yeara. 

Work  ou  water  syB- 
tem  in  streets. 

Amount  of 

wiilcr  pipes 

Unimpor- 
tant. 

Impor- 
tant. 

laid  or  re- 
laid. 

1878-'81 

1882-89 - 

No. 
3.8G2 
2,931 

No. 
15,446 
20,  519 

Metres. 
22.  702 
27,  209 

•The  city  has  a  small  income  which  somewhat  reduces  this  amount.  Persons  who 
open  public  streets  at  their  own  cost  are  by  statute  required,  during  the  first  4  years, 
for  the  purpose  of  keeping  up  repairs,  to  pay  to  the  city  an  annual  sum  of  20  pfennigs 
per  square  metre.  Iu  the  period  from  1882-'89  the  city's  income  from  this  source 
amounted  to  48,44?  marks. 

tThis  applies  chielly  to  such  systems  as,  for  unanticipated  causes,  requite  exten- 
sion. This  does  not  apply  to  the  municipal  caualizatiou,  as  the  size  of  this  is  not  in- 
fluenced by  the  demands  of  the  public,  but  by  the  amount  of  rainfall  to  be  carried  off. 
Furthermore  the  laying  of  this  system  nearly  always  precedes  the  laying  of  the  bet- 
ter street  pavemeut. 

The  renewal  of  the  pavement  broken  open  for  such  purposes  is  naturally  not  a 
municipal  expense,  but  such  repairs  are  made  by  the  street  commission  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  department  for  which  the  work  is  done. 

tThis  regulation  was  adopted  to  protect  from  the  water,  in  case  of  broken  pipes, 
the  cellars  and  foundations  of  neighboring  houses. 

§  The  following  table  shows  how  important  were  the  operations  of  the  water  com- 
mission, on  an  average,  for  each  year  of  the  periods  considered : 


EUROPE GERMANY. 


101 


In  addition  to  the  paving  expenses  already  alluded  to, there  are  others 
in  the  city  of  Berlin  which  are  as  large  as  the  entire  outlays  of  many 
large  towns  for  paving  purposes.    These  expenses  arise  from  widening 

old  streets,  the  laying  of  special  crossings  on  principal  streets,  laying 
of  temporary  pavements  in  the  outer  zones  of  the  city,  etc.  Another 
expense  is  consequent  upon  the  doing  away  with  deep  gutter  stones, 
which  is  rendered  possible  by  the  extension  of  the  general  subterranean 
drainage  system.  At  the  beginning  of  the  canalization  work  the  length 
of  these  deep  gutters  in  the  districts  of  radial  systems  I  to  VII  was 
490,350  metres. 

Of  this  before  the  beginning  of  the  period  covered  by  this  report,  i.  &, 
before  April  1, 1882,  185,080  metres  was  changed  to  flat  curbs. 

In  the  years  1882-'83  to  lSSS-'89  there  was  removed— 


Deep  gutter 
stones. 

Cost. 

Value  of 

old  stones 

ased. 

Total 
value  of 

the  work. 

Wages,  etc. 

New  stone. 

Total. 

Metres. 

274, 877 

Marks. 

503,  132 

Marks. 
298, 114 

Marks. 
801,246 

Marks. 

Maria. 
940,  579 

Altogether,  therefore,  400,557  metres  of  old  gutter  stones  have  been 
removed.*  Hence  it  appears  that  the  old  Berlin  gutters  have  almost 
entirely  disappeared. 

Stone  pavements :  In  spite  of  the  growing  use  of  asphalt  in  recent  years, 
of  the  entire  street  area  only  12.2  percent,  is  asphalt  paving,  while  8G.5 
per  cent,  is  stone.  Even  when  only  the  better  paved  streets  are  taken 
into  consideration  the  ratio  remains  27.5  to  G9.5. 

The  experience  of  former  years  taught  that  it  was  in  every  way  more 
advantageous  not  to  buy  stones  for  special  cases,  but  to  have  a  large 
supply  on  hand.  This,  however,  necessitates  large  storing  places  as 
well  as  numerous  trained  employes. 

Of  such  storing  places  at  the  end  of  the  period  under  report  three 
were  in  use  with  a  total  area  of  102,000  square  metres.  To  these  places, 
in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  delivery,  the  ordered  stones  are  brought 
by  the  contractors,  and,  after  unsatisfactory  stones  are  refused,  are  un- 
loaded by  employes  of  the  street  commission  and  the  amounts  entered 
in  the  depot  stock  books.  The  entire  depot  business  is  under  the 
charge  of  one  of  the  six  building  inspectors  of  the  street  commission, 
JThe  compensation  of  the  depot  bookkeeper,  overseer,  and  workmen — 
the  director  is  a  life  long  official,  while  the  others  are  employed  by  the 
day  — amounts  to  about  10,000  marks  per  annum.  The  building  in- 
spector has  the  assistance  of  three  members  of  the  street  commission, 
department  1 1,  as  curators. 

*  Tin-  report  of  tin-  municipal  si  root-cleaning  commission  shows  thai  in  consoqnei 

of  the  removal  of  such  gutters  the  am it  <>i   water  twe<j  foi  cleansing  the  same  baa 

fallen  from  512,3'J?  onhic  metn  •  to  133,272  cubic  metres. 


102  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

In  regard  to  the  total  amount  of  stone  delivered  during  the  period 
under  report,  the  quantities  of  different  sorts  of  stone,  and  the  total 
cost,  the  following  table  gives  information : 


Broken 
stones, 
classes  I 
to  III.* 

Broken  and  granite 
stones. 

Sill  stones 

for 
bordering 
track  rails. 

Total  cost. 

Tears. 

Classes  IV 
and  V. 

Class  VI. 

Sq.  met. 
57,  033 
89,  029 
89,  833 
11«5,  220 
136,  045 
92,  572 
114, 038 

Sq.  met. 

16,  221 
27,  533 
16, 145 

17,  458 
8,243 

22,  746 
11,  622 

Cub.  met. 
9,  351 
6,994 
5,429 
5,039 
581 
2,000 
4,442 

Metres. 
39,  316 
3,951 
3,238 
1,805 
27,  378 
17,  713 
17, 406 

Marks. 
1,  358, 287" 

1,651,360 

1884-'85 

1885-'86 

1,  565,  529 

1,  964,  206 

2,  105,930 

2, 107,  695 

1888-'89 

1,  669,  707 

694,  776 

119,  968 

1 33,  836 

110,  807 

12, 422,  804 

255,312  sq.met. 

*  The  stones  designated  as  classes  I, II,  and  III  are  broken  stones  worked  on  all  their  sides  into 
cubic  or  prismatic  forms.  Only  these  are  used  for  distinct  paving  or  repaving.  The  stones  of  classes 
IV  and  V  are  erratic  blocks  with  worked  square  tops,  while  class  VI  represents  stones  broken  in 
polygonal  form.    These  last  three  sorts  aro  used  only  for  repairing  old  pavings  made  of  similar  stones. 

t  It  is  calculated  that  with  every  cubic  metre  of  stone  of  class  VI  4  square  meters  of  paving  can  be 
laid. 

From  the  above  figures  it  appears  tha,t,  leaving  out  of  consideration 
the  stone  sills  which  are  used  for  bordering  street  car  track  rails  in 
asphalt  streets,  73  per  cent,  of  the  stones  obtained  were  for  the  best 
class  of  paving,  classes  I  to  III;  while  the  rest,  27  per  cent.,  were  for 
repairing  old  pavings  so  far  as  the  old  stones  could  not  be  reused.  It 
is  the  desire  of  the  street  commission  to  restrict  as  far  as  possible  the 
purchase  of  these  inferior  stoues  (classes  IV  to  VI)  and  to  purchase  the 
better  sorts  with  the  money  thus  saved. 

The.  following  table  shows  the  origin  of  these  stones.  The  stones 
from  Norway  aud  Sweden  are  exclusively  granite,  while  the  Belgian 
stoues  come  from  the  porphyry  quarries  of  Quenast,  near  Brussels. 
The  Bavarian  aud  Silesian  stones  are  granite,  while  those  from  Saxony 
are  porphyry,  greenstone,  and  granite.  The  stoues  from  Mark  Branden- 
burg (classes  V  and  VI)  are  exclusively  produced  from  so  called 
granite  erratic  blocks. 


From— 

Total. 

Tear. 

Sweden 

and 
Norway. 

Belgium. 

Bavaria. 

Saxony 
"     and 
Silesia. 

Mark 
Branden- 
burg. 

Other 
countries.* 

Sq.  met. 
44,994 

83,  862 
67,  927 
75,  307 
71,  404 
81,  590 
80,  485 

Sq.  met. 
9,453 
11,797 
26,  219 
41,  360 
52,  674 
536 
32, 177 

Sq.  met. 

Sq.  met. 
13,  132 
8,705 
7,717 
9,839 

13,  499 

14,  475 
1,  136~ 

Sq.  met. 
42,  097 
39,  573 
25,  731 

27,  243 
7,  095 

2^,  713 
24,  912 

Sq.  met. 

Sq.  met. 
110,652 
144.  308 
127,  594 
153,  817 
146.  612 
123,  318 
144,  328 

950, 629 
758, 265 

365 

67' 

476 

1SS5-8C  .-•- 

1886-'87 

18s7-'88 

'""i,"464 

1,004 

618 

505, 624 
66.67 

174,  216 
22.90 

4,068 
0.53 

73,  503 
9.69 

192,  364 

908 
0.12 

Percentage  of  the  total 
sum,     not    including 
Brandenburg  stone. . . 

*  Bohemia  and  the  Rhine  province. 


EUROPE — GERMANY. 


103 


The  foregoing  table  shows  that  the  vast  majority  of  the  stones  come 
from  abroad.  Many  futile  attempts  have  been  made  to  secure  tin- 
stones in  Germany,  but  so  far  the  foreign  competition  lias  been  irre- 
sistible. These  attempts,  however,  have  assisted  the  city  treasury,  as 
they  have  caused  a  fall  of  prices,  as  is  shown  in  the  following  table  : 


Sort  of  stone. 

Price  per  1,000  with  oabes,  p*t 
square  metre  with  prisma— 

Class. 

Form. 

Height. 

Before  the  year 

1885. 

Dp  to  April 
I,  1880. 

I     

Cubes  .. 

Prisms  . 
...dp  .... 

Cubes  .. 
...do.... 

Prisms  . 
...do... . 

Cubes  .. 

Prisms  . 
...do.... 

Centimetres. 
19  to  20 

19   In  20 

15  to  10 
in  to  20 
If.  t,.  16 
1!)  to  20 
15  tO   16 

19  to  'JO 
1!)  to  20 

15  to  16 

Marks. 

17.  75  to  It).  0 

403 

370 

13.10 

14.  GO  to  12.75 

47S  to  (50 

12.86 

13.80  to  13.30 

Marks. 

17 
13.74 

Ill 

11.71 

lo.  01 

454 

Ki.Tl 
10.00 

The  total  amount  of  good  stones  taken  from  old  pavements  during 
the  period  under  report  was  270,076  cubic  metres.  Of  this  amount 
75,091  cubic  metres  were  used  again.  The  remainder  was  bioken  up 
and  used  as  sub-bedding  for  stone  pavements  of  classes  I  to  III,  and  for 
other  purposes.  A  part  was  sold  to  neighboring  rural  communities.  As 
the  demand  therefor  has  been  lively,  the  prices  per  cubit;  metre  have 
risen  from  4  marks  to  7  marks  and  upwards.*  The  amount  of  stones 
thus  sold  was  49,761  cubic  metres,  and  the  receipts  from  this  source 
were  253,793  marks. 

Highroads— 1\\  addition  to  the  streets  to  which  up  to  this  point  this 
report  has  been  confined,  there  are  also  within  a  small  part  of  the  city 
limits  highroads;  and  in  addition  to  these,  the  city  is  also  responsible 
for  certain  country  roads  built  by  it  beyond  the  city  limits.  The  reports 
for  the  years  LS77-'81  show  the  length  of  such  highroads  to  have  been 
70,000  metres.  At  the  close  of  the  period  now  under  report,  it  had 
been  reduced  to  68,150  metres.  This  reduction  is  mainly  due  to  the 
extension  of  paved  streets.  As  rapid  as  possible  reduction  of  this 
amount  is  desirable,  as  in  warm  weather  such  highroads  are  exceed- 
ingly dusty,  and  in  wet  weather  they  become  dirty  and  slippery  ;  ami, 
furthermore,  they  are  exceedingly  expensive  to  keep  in  order.f 

"In  the  your  1889  as  much  as  9.5  marks  pet  cubic  mot  re  wits  offered  ami  paid. 

t  While.,  as  has  already  been  shown,  this  cost  for  paved  Btreeta  is  17. -J  or  83.7 
gfennige  per  square  metre  per  annum,  L0  years'  observation  has  shown  thai  the  min- 
imum average  annual  cost  for  keeping  in  order  such  chausatSes  was  22  pfennige.  Tins 
coHt  (22  pfennige)  was  for  the  comparatively  little  used  ohaussee  connecting  the 
Charlottenburg  road  with  tlie  royal  porcelain  factory. 


104 


STREETS    AND   HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Name. 

Cost  per  square  metre  per  year, 
from  1877  to  1888. 

Highest. 

Lowest. 

Average 
for  10  years. 

Chanssecs  in  the  Thiergarten  Park: 

Marks. 

1.72 
4.57 
2.25 
3.04 
1.77 
2.68 
2.59 

1.76 
3.40 
1.65 
1.27 
1.22 

Marks. 

.22 
.67 
.50 
.36 
.29 
.05 
.04 

.36 
.23 
.24 
.27 
.32 

Marks. 

1.23 

1.72 

1.09 

1.82 

.77 

.56 

.56 

Chaussecs  connecting  the  city  with  suburbs : 

.86 

.97 

.71 

.67 

.88 

A  further  reduction  of  the  extent  of  such  chaussees,  for  whose  pres- 
ervation the  city  is  responsible,  will  shortly  result  from  an  agreement 
made  with  the  municipality  of  Charlottenburg.  By  this  agreement 
Charlottenburg  assumes  proprietorship  and  charge  of  the  chaussees  on 
Salzufer  and  Obarlottenburger  Ufer,  on  condition  of  the  city  of  Berlin 
paying  to  it  the  sum  of  9,400  marks  per  annum.  By  this  agreement  is 
removed  a  disagreeable  condition  of  affairs  under  which  one  city  owned 
and  was  responsible  for  a  street  within  the  limits  of  another  city. 

Sidewalks. — So  far  this  report  has  been  confined  to  the  streets  of 
Berlin.  In  conclusion  it  may  be  of  interest  to  Ray  a  few  words  in 
regard  to  sidewalks. 

Long  before  the  repaving  of  the  streets  began,  the  movement  to  re- 
place the  old  sidewalks  was  inaugurated.  This  work  was  begun  soon 
after  the  year  1830  by  laying  granite  slabs  in  the  middle  of  the  side- 
walks. The  next  improvement  was  the  covering  of  those  parts  of  the 
pavement  on  both  sides  of  the  granite  slabs  with  mosaic-stone  plates. 
Later  on,  house-owners  were  permitted  to  pave  their  entire  sidewalks 
with  asphalt. 

A  regulation  on  this  subject  was  issued  in  1873  which  also  gave 
assistance  to  land  owners  from  the  city  treasury.  If  one  observes, 
everywhere  where  sidewalks  border  on  impervious  street  surfaces,  be- 
tween the  granite  slabs  or  asphalt  pavement  and  the  curbstone,  some- 
times a  half,  sometimes  a  whole  metre  of  mosaic  strips,  the  reason  there- 
for lies  in  this  regulation.  They  have  a  double  purpose :  First,  because 
if  both  street  surface  and  sidewalk  are  impervious  the  danger  arises 
that  gas  or  water  escaping  from  pipes  under  the  streets,  unable  to  escape 
upwards,  must  force  its  way  sidewards  into  the  cellars  or  under  the 
foundations  of  neighboring  houses.  Second,  because  where  it  is  in- 
tended to  plant  trees  on  the  sidewalks  their  growth  would  be  impossi- 
ble with  an  unbroken  street  surface. 

In  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  order  of  the  royal  police 
presidency  of  January  17,  1883,  and  of  the  magistracy  of  February  6, 
1874,  during  the  period  under  report  private  land-owners  laid  186,800 


EUROPE — GERMANY.  105 

square  metres  of  good  sidewalk,  and  the  assistance  rendered  in  this  di- 
rection  by  the  city  treasury  amounted  to  471,415  marks. 

In  addition  to  this,  sidewalks  were  laid  by  the  city  in  public  squares, 
parks,  and  along  water  courses,  to  an  extent  of  12G,357  square  metres, 
at  a  cost  of  513,722  marks. 

W.  U.  Edwards, 


Consul- General. 


United  States  Consulate-General, 

Berlin,  March  4,  1891. 


FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN. 
REPORT  BY  OONBVL-OENERAL  MASO.X. 

The  subject  embraced  by  the  inquiry  prescribed  in  the  Department 
circular  of  November  8  divides  itself  naturally,  here  as  elsewhere,  into 
two  distinct  topics,  viz,  paved  streets  in  cities  and  towns,  in  which 
various  systems  of  stone,  wood,  and  asphalt  pavements  have  been  used 
with  greater  or  less  success ;  aud  (2)  country  highways,  which  in  Ger- 
many are  uniformly  macadamized  roads  of  varying  width  according  to 
location  and  the  quantity  of  travel  and  traffic  to  be  accommodated. 

•     MUNICIPAL   STREET   CONSTRUCTION. 

In  respect  to  sewerage,  gas  and  water  service  and  street  pavements, 
Frankfort  presents  a  complete  aud  interesting  example  of  a  well-built 
and  carefully  kept  modern  municipality  grafted  on  the  somewhat  rude 
and  irregular  stock  of  a  mediaeval  walled  city,  laid  out  and  constructed 
upon  the  ancient  model,  under  which  the  principal  consideration  was 
the  accommodation  of  the  largest  population  within  the  limited  space 
inclosed  by  its  defensive  walls.  Down  to  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century  Frankfort  was  a  labyrinth  of  narrow,  tortuous  streets,  opening 
at  their  intersections  into  small  open  spaces  of  irregular  form  and 
flanked  by  buildings  five  or  six  stories  in  height,  which  for  greater  econ- 
omy of  space  often  overhung  by  several  feet  the  narrow  pavement 
below.  These  streets  were  paved  with  small,  round  cobblestones,  laid 
upon  the  natural  but  well-trodden  gravel,  and  with  such  profile  as  to 
form  open  gutters  at  the  sides  of  the  wider  streets  or  along  the  middle 
of  the  narrower  ones.  From  1801  to  lSOl!  the  outer  walls  were  removed, 
the  moat  filled  up,  and  the  space  thus  acquired  was  converted  into 
park 8,  which  with  the  adjacent  boulevards  encircle  three  sides  of  tin- 
old  town  (the  fourth  being  Hanked  by  the  river  Main)  and  which  now 
form  one  of  the  most  attractive  features  ot  the  eity.      From  thai  period 

down  to  1807  the  pavements  were  exposed  to  all  tl xigeucies  of  sewer- 

building,  gas  and   water  pipe  laying,  and    made  therefore   little   <»r   00 
progress  in  quality  or  change  in  character. 


106  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

In  1867  tbe  principal  commercial  thoroughfares  had  been  provided 
with  gas,  water,  and  sewerage  and  the  construction  of  solid,  well  laid 
pavements  of  dressed  stone  blocks  began,  subject  to  the  further  dis- 
turbance which  came  with  the  introduction  of  the  first  street  railway- 
in  1869.  Frankfort  stands  on  a  level  sandy  river  plain  which  has  a 
substratum  of  loose  gravel  that  absorbs  water  with  great  facility,  and 
although  favorable  from  a  sanitary  standpoint,  forms  an  uncertain  and 
treacherous  foundation  for  pavements  especially  when  the  original 
earth  has  been  previously  disturbed  by  the  layiug  of  sewers  or  water- 
mains.  It  cost  the  Fraukforters  years  of  experience  to  learn  the  all- 
important  lesson  that  in  order  to  meet  the  constantly  increasing  require- 
ments of  modern  city  traffic  the  essential  requisite  of  a  successful  pave- 
ment is  a  solid,  deep  laid,  water-tight  foundation,  and  that  without  this 
any  pavement,  however  cheap  in  original  cost  and  fair  on  the  surface, 
is  certain  to  prove  extravagant  and  disappointing.  So  well  is  this  prin- 
ciple now  established  that  it  is  the  custom  to  first  grade  and  lay  new 
streets  with  a  temporary  pavement  of  stone  blocks  set  on  the  plain 
gravel  and  then  after  some  years  of  use  have  thoroughly  settled  and 
solidified  the  ground  to  take  up  the  temporary  pavement,  excavate  to 
the  required  depth  and  lay  in  a  permanent  cement  and  rubble  founda- 
tion, upon  which  the  original  stone  blocks,  from  which  soft  or  imperfect 
ones  are  carefully  excluded,  are  then  relaid.  Frankfort  has  made  care- 
ful experiments  with  macadamized  streets  and  with  permanent  pave- 
ments of  three  materials,  viz :  cut  stone,  asphalt,  and  wood,  and  the 
costs  and  results  in  each  case  will  now  be  separately  considered. 

Stone  pavements. — Stone  pavements  are  usually  made  of  four-sided, 
wedge-shaped  blocks  of  gray  grauite,  which  are  obtained  at  various 
points,  notably  from  Alsace,  from  quarries  along  the  Rhine  between 
Mayence  and  Coblenz,  from  Passau  on  the  Danube,  and  from  the  moun- 
tains of  the  Odenwald.  Black  porphyry  from  the  Bavarian  Pfalz  and 
basalt  from  the  Vogelsberg  near  Eanan  are  used  in  slabs  or  large,  broad 
blocks  for  paving  narrow  streets,  but  on  account  of  their  irregular 
hardness  these  slabs  soon  become  rough  and  unsatisfactory,  so  that 
granite  is  now  the  standard  material  for  roadways  and  straight  curb- 
stones. The  method  of  construction  for  the  best  class  of  grauite  pave- 
ments in  old  and  important  streets  is  as  follows: 

The  old  or  temporary  pavement  is  first  removed  and  the  earth  exca- 
vated to  a  depth  of  16  inches.  The  bottom  is  then  covered  with  a 
2  inch  layer  of  broken  stone,  over  which  a  steam  roller  is  passed  to 
firmly  embed  this  rubble  foundation  in  the  earth.  If  the  bottom  is  of 
particularly  loose  and  unstable  material,  or  if  veins  of  water  render  it 
soft,  small,  flat  stones  are  selected,  set  on  edge,  and  hammered  firmly 
into  place.  Upon  this  substratum  is  then  laid  a  bed  from  6  to  8  inches 
deep  of  concrete  made  of  best  Portland  cement  mixed  with  sharp, 
coarse  sand.  When  this  has  firmly  "  set "  it  is  covered  with  an  inch  of 
clean,  fine  sand,  which  forms  an  elastic  cushion  between  the  solid  con- 


EUROPE GERMANY. 


107 


crote  foundation  and  the  pavement.  Upon  this  are  then  set  the  granite 
blocks,  7  inches  square  at  the  top,  8  inches  in  depth,  and  tapering 
slightly  from  top  to  bottom  to  form  the  arch  of  the  street  surface.  The 
seams  between  the  blocks  are  calked  with  coarse  gravel  and  melted 
coal  tar,  which  not  only  helps  to  render  the  pavement  impervious  and 
thus  protect  it  against  the  action  of  frost,  but  holds  the  blocks  in  place 
and  prevents  lateral  motion.  Such  a  pavement  costs  from  15  to  10 
marks  ($3.57  to  $3.80)  per  square  metre,  a  high  figure,  but  the  expense 
of  keeping  it  in  repair  is  next  to  nothing,  and  as  it  lasts  indefinitely,  it 
proves,  like  all  good,  genuine  work,  cheapest  in  the  end. 

!Next  in  order  come  the  ordinary  stone  pavements  made  of  granite 
blocks  similar  to  the  preceding,  but  laid  on  the  natural  gravel  or  sand, 
which  has  been  previously  graded  and  rolled  as  hard  as  possible  with 
a  steam  roller.  For  suburban  streets  or  where  traffic  is  light  these  com- 
mon pavements  serve  reasonably  well  for  a  series  of  years,  but  they 
invariably  become  rough,  expensive  to  clean  and  maintain,  and  in  the 
end  unsatisfactory.  The  comparative  cost  of  the  two  foregoing  classes 
of  cut  stone  pavements — that  is,  the  best  and  the  ordinary  grade — with 
their  respective  expense  of  maintenance  during  the  first  5  years,  are 
shown  by  the  following  table,  in  which  the  calculation  is  made  per  run- 
mug  metre  for  half  the  width  of  the  street  between  curbstones : 


Cost  of  front  metre  for  half  of  street  width. 


Ordinary  block  stone  pavement  laid  in  sand. 

Granite  block,  cement  and  rubble 

foundation. 

Width  of  street. 

Construc- 
tion. 

Mainte- 
nance 

5  years. 

Total. 

Equivalent 

per  square 

metre. 

Construc- 
tion. 

Mainte- 
nance 
5  years. 

Total. 

Equivalent 

pei  square 

metre. 

35  feet 

$10. 58 
12.  86 
14.28 
19.14 

$1.19 
1.52 
1.69 
2.38 

$11.77 
14.38 
15.  97 
21.52 

$2  11 
2.03 
2.00 
1.91 

$18.91 
22.  01 
24. '.!'.» 
34.  03 

$1.19 
1.50 
1.66 

2.  38 

$20. 10 
24.11 
2ft  OS 
36.41 

$3.  78 

3.47 

3.51 

3.40 

These  statistics  are  somewhat  complicated,  and  from  an  American 
standpoint  may  seem  awkward,  but  they  show  the  German  method  of 
keeping  accounts  for  street  construction  and  maintenance.  It  will  be 
noted  that  the  cost  of  keeping*the  two  kinds  of  pavement  in  repair  does 
not  differ  much  during  the  first  five  years,  but  after  that  period  the 
superior  economy  of  the  better  grade  becomes  more  and  more  manifest. 

Of  the  macadamized  streets  in  Frankfort  there  is  not  much  to  be  Said. 
This  system  was  used  extensively  some  years  ago,  particularly  Oil  the 
broad  highways  leading  into  the  city,  as  well  as  on  the  circular  boule- 
vard which  was  constructed  when  the  enciente  was  removed  in  1806. 
Tin-re  is  found  in  this  region  a  dark  colored  slaty  kind  of  limestone, 
which  breaks  easily  and  parks  firmly  on  roads  of  this  character.  Mac- 
adamizing costs  when  well  done  aUOUl  $2  per  square  meter,  but  it  is 
the  most  expensive  of  all  pavements  to  keep  clean  ami  in  repair,  requir- 
ing constant  patching  and  Idling  to  maintain  a  good  surface.      It  is  also 


108  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

more  or  less  pasty  in  wet  weather,  and  loses  rapidly  from  the  process 
of  street  cleaning ;  it  is  dusty  in  dry  weather  unless  constantly  watered, 
and  is,  on  the  whole,  better  suited  to  country  or  suburban  roads  than 
city  streets. 

Asphalt  pavements. — Of  asphalt  pavements  it  can  be  said  that  except 
for  sidewalks  they  have  been  used  only  experimentally  in  Frankfort. 
The  first  pavement  of  this  kind  was  laid  down  in  1880.  Although  such 
as  have  been  laid  have  stood  the  test  of  use  reasonably  well,  they  have 
been  subject  to  the  usual  objection  of  being  dangerously  slippery  in 
muddy  weather.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  it  has  been  found  especially  requi- 
site that  asphalt  pavements  should  be  kept  clean,  and  this  is  possible 
without  great  expense  only  where  the  same  kind  of  pavement  is  laid 
continuously  over  large  street  areas  and  the  margins  where  asphalt,  pave- 
ments are  entered  upon  from  macadamized  or  gravel  roads  kept  free 
from  mud  by  coustaut  cleaning.  Otherwise  country  wagons  soon  cover 
them  with  dirt  which  in  wet  weather  makes  the  asphalt  a  slippery  and 
treacherous  footing.  Experiments  were  made  some  years  ago  with  a 
native  asphalt  from  Sisal  in  Hanover,  but  it  was  of  inferior  quality,  and 
has  been  replaced  by  the  French  material  from  Val-de-Travers  and  by 
asphalt  from  Sicily.  Good  asphalt  pavement  requires  a  firm  rubble  and 
cement  foundation,  and  when  well  and  thoroughly  done  after  the  process 
which  has  been  so  long  and  successfully  used  at  Paris,  costs  in  Frank- 
fort from  $3.30  to  $3.50  per  square  metre,  or  nearly  as  much  as  the  best 
kind  of  stone  pavement,  to  which  it  is  inferior  in  point  of  durability 
and  expense  of  maintenance. 

Wood  pavements. — The  experiments  with  wood  pavements  began  at 
Frankfort  in  1885,  when  a  part  of  the  "  Zeil"— the  principal  business 
thor 'mghfare  of  the  city— was  paved  with  that  material.  Subsequently, 
a  part  of  a  much  traveled  street  called  the  "  Stein  weg"  was  set  apart  for 
further  experiment.  Contracts  were  given  to  five  different  firms,  who 
laid  down  their  special  varieties  of  wood  pavement,  in  which  were  used 
German  beech  and  pine,  Swedish  pine,  American  cypress  and  yellow 
pine,  part  of  which  were  impregnated  by  different  methods  and  part  not 
impregnated  at  all.  All  these  several  wood  pavements  were  laid  in  the 
most  careful  and  thorough  manner  upon  impermeable  cement  and  rubble 
foundations,  similar  to  those  employed  with  the  best  class  of  granite 
pavements,  and  they  are  all  iu  good  condition  to-day  after  more  than 
Syears  of  severe  and  constant  use.  As  to  which  of  the  five  varieties  has 
proved  superior,  I  can  give  only  the  opinion  of  Mr.  W.  H.  Liudley, 
chief  engineer  of  this  city,  who  declares  in  favor  of  the  Kerr  system, 
an  English  method  which  has  been  employed  on  a  large  scale  during 
recent  years  at  London  and  Paris.  The  Kerr  pavements  laid  down  in 
Frankfort  are  made  of  blocks  of  Swedish  pine  4  inches  in  depth,  not 
impregnated,  but  set  in  a  salve  of  melted  coal-tar  upon  the  orthodox 
cement  foundation  8  inches  thick,  and  which  rests  on  2  inches  of 
broken  stone.     It  is  well  known  that  the  municipality  of  Paris  has 


EUROPE GERMANY.  109 

adopted  the  Kerr  wood  pavement  for  some  of  its  most  important  streets 
and  avenues,  under  an  arrangement  by  which  the  patentee  lays  down 
the  pavements  at  his  own  expense  and  keeps  them  in  good  repair  for  a 
yearly  rental  of  2.50  francs  (47£  cents)  per  square  metre,  a  rate  that 
would  be  considered  extravagant  in  most  Europeau  municipalities. 

There  appears,  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  nothing  mysterious  or 
extraordinary  in  any  of  the  wooden  pavements  which  have  been  tried 
with  such  uniform  success  in  Frankfort.  The  important  fact  is  that 
they  are  all  well  and  honestly  constructed.  Whether  impregnation  of 
the  blocks  is  of  any  important  advantage  in  this  climate  is  an  open 
question,  but  the  three  essential  requisites  are  carefully  observed,  viz: 
1,  a  solid,  impervious,  concrete  foundation;  2,  blocks  of  sound,  well 
seasoned  wood,  carefully  selected,  and  free  from  spongy,  sap-rotted,  or 
otherwise  imperfect  pieces;  3,  each  block  firmly  set  in  hot  pitch,  and 
the  interstices  poured  full  of  the  same  material.  There  is  no  laying  of 
wood  pavements  here  upon  pine  boards  resting  on  sand  or  gravel,  with 
the  frost  lifting  them  out  of  place  each  wiuter  and  the  water  oozing  up 
through  them  from  every  surface  vein  or  leaking  water  main.  Such 
experiments  have  been  left  exclusively  to  the  more  courageous  munici- 
palities of  newer  and  less  conservative  countries. 

Sidewalks.— Sidewalks  were  made  in  early  times  of  cobblestones  set  in 
sand,  then  small  squared  granite  blocks  were  used ;  next  asphalt  was  ex- 
tensively employed,  but  since  1S7G  the  principal  sidewalks  in  Frankfort 
have  been  built  of  concrete  in  the  following  manner:  When  the  grad- 
ing is  finished  and  rolled  to  uniform  hardness  and  solidity  there  is  laid 
down  a  bed  5  inches  thick  of  concrete,  composed  of  one  part  of  Portland 
cement  and  seven  parts  of  coarse  gravel.  Upon  this  is  then  spread  a 
surface  coat  1  inch  thick  of  concrete,  containing  equal  parts  of  cement 
and  fine  clean  sand.  While  the  surface  is  still  smooth  and  soft  it  is 
cross-hatched  with  shallow  lines  into  rectangular  or  diamond-shaped 
squares,  which  give  a  finished  appearance  and  oiler  a  more  secure  foot- 
ing in  wet  or  wintry  weather.  Curbstones  are  of  granite,  with  syenite 
blocks  for  curves  and  street  corners. 

COST   OF   THE   VARIOUS    PROCESSES. 

From  the  last  report  of  the  city  engineer  of  Prankford  there,  is  here- 
with translated  the  average  cos t  per  square  metre  of  each  process  in- 
volved in  constructing  the  various  kinds  of  pavements  and  sidewalks, 
viz: 

1.  Smoothing  and  preparing  sui-iai;",  grading  not.  included f0.05  to  |0.  L6 

Sidewalks: 

2.  Steinheim  granite  blocks  in  rows I.pj 

3.  Pfalz  granite  blocks  in  rows 

4.  Bteinheiu)  granite  slabs l.i;ti 

5.  Concrete,  per  process  above  described .'.'.. 

6.  Of  molten  asphalt  ipread  over  broken  stone 1.15 

7.  Asphalt  slabs  iVoni  Val  de  Travers 1.90 

ti.  Macadamized .71 


110  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Street  roadway: 

9.  Of  cobble  stone,  top  dressed,  on  sand  bed $1.75 

10.  Square  blocks  Pfalz  porpbyry  on  sand  bed 2.24 

11.  Square  blocks  bard  basalt  on  sand  bed 2.85 

12.  Square  blocks  Alsatian  granite  on  concrete  foundation $3.90  to  4.40 

13.  Square  blocks  Vilsbofen  granite  on  concrete  foundation 4. 65 

14.  Molten  aspbalt  on  concrete  foundation 3.70 

15.  Natural  Frencb  aspbalt  on  concrete  foundation 4. 65 

16.  Wood  pavement,  beecb  or  pine 4.15        4.85 

17.  Curbstones  of  syenite,  including  setting  on  cement  foundation,  per 

linear  metre: 

Straight 1-90 

Curved - 2.00 

In  the  above  items,  from  No.  12  to  16,  inclusive,  there  is  included  85 
cents  per  square  metre  as  the  cost  of  the  concrete  and  the  rubble  foun- 
dation, which,  as  already  explained,  is  an  essential  part  of  all  high-class 
roadway  pavements  in  this  city. 

The  expense  of  pavement  construction  is  provided  as  follows  :  For 
repaving  old  streets  within  the  city  the  whole  cost  is  paid  by  the  mu- 
nicipal treasury  from  the  public  fund.  New  streets  in  the  suburbs  are 
first  paved  at  public  expense,  but  when  the  adjacent  property  is  after- 
wards  built  upon  the  city  assesses  upon  the  owners  of  such  buildings 
the  full  cost  of  the  paving  in  front  of  their  land  up  to  half  the  width  of 
a  street  not  more  than  26  metres  wide,  the  excess  above  that  width  re- 
mains to  be  borne  by  the  public  treasury..  Finally,  and  this  is  a  point 
which  American  municipalities  should  not  lose  sight  of,  permission  is 
never  given  to  private  parties  to  cut  the  pavement  through  a  street  for 
any  purpose.  When  such  work  is  required  the  party  desiring  it  ap- 
plies to  the  proper  bureau,  the  work  is  done  carefully  and  thoroughly 
by  the  city  authorities,  and  the  party  who  has  made  the  petition  pays 
for  it. 

COUNTRY  ROADS. 

The  excellent  roads  of  Germany  are  mainly  a  heritage  from  the  cen- 
tury which  immediately  preceded  the  introduction  of  railroads.  In 
those  days  the  mails  and  the  few  travelers  who  journeyed  by  public 
conveyance  wTere  carried  by  post  chaises ;  freight  was  transported  by 
great  lumbering  wagons,  each  drawn  by  six  horses,  and  what  was  re- 
garded as  not  less  important  in  that  period  of  prolonged  and  incessant 
warfare,  broad,  smooth  roads  were  necessary  for  the  rapid  movement 
of  the  king's  armies  with  their  supply  trains  and  artillery.  Accord- 
ingly the  construction  and  maintenance  of  public  highways  was  then 
an  important  function  of  the  national  government,  administered  by  a 
vast  bureau  or  department  similar  to  the  department  of  Pouts  et 
Ohaussees  now  maintained  in  France.  It  required  many  years  after 
the  introduction  of  railroads  to  persuade  the  conservative  officials  of 
the  Prussian  Government  that  the  period  of  freight  wagons  and  post 
chaises  was  forever  past,  and  that  thenceforth  their  splendid  system  of 


EUROPE GERMANY.  Ill 

macadamized  and  graded  highways  mast  play  a  secondary  role.  The 
lesson  was  finally  learned,  however,  and  on  the  organization  of  the 
empire  in  1870,  or  soon  thereafter,  the  state  assumed  control  of  the 
principal  railways  and  turned  the  public  roads  back  to  the  care  of  the 
provinces.  The  consequence  is  that  Baden,  Wnrtembarg,  Bavaria, 
Westphalia,  and  the  other  provinces  of  Germany  have  each  their  sepa- 
rate system  of  administration  for  the  construction  and  maintenence  of 
public  roads.  This  administrative  machinery  is  based  upon  a  political 
system  so  different  from  our  own  as  to  nearly  or  quite  deprive  it  of  all 
practical  interest  in  this  connection;  but  in  respect  to  methods  of  con- 
struction the  results  of  German  experience  may  furnish  some  timely 
suggestions. 

As  a  result  of  the  circumstances  already  noticed  very  few  new  roads 
are  now  constructed  in  this  part  of  Germany.  The  great  national 
roads  which  were  built  before  the  railway  period  are  adequate  for  all 
military  purposes.  The  principal  work  of  later  years  has  been  to 
improve  suburban  highways  and  secure  easy  communication  at  all  sea- 
sons between  important  railway  stations  and  the  surrounding  districts. 
For  this  purpose  narrower  and  cheaper  roads  than  those  formerly  built 
are  frequently  adequate,  so  that  it  may  be  said  in  general  that  the 
standard  of  road  building  has  deteriorated  during  the  last  20  years  in 
all  parts  of  Germany,  except  Baden,  where  the  highest  grade  of  excel- 
lence is  still  maintained.  In  respect  to  construction,  the  German  proc- 
ess is  identical  with  that  of  France  and  Switzerland.  Every  impor- 
tant road  is  a  graded,  macadamized  turnpike,  with  culverts  of  massive 
stone,  ditches  on  either  side  (which  are  paved  wherever  there  is  danger 
of  washing)  and  generally  lined  with  trees  (either  poplar,  sycamore,  or 
linden).  All  slopes  and  counterscarps  are  secured  by  grass,  planted 
from  seed  when  the  soil  is  sufficiently  fertile  to  receive  it,  otherwise  by 
turfing.  Where  the  slope  is  necessarily  steep  and  unstable,  it  is  faced 
like  the  retaining  walls  of  embankments,  with  solid  masonry. 

The  profile  and  alignment  of  each  road  is  a  skillful  compromise  be- 
tween directness  of  route  and  an  easy  gradient.  Wherever  practicable, 
the  road  is  a  straight  line  between  the  points  connected;  when  the  ex- 
igencies of  surface  forbid  this,  the  best  skill  of  the  engineer  is  employed 
to  circumvent  the  obstacle  by  the  most  direct  route  compatible  with  a 
practicable  grade.  Bridges  were  formerly  exclusively  of  masonry,  but 
of  late  years  iron  and  steel  structures  of  various  patterns  similar  to 
those  used  in  the  United  States  for  railway  and  road  bridges  have  been 
introduced.  Wherever  a  German  road  is  Hanked  by  a  slope  or  precipice 
which  presents  the  slightest  danger,  the  exposed  side  is  guarded  by  a 
line  of  heavy  stone  posts,  connected  wherever  necessary  by  railings  of 
iron  or  wood,  and  in  many  places  these  pillars  are  of  white  basalt,  which 
renders  tbem  more  easily  distinguishable  at  night.  There  is,  apparently, 
no  rigidly  prescribed  limit  to  the  gradient  of  German  roads.  They  are 
classed  according  to  width,  which  varies  from  7  to  S£  metres— that  is 


112  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

from  22.0  to  26.47  feet.  The  line  and  gradients  having  been  established 
by  survey,  bridges  and  culverts  constructed,  and  the  whole  surface  of 
the  roadway  graded  to  a  flat  uniform  surface  of  the  required  width,  and 
all  filled  portions  rolled  and  thoroughly  settled,  the  wagon  track,  which 
is  from  4  to  5  metres  wide,  is  first  spread  with  a  2-inch  layer  of  broken 
stone  which  is  crushed  by  heavy  rollers  into  a  fir  m  and  even  foundation. 
If  the  ground  should  prove  treacherous  by  reason  of  springs  or  quick- 
sand, larger  stones  are  chosen,  set  upon  edge  and  rammed  into  place 
uutd  a  secure  foundation  is  obtained.  Upon  this  layers  of  broken  stone 
are  added,  rammed  and  rolled  to  a  depth  of  21  centimetres  (8£  inches). 
The  wear  of  daily  travel  and  tra  ffic  does  the  rest. 

The  cost  of  such  a  road  depends  naturally  upon  several  conditions 
more  or  less  variable,  such  as  the  nature  of  the  ground  and  consequent 
expense  of  grading,  the  distances  to  which  stone,  earth,  etc.,  must  be 
transported,  and  other  circumstances.  The  only  method  of  reaching 
an  approximate  estimate  is  therefore  to  analyze  the  construction  ac- 
couut  of  certain  roads  which  have  been  built  in  Germany  during  the 
past  30  years. 

For  this  purpose  we  select  as  an  example  of  a  first-class  highway  of 
the  broadest  type,  one  which  was  built  about  10  years  ago  over  a  level 
expanse  between  the  villages  of  Langenfeld  and  Burgwald.  The  road 
in  question  is  2,100  metres  (2,324  yards)  long  and  20£  feet  in  width,  the 
macadamized  wagon  track  being  13£  feet  wide  and  8£  inches  thick. 
With  labor  estimated  throughout  at  36  cents  per  day,  except  for  stone 
masonry  which  costs  in  country  districts  from  60  to  75  cents  per  day, 
the  construction  account  of  the  Langenfeld  and  Burgwald  Chaussee 
foots  up  as  follows  : 

Grading  roadway $707.61 

Planting  and  turfing  slopes 89.96 

Bridges  and  culverts 154.70 

Macadamizing 3,647.35 

Markstoues,  uumbers,  etc  11.  38 

Tools .' 75.68 

Damage  to  adjacent  property  during  work 155.65 

Tree  planting 61.88 

Superintendence  of  construction ..'.-  369.85 

Incidentals , 49.98 

Total  for  2,100  metres 5,324.24 

This  is  equivalent  to  about  $3,646  per  mile. 

The  above  exhibit  represents  the  average  cost  of  converting  an  ordi- 
nary dirt  road  in  a  country  district  into  a  macadamized  chaussee  of 
maximum  width  aud  standard  quality.  From  a  report  published  at 
Guben  in  1883,  by  State  Engineer  Schultze,  the  following  statistics  are 
copied  which  show  the  net  ccst  per  running  metre  of  several  important 


EUROPE GERMANY. 


113 


roads  which  were  built  under  supervision  of  the  author  during  the 
period  from  1871  to  1882 : 


Lengtb. 

"Width. 

C(  It 

Designation. 

Whole 
road. 

Carriage 
way. 

Total. 

IVr 
running 

metre. 

Equivalent 
in  dollar! 
pa  mile. 

Beeskew  Lieberose 

Lubbrn  Lieberose 

Metres. 
80,036 
32,500 

6,  546 
13,533 

17,  080 
6,177 

Metres. 
8.79 
8.79 
9.00 
8.50 
8.50 
8.79 

Metres. 
i.  39 
4.39 
3.75 

4.00 
4.00 
3.75 

Marks. 

275,648 
48,  727 

1 1 5,  2  1 1 
126,  113 

59,668 

Mks.p/i. 
8       98 

8  48 
7       47 

9  67 
7  13 
9       66 

'   $2,630 
3,  224 

Ziebingen  Fnrstenberg 

3,689 

In  respect  to  the  expense  of  maintaining  well-built  roads  in  this 
country  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  statistics  which  prove  any  definite  re- 
sult. Once  built,  the  cost  of  keeping  a  chaussee  in  repair  is  in  propor- 
tion to  the  weight  of  traffic  which  it  carries,  modified  somewhat  by  the 
varying  quantity  of  heavy,  washing  rains  which  fall  and  in  some  cases, 
notwithstanding  all  precautions,  choke  culverts  and  overflow  and  dam- 
age the  roadways.  But  these  accidents  are  rare  and  generally  trivial, 
so  that  the  work  of  keeping  a  German  road  in  repair  consists  mainly 
in  replacing  with  broken  stone  the  material  which  is  ground  up  by 
travel  and  washed  off  as  mud,  or  blown  away  as  dust. 

Frank  H.  Mason, 

Consul-  General. 
United  States  Consulate-General, 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  February  13,  1891. 


HAMBURG. 

The  streets  of  Hamburg  are  at  present  in  such  a  wretched  condition 
that  I  would  not  like  to  recommend  any  system  they  use  here  for  any 
city  in  the  United  States. 

The  press  of  this  city  are  full  of  complaints  about  the  paving  of 
streets  and  the  bad  condition  of  the  highways.  A  movement  is,  how- 
ever, on  foot  to  secure  better  streets  for  the  city,  and  I  shall  report  upon 
any  progress  made  here  in  this  direction. 

Chas.  F.  Johnson, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Hamburg,  December  31,  1800. 
33A 8 


114  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

MAGDEBURG. 

REPOliT  BY  COMMERCIAL  AGENT  WASHBURN,  OF  MAODEBURQ. 

CITY   STREETS. 

Magdeburg  Las  a  population  of  180,000.  Its  streets — city  proper  ami 
suburbs— are  uniformly  paved  with  stone.  The  particular  grade  is  a 
kind  of  porphyry,  which  is  unusually  hard  and  has  the  advantage  of 
being  quarried  in  the  immediate  vicinity.  In  the  work  of  paving  two 
classifications  are  made: 

The  first  is  known  as  the  reihen  pflaster  (pavement  in  rows).  The 
stones  used  for  this  purpose  are  required  to  be  of  uniform  size  and  of 
the  following  dimensions :  7£  inches  long,  5i  inches  broad,  and  7  inches 
deep.  The  spaces  between  the  stones  are  filled  with  sand.  This  is  the 
usual  pavement  in  fhe  principal  streets.  The  cost  is  estimated  at 
$3,425  per  square  yard. 

In  those  streets  where  the  traffic  is  exceptionally  heavy  the  founda- 
tion is  a  mixture  of  gravel,  cemeut,  and  chalk.  Tar  is  used  to  fill  up 
the  spaces  between  the  stones.  Further,  the  pavement  is  doubled. 
Tip's  has  been  found  to  be  especially  advisable  in  the  narrow  streets, 
where  the  wear  and  tear  are  necessarily  greater. 

Streets  of  the  second  class  are  paved  with  kopfstein  pflaster  (head- 
stone pavement).  The  stones  called  for  are  of  various  sizes  and  dimen- 
sions, as  broken  in  the  quarry.  The  method  of  paving  is  the  same  as 
in  the  first  class.  The  less  important  streets  are  paved  in  this  manner, 
though  it  occasionionally  happens  that  some  of  the  principal  streets  are 
so  paved  temporarily.  The  cost  of  this  construction  is  about  $2.40  per 
square  yard. 

All  work  is  done  by  contract.  The  original  pavements  of  both  classes 
are  always  torn  up  at  the  end  of  2  or  3  years  and  repaved  permanently. 
This  is  to  correct  the  uneveuuess  due  to  settling.  The  same  materials 
are  used  and  the  cost  is  slight.  Experience  has  shown  that,  with  occa- 
sional repairs,  streets  so  relaid  last  a  quarter  of  a  century  or  more. 

COUNTRY   ROADS  OR  HIGHWAYS. 

The  country  roads  in  this  vicinity  are  always  more  or  less  elevated. 
They  are  constructed  of  such  material  as  is  nearest  at  hand  and  most 
available.  A  slight  excavation  is  made  where  the  road  is  to  be  built. 
This  cut  is  filled  with  gravel,  and  water  sprinkled  upon  the  gravel. 
Then  follows  a  layer  of  small  pieces  of  broken  stone  aud  gravel  and 
water.  This  is  made  compact  by  repeated  rolling.  Generally  there  is 
a  second  layer.  These  roads  have  all  the  smoothness  aud  hardness 
characteristic  of  the  continental  highways.  It  is  impossible  to  give  any 
constant  estimate  of  their  cost,  for  the  reason  that  this  largely  depends 
upon  the  cost  of  transportation  of  the  material. 


EUROPE GERMANY.  1 1 5 

Country  roads  are  built  or  repaired  by  order  of  the  kreisdirection — a 
local  assembly  whose  members  are,  elected  for  definite  terms.  The  otli- 
cial  immediately  in  charge  of  the  loads  is  the  kreisbaumeister.  This 
officer  is  selected  only  after  special  training  for  the  work,  and  is  ap- 
pointed for  life.  He  generally  has  several  assistants.  Reports  on  the 
condition  of  the  roads  are  made  from  time  to  time,  and  the  recommen- 
dations they  contain  are  usually  followed  by  the  local  board.  It  fre- 
quently happens  that  large  property  owners  desiring  a  road  through  or 
near  their  possessions  are  called  upon  to  defray  the  expenses  of  con- 
struction by  a  special  tax.  In  some  of  the  more  sparsely  settled  dis- 
tricts the  roads  are  built  directly  by  the  general  government. 

Albert  11.  Washbubn, 

Commercial  Agent. 

United  States  Commercial  Agency, 

Magdeburg,  January  16,  1890. 


PLAUEN,  SAXONY. 

REPORT  BY  COMMERCIAL  AGENT  PETERS. 

CITY  STREETS. 

In  the  construction  of  the  streets  and  roads  of  Plauen,  Saxony,  one 
will  note  two  modes,  namely,  the  temporarily  constructed  streets — 
streets  made  for  the  time  being,  and  the  finally  constructed  streets — 
streets  constructed  with  a  view  to  leaving  them  as  first  put  down. 

Of  late  the  temporarily  made  streets  are  laid  at  such  a  depth  that 
they  form  a  foundation  for  the  finally  made  streets,  so  that  the  latter, 
whether  macadamized  or  paved,  may  be  erected  on  this  foundation. 

By  the  various  ways  and  systems  of  making  roads  the  lowest  section 
always  consists  of  10  centimetres  of  coarse  gravel  or  small  broken 
stone  and  15  centimetres  of  gravel  packing. 

Construction. — For  the  foundation  of  the  roads  small  broken  stone 
and  gravel-packing  (bottoming)  is  being  used,  which  is  found  in  the 
quarries  surrounding  Plauen. 

Macadamizing  is  done  for  light  traffic  with  lydian  stone  (siliceous 
schist)  or  foundation  stone  (grundsteinklarsehlag)  found  in  the  neigh- 
boring quarries,  and  for  heavy  traffic  with  basalt  from  Waldsassen. 

The  paving  of  the  finally  built  roads  is  done  with  split  granite  or 
syenite,  which  is  furnished  by  the  quarries  of  Grim  ma,  Schneeberg,  and 
Kirchberg,  all  three  towns  of  Saxony,  as  also  of  Schdnbrunn,  in  Bava- 
ria. The  sidewalks,  which  are  temporarily  built,  are  made  of  gravel  and 
are  framed  with  herborized  (slate  clay)  slabs,  which  latter  come  from 
Theuma  near  Plauen.  The  final  building  of  the  sidewalks  is  done  with 
cement  granite  or  burnt  clay  slabs,  manufactured  in  the  establishments 
of  Fickentzscher  of  Zwickau,  Saxony,  and  of  Meisel  of  Muldenstein, 
near  BitterfeW. 

The  granite  slabs  for  framing  these  sidewalks  are  purchased  in  Kirch- 
enlamitz,  Bavaria. 


116  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Cost  of  construction  per  square  metre. — Temporary  macadamizatiou 
with  lydian  stone  including  the  foundation,  but  exclusive  of  earthwork, 
as  digging,  etc.,  2.50  to  2.80  marks  ;  final  macadamizatiou  with  lydian 
stone  including  the  foundation,  but  exclusive  of  earthwork,  as  digging 
etc.,  3.20  to  3.G0  marks;  final  macadamizatiou  with  basalt  4.20  marks; 
paving  with  finished  blocks,  including  foundation,  12.50  marks;  gravel 
sidewalks,  0.50  marks,  and  footpaths  with  granite  slabsv  7.50  marks. 

Cost  of  maintenance  per  square  metre. — The  macadamized  streets  of 
the  city  (for  one  year)  for  light  traffic,  0.50  to  0.60  marks;  for  medium 
traffic,  0.80  to  1.20  marks  ;  for  heavy  traffic,  1.20  to  2.30  marks.  Of  the 
so-called  communication  ways  (macadamized);  for  light  traffic  and 
with  exposure  to  the  sun,  .05  to  .08  pfennig ;  for  light  traffic  without 
exposure  to  the  sun,  .07  to  11  pfennig ;  for  heavy  traffic  without  ex- 
posure to  the  sun,  15  to  20  pfennig. 

In  stating  above  costs  of  maintaining  the  roads,  the  expenses,  in- 
curred by  the  planting  of  the  trees  and  the  cost  of  plain  footpaths  or 
ditches  are  not  included. 

An  actual  count  of  road  traffic  has  never  taken  place  here. 

The  cost  of  materials  delivered  at  the  place  where  the  material  is 
needed  is  a  s  follows,  per  cubic  metre  :  Lydian  stone  (kieselschieferklar- 
schlag),  7.35  to  7.50  marks;  basalt  (basaltklarschlag),  12.7  marks; 
finished  paving  stones,  7.50  marks  ;  bricks  for  paving  (klinkerplatten), 
4.50  marks;  granite  slabs  for  framing  per  running  metre,  6.50  marks; 
slate-clay  slabs  (fruchtschieferplatten),  per  running  metre,  0.50  marks  ; 
gravel  packing,  2.50  marks;  broken  stones,  1.80  marks ;  gravel,  1.50 
to  3.40  marks ;  according  to  the  distance  between  the  gravel  mine  and 
the  place  where  the  material  is  used. 

No  information  can  be  had  here  as  regards  the  price  of  the  material 
before  it  is  made  ready  for  use. 

The  Government  has  no  especial  control  over  the  streets  of  towns, 
nor  does  the  Government  pay  anything  towards  maintaining  them. 

COUNTRY  ROADS. 

Roads  and  streets  beyond  the  town  limits  are  partly  Government 
roads  (Staats-Strassen)  partly  country  roads  (Land-Strassen);  the 
former  are  built  by  the  state,  the  latter  by  the  villages  deriving  the 
benefit  of  said  country  roads. 

The  cost  of  building  the  new  streets  is  borne  almost  entirely  by  the 
parties  owning  aud  improving  the  surrounding  property;  naturally^ 
the  value  of  the  property  affected  is  increased,  but  varies  according  to 
location. 

In  many  instances  property  has  increased  ten  and  fifteen  fold  within 

a  few  years. 

Thomas  W.  Peters, 

Commercial  Agent. 
United  States  Commercial  Agency, 

Flatten,  January  29,  1891. 


EUROPE GERMANY.  117 

SAXONY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  MERRITT,  CIIEMS1TZ. 
CONTROLLING  SAXON   ROADS. 

Preliminary,  and  inasmuch  as  the  subject  is  one  controlled  entirely 
by  the  "executive"  branch  of  government,  it  may  be  deemed  advisable 
to  describe  the  manner  of  controlling  Saxon  roads. 

The  king  possesses  sole  executive  power  in  Saxony.  Saxony  is  a 
limited  monarchy,  with  an  area  of  5,77G  square  miles.  Its  population 
is  3,270,579,  which  shows  that,  with  the  exception  of  Belgium,  Saxony 
is  the  most  densely  populated  state  in  the  world. 

There  are  four  principal  divisions  or  departments  of  the  kingdom 
These  are  called  "  kreishauptmannsehaften,"  with  headquarters  as  fol- 
lows: Dresden,  Leipzig,  Zwickau,  and  Bautzen.  At  each  city  named 
is  an  officer  called  a  "kreishanptmann."  He  is  the  representative  of 
the  king  and  the  department  of  the  interior.  He  is  the  chief  executive 
and  ministerial  officer  of  his  district  or  department.  His  powers  in 
some  respects  are  superior  to  those  of  a  governor  of  a  State  in  the 
United  States,  but  his  duties  are  not  altogether  similar,  or,  indeed,  de- 
finable in  such  a  report  as  this. 

Subordinate  to  the  four  chief  executive  representatives  of  the  king, 
as  above  related,  are  twenty-seven  important  executive  Officers  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  kingdom  in  subdistricts  called."  Amtshaupt- 
mannschaften.  Such  an  officer  is  called  an  "Amtshauptmann,"  and 
his  functions  are  like  those  of  a  "kreishauptmaun,"  but  limited  to  his 
own  district. 

The  skill,  energy,  and  thorough  education,  as  well  as  qualification 
and  executive  ability  of  these  27  men  is  the  cause  of  the  splendid  gov- 
ernment and  fine  condition  of  the  road  system  of  Saxony.  It  is  with- 
out doubt  the  finest  system  of  roads  in  the  world  and  is  the  result  of 
patient  toil,  extensive  experiment,  and  disciplined  attention.  Wry 
early  in  the  history  of  Saxony  it  appears  that  the  rulers  were  actively 
alive  to  the  principles  embodied  in  the  next  following  remarks  which 
constitute  this  report : 

HISTORICAL  ROAD  NOTES. 

A  road  system  is  one  of  the  means  of  facilitating  trade  and  inter- 
course. The  creation  of  the  former  is  therefore  intimately  connected 
with  the  development  of  the  latter,  while  the  importance  and  expan- 
sion of  trade  and  intercourse  are  again  directly  proportionate  to  the 

degree  of  civilization  that  has  been  attained.     A  national  or  interna- 
tional division  Of  labOI    would  indeed  not  .be  possible  if  existing  means 

of  communication  did  not  insure  the  greatest  freedom  for  the  exchange 
of  merchandise  and  produce,  as  well  as  the  movement  from  place  to 

place  of  individuals. 


118  STREETS    AND    IIIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

A  systematic  and  efficient  development  of  the  means  of  intercourse 
can,  of  course,  be  expected  only  in  countries  where  the  chief  executive 
authorities  arc  invested  with  all  the  powers  necessary  for  the  attain- 
in  cut  of  this  end. 

In  Germany  the  beginning  of  the  establishment  of  a  methodical  road 
system  is  coeval  with  the  development  of  the  principle  of  recognized 
sovereignty.  During  the  middle  ages  effectual  progress  was  much 
retarded,  partly  by  the  lack  of  unity  among  the  then  numerous  German 
States,  partly  on  account  of  the  imperfections  of  the  methods  of  road- 
building  then  in  vogue. 

The  building  of  turnpikes  began  to  assume  great  proportions  with 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  the  first  half  of  which  may  be 
justly  termed  the  classic  age  of  the  construction  of  state  roads.  Gov- 
ernment roads  were  built  to  connect  the  various  sections  of  the  country 
with  each  other  and  with  the  adjacent  localities  of  neighboring 
countries. 

Since  the  introduction  and  development  of  railways,  the  latter  have 
assumed  to  a  greater  and  greater  degree  the  functions  of  the  road  sys- 
tem, as  also  of  the  system  of  canals  and  other  navigable  ways.  The 
road  system,  however,  still  serves  the  very  important  purpose  of  effect- 
ing local  intercourse,  and  of  connecting  the  local  freight  and  passenger 
traffic  with  the  railway  service. 

As  regards  Saxony,  the  oldest  records  pertaining  to  roads  deal  ex- 
clusively with  the  use  and  keeping  up  of  certain  roads  on  the  part  of 
those  interested  in  commerce  and  trade,  and  with  prohibiting  the  use  of 
other  roads,  s 

The  roads  were  only  occasionally  repaired,  and  then  only  when  their 
defective  condition  threatened  injury  to  the  interests  of  the  State,  or 
when  the  complaints  as  to  the  impassableness  of  the  road  on  the  part 
of  the  traveling  public,  which  was  restricted  to  the  use  of  certaiu  roads, 
became  so  emphatic  that  the  equity  and  necessity  became  apparent  of 
providing  for  the  people's  safety  and  convenience  in  return  for  the  tolls 
they  were  obliged  to  pay.  The  general  principle  which  obtained  was 
that  the  obligation  of  keeping  up  the  roads  depended  on  the  levying  of 
toll  and  safeguard*  duty  on  the  same,  and  for  that  reason  the  expense 
of  repairing  the  roads  was  met  principally  with  the  proceeds  of  the 
safeguard  duty;  the  cooperation  of  the  cities,  the  nobles,  the  parishes, 
and  the  owners  of  realty  in  keeping  up  the  roads  seems  always  to  have 
been  required. 

The  Saxon  princes  regarded  it  as  not  only  their  duty  to  provide  for 
the  security  of  roads  on  which  the  safeguard  system  was  not  applied, 

*  This  species  of  toll  was  so  called  because  in  former  times  travelers  passing  over 
insecure  roads  leading  through  forests  or  thinly  settled  districts,  were  escorted  by 
armed  knights  who  levied  this  safeguard  duty  in  return  for  their  services.  How- 
ever, the  duty  continued  to  be  collected  long  after  a  personal  escort  had  fallen  into 


EUROPE GERMANY.  1 1 9 

and  to  superintend  those  parties  on  whom  by  custom  or  special  provi- 
sion of  law  the  duty  of  keeping  up  said  roads  was  incumbent,  but  also 
as  their  prerogative  to  set  aside  certain  roads  for  commercial  purposes, 
to  levy  a  duty  on  the  merchandise  thereon  transported,  and,  in  order 
to  facilitate  the  collection  of  this  duty,  to  forbid  the  trade  from  making 
use  of  any  other  roads. 

The  repairing  of  roads,  the  keeping  up  of  which  was  by  custom  the 
duty  of  the  State,  was  done  in  part  by  the  state  roads  employe's,  in 
part  left  to  those  to  whom  the  collection  of  safeguard  duty  was  farmed 
out.  The  necessary  timber  was  taken  from  the  state  forests,  the  haul- 
ing and  manual  labor  were  performed  by  the  subjects,  the  necessary 
money  was  obtained  by  the  safeguard  receipts,  or  provided  by  the  local 
state  authorities. 

However,  the  condition  of  the  roads,  especially  during  and  after  the 
thirty  years'  war,  was  far  from  being  satisfactory,  and  was  the  subject 
of  repeated  popular  complaints  to  the  "  Landtag"  (state  legislature). 

The  orders  and  instructions  issued  by  the  Saxon  princes  during  the 
seventeenth  century  first  established  the  rule  that  the  obligation  to 
keep  up  the  roads  rested  on  those  who  collected  safeguard  duties 
thereon,  or  who  were  by  custom  bound  to  repair.  Furthermore,  cities 
were  held  to  keep  up  the  roads  within  their  territory,  parishes  within 
their  local  limits,  and  where  the  obligation  could  be  fixed  on  no  other 
party  the  repairs  were  made  by  the  state. 

The  act  of  road  building  was  then  yet  quite  simple,  and  nothing 
more  was  aimed  at  than  the  construction  of  a  road  that  would  be  mod- 
erately passable.  The  obligation  of  the  subjects  extended  no  farther 
than  to  the  digging  of  the  ditches  or  gutters,  the  picking  up  of  fallen 
timber,  the  cleaning  of  the  water  courses,  and  the  removal  of  snow 
from  sunken  roads. 

An  order  issued  about  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  first 
established  the  division  of  roads  into  main  roads  and  common  roads 
and  ways,  and  provided  that  the  former  were  to  be  kept  up  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  state;  the  hitter  by  him  on  whom  the  duty  devolved  by 
custom. 

«  The  width  and  general  nature  of  the  roads  were  regulated  by  special 
provisions;  overseers  were  appointed  for  the  main  roads,  and  commis- 
sioners were  created  with  supervisory  powers  subject  to  detailed 
instructions. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  gravel,  sand,  and  rock  were  first  substituted 
for  the  wood  which,  in  the  same  manner  as  American  "corduroy" 
roads,  had  hitherto  been  employed  in  road  building,  and  that  orders 
were  given  to  replace  wooden  mileposts  by  substantial  milestones,  on 
which  the  directions  and  distances  of  the  villages,  and  especially  of  the 
cities,  were  to  be  noted.  The  expenses  were  to  be  borne  by  the  respec- 
tive parishes  and  by  the  state  for  such  roads  as  traversed  public  lands. 

Complaints  regarding  the  defective  state  of  the  roads  repeated  them- 


120  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

selves  with  as  equally  great  frequency  as  did  the  severe  instructions 
issued  to  the  nobility,  the  city  councils,  the  parishes,  and  the  subjects, 
on  whom  devolved  the  duty  of  repairing  the  roads,  to  keep  their  roads 
and  ways  in  better  condition,  to  clear  the  ditches,  and  remove  all 
obstructions,  under  pain  of  military  execution.  During  the  7  years' 
war  the  roads  fell  into  complete  decay,  and  unusual  orders  and  meas- 
ures were  necessary  for  the  re-establishment  of  orderly  conditions. 
Thus,  for  example,  to  promote  and  facilitate  road  building,  it  was  per- 
mitted to  call  out  the  militia,  paying  the  soldiers  a  moderate  sum,  not, 
however,  amounting  to  the  usual  day  wages. 

Road  Law  of  Apeil  23,  1781. 

The  promulgation  of  the  road  law  of  April  28,  1781,  constitutes  an 
important  event  in  the  history  of  road-building  in  Saxony.  The  first 
part  of  this  law  treats  of  the  removal  of  obstructions  to  road-building ; 
the  second,  of  the  ways  of  carrying  on  the  work  of  construction;  and 
the  third,  of  the  preservation  of  the  roads  and  of  the  tools  and  imple- 
ments thereunto  belonging. 

The  roads  themselves  were  classed  by  this  law  as: 

(1)  Military  staple  and  state  roads,  or  such  as  had  been  confirmed  by 
former  ordinances  and  led  from  one  frontier  to  another,  passing  through 
the  staple  and  trading  town  of  Leipzig  ; 

(2)  Interior  trade  roads,  leading  from  one  trading  or  market  town  to 
another,  and  serving  for  lighter  freight  traffic  and  for  the  postal  service ; 
and 

(3)  Country,  town,  and  local  roads,  which  served  for  bringing  the 
products  of  nature  into  the  cities,  and  aided  in  the  carrying  on  of  agri- 
cultural pursuits.  « 

This  law  did  not  affect  the  obligations  of  construction  and  repair 
heretofore  existing.  Cities  aud  couutry  parishes  continued  to  be  liable 
for  the  keeping  up  of  the  roads  within  their  respective  jurisdictions, 
outside  of  which  the  charge  for  keeping  up  the  military  and  state  roads 
devolved  either  on  the  state  or  on  him  who  collected  safeguard  duties, 
bridge,  and  other  tolls  thereon.  The  preservation  of  local  aud  country 
roads  remained  the  duty  of  the  respective  interested  parishes. 

The  direct  assistance  of  the  local  subjects  in  repairing  such  roads  as 
were  kept  up  at  state  expense  was  no  longer  required.  Soad-building 
was  regarded  as  a  proper  concern  of  the  state  government,  and  the 
principle  was  established  that  those  on  whom  the  obligation  to  con- 
struct roads  was  fixed  by  law  were  bound  to  compensate  all  private 
landowners  whose  land  was  taken  for  public  road  purposes,  to  the 
extent  of  the  actual  productive  value  of  the  land  so  taken.  The  pro- 
viso was,  however,  added,  that  the  owner  of  land  adjoining  a  road  must 
cede  the  space  required  for  the  projected  road  or  the  widening  of  an 
existing  road,  without  claiming  compensation,  when  the  total  area  thus 
ceded  is  less  than  a  certain  extent — so  much  as  could  be  seeded  with 
two  pecks  of  Dresden  measure. 


EUROPE — GERMANY.  121 

The  state  parliaments  annually  voted  considerable  sums  for  the  con- 
struction of  convenient  and  durable  roads,  declaring  them  to  be  an  es- 
sential condition  of  securing  easy  intercourse  among  the  people,  of 
facilitating  the  conveyance  of  the  necessaries  of  life,  of  promoting  the 
prosperity  of  the  industries,  of  trade,  and  of  transportation.  It  was 
ordained  that  the  interested  parishes  should  contribute  to  a  reasonable 
extent  not  only  in  the  construction  of  less  important  roads,  but  also  in 
that  of  the  main  trade  roads. 

During  the  course  of  time  the  Saxon  Government  has  not  only 
contantly  kept  its  state  roads  abreast  of  the  latest  attainments  of 
engineering  art,  but  has  also  constructed  new  roads  wherever  their 
need  became  evident,  and  where  the  parishes  on  account  of  their  finan- 
cial situation,  or  for  other  reasons,  could  not  well  be  expected  to  build 
new  roads  or  ways  of  such  a  character  as  would  meet  the  actual  wants 

of  trade. 

Present  Classification  of  Roads  and  Ways. 

The  old  classification  of  roads  into  military,  staple,  and  state  roads, 
interior  trade  roads,  and  country,  town,  and  local  roads  gradually  lost 
its  significance  as  the  conditions  of  trade  became  altered. 

The  classification  which  obtains  at  present  is  essentially  based  on 
the  obligation  of  keeping  in  repair,  and  is  as  follows:  (1)  State  roads 
(turnpikes);  (2)  country  roads,  connecting  two  or  more  towns  or  vil- 
lages; (3)  streets  for  the  accommodation  of  the  interior  traffic  of  cities 
and  towns;  (4)  private  ways. 

(1)  State  roads. — All  roads  that  have  heretofore  been  kept  up  by  the 
state,  as  well  as  such  roads  as  have  been  built  by  the  state  either  on 
its  own  initiative  or  on  the  proposition  of  the  interested  localities,  and 
which  are  likewise  kept  up  by  the  state,  are  regarded  as  state  roads. 

At  every  session  of  the  " landtag"  petitions  are  received  from  nu- 
merous localities  asking  for  the  construction  of  new  roads  at  state 
expense.  During  the  last  10  years  the  rule  has  gradually  been  adopted 
to  leave  the  construction  of  new  roads  to  the  interested  localities.  As 
an  utmost  concession,  roads  which  are  to  serve  primarily  for  through- 
trade  may  be  built  at  state  expense,  if  the  parishes  benefited  thereby 
furnish  the  right  of  way,  and,  in  some  instauces,  obligate  themselves 
to  bear  a  portion  of  the  cost.  When  finished,  the  keeping  up  of  these 
roads  becomes  a  charge  on  the  interested  parishes.  However,  to  enable 
the  construction  of  country  roads  where  greater  difficulties  have  to  be 
overcome  than  is  usually  the  case  with  the  class  of  roads  kept  up  at 
the  expense  of  the  parishes  and  the  manors,  a  certain  sum— at  present 
$00,000  marks  per  annum — voted  by  the  "landtag"  for  the  financial 
encouragement  of  road-building  is  annually  distributed  by  the  depart- 
ment of  the  interior  in  accordance  with  the  estimates  submitted  by  the 
proper  district  authorities. 

Some  parishes  engaged  themselves  in  former  times  to  make  regular 
contributions  of  money  or  material  on  condition  of  the  state's  building 


122  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

a  new  road,  or  taking  in  its  charge  an  existing  road,  and  this  obligation 
remains  as  about  the  only  casein  which  parishes  are  still  compelled  to 
contribute  to  the  keeping  in  repair  of  state  roads.  However,  a  general 
provision  of  law  requires  those  parishes  that  adjoin  state  roads  to  fur- 
nish the  necessary  hands  for  shoveling  the  snow  off  the  roads  and  for 
hauling  it  away.  The  state  makes  a  certain  allowance  for  this,  which, 
however,  is  usually  insufficient,  so  that  the  parishes  must  make  good 
the  difference  out  of  their  own  treasuries. 

The  right  of  way  for  new  state  roads  may  be  condemned  by  the  state 
on  fully  indemnifying  the  respective  land-owners.  In  like  manner  the 
owners  of  land  adjacent  to  proposed  roads  are  obliged  to  permit  the 
{minorities  to  make  use  of  all  such  road -building  material  as  may  be 
found  on  their  laud,  a  suitable  indemnity  being  allowed. 

Where  state  roads  lead  through  towns,  the  state  does  not  undertake 
the  construction  of  sidewalks,  drains,  curbstones,  aud  the  like,  rendered 
necessary  by  local  conditions. 

However,  the  paving  and  keeping  in  repair  of  the  pavement  of  such 
portions  of  the  road  are  at  the  expense  of  the  state. 

The  tolls  which  were  formerly  collected  on  the  state  roads  and  bridges 
have  been  abolished  since  1884,  partly  in  view  of  the  satisfactory  finan- 
cial situation  of  Saxony,  partly  because  of  the  many  inconveniences 
caused  the  traveling  public,  partly  also  on  account  of  the  great  expense 
incident  to  their  collection. 

The  general  supervision  and  management  of  the  construction  of  state 
roads  is  intrusted  to  a  state  road  commissioner,  the  technical  direction 
of  the  works  being  in  charge  of  a  special  officer  termed  a  road  director. 
The  local  supervision  is  exercised  within  the  limits  of  their  respective 
districts  by  the  "  Amtshauptmannschaft,"  which,  as  before  stated,  is 
the  chief  executive  and  ministerial  office  of  the  district.  The  direct 
technical  control  of  the  operations,  the  making  of  plans  and  estimates, 
and  the  actual  construction  of  roads,  are  in  the  hands  of  "  inspectors 
of  roads  and  navigable  ways,"  whose  offices  are  usually  at  the  seat  of 
the  "  Amtshauptmannschaft."  Every  road  inspector  must  have  suc- 
cessfully passed  the  examination  for  state  engineer.  When  the  amount 
involved  does  not  exceed  600  marks  the  road  inspector  may  make  the 
estimates,  conduct  the  repairs,  or  let  the  contracts  himself.  For  the 
execution  of  larger  works  he  must  obtain  the  approval  and  cooperation 
of  the  Amtshauptmannschaft.  Road  inspectors  are  aided  in  their  work 
by  assistant  road  inspectors — usually  trained  builders — and  by  a  num- 
ber of  state  roadmasters.  The  latter  need  pass  no  special  examination, 
and  may  prove  their  fitness  for  the  place  in  some  other  manner. 
.  The  roadmasters  are  to  assist  in  the  preparatory  work  and  in  the 
construction  of  state  roads.  They  are  charged  with  the  immediate 
direction  of  the  work  of  keeping  the  roads  of  their  road  district  in  re- 
pair ;  this  not  only  with  reference  to  the  state  roads,  but  also  to  the 
country  roads,  the  keeping  up  of  which  is  at  the  expense  of  the  vari- 


EUROPE GERMANY.  123 

ous  localities.  When  new  roads  of  the  latter  class  are  to  be  built  the 
roadmasters  are  also  charged  with  the  direction  of  the  work.  They 
are  assisted  by  roadguards  and  by  hired  day  laborers,  and  are  charged 
with  directing  and  overlooking  the  work  of  all  persons  employed  on  the 
roads  of  their  district.  They  are  to  give  careful  attention  to  maintain- 
ing a  sufficient  number  of  laborers  who  are  qualified  and  equipped  for 
road  work,  and  especially  to  the  training  of  suitable  parties  for  the 
position  of  roadgaards.  Furthermore,  they  are  to  exercise  due  care  to 
insure  a  strict  observance  of  the  road  laws  on  the  part  of  the  public, 
and  to  keep  a  watchful  eye  on  their  employes  in  order  that  the  latter 
may  in  no  wise  annoy  the  public,  as  for  examples  by  frightening 
horses. 

(2)  Country  roads  (Gommunieafionswegc). — Public  roads  not  state 
roads  are  generally  termed  "connecting"  roads  in  so  far  as  they  serve 
to  connect  two  or  more  towns. 

The  road  law  of  January  12,  1870,  makes  the  construction  and  repair 
of  these1  roads  and  of  appurtenances  such  as  bridges,  ditches,  drains, 
guideposts,  etc.,  the  obligation  of  the  parishes  through  whose  territory 
they  lead.  In  this  respect  the  royal  castles,  state  forests,  manors,  and 
other  estates  not  entering  into  the  parish  organization  are  classed  as 
parishes  and  likewise  bound  to  keep  up  the  roads  within  their  territo- 
rial limits,  and  to  construct  such  new  roads  as  the  volume  and  nature  of 
traffic  render  necessary. 

Passage  ways  leading  from  a  public  road  to  adjoining  parcels  of  land 
must  be  built  and  kept  up  by  the  owners  of  that  land.  If,  however,  the 
location  of  a  road  is  changed  or  a  new  road  established,  necessitating  a 
change  in  the  location  of  the  passage  way  or  the  construction  of  anew 
one,  this  work  thus  incidentally  occasioned  by  the  parish  is  to  be  done 
by  the  parish. 

When  additions  are  made  to  the  territory  of  towns  or  cities,  necessi- 
tating the  construction  of  new  roads,  the  expense  thereof  must  be  borne 
by  the  owners  of  the  land  forming  said  additions,  the  community  merely 
charging  itself  with  the  subsequent  repairs.  The  same  rule  obtains 
when  a  change  in  location  of  an  existing  road  is  rendered  necessary  by 
the  construction  of  a  railway,  the  establishment  of  artificial  or  the  cor- 
rection of  natural  water-ways. 

Exceptions  to  the  rule  that  every  parish  must  build  and  care  for  the 
roads  within  its  limits  have  been  generally  abolished.  They  still  ex- 
ist only  when  founded'  on  special  contract,  or  when  coupled  with 
advantages  to  the  obligor,  and  can  be  terminated  on  notice  <jivcn  by 
either  party,  full  indemnification  being  made  either  by  the  payment  of 
a  single,  lump  sum  or  of  a  fixed  annuity.  This  applies  particularly  to 
the  so-called  "communities"  (Altgftmeinden),  the  original  members  of 
which  generaly  agreed  t<>  hold  the  land  in  common,  dividing  the  profits 
among  themselves,  but  undertaking,  on  the  other  hand,  to  keep  up  the 
roads  of  the  community  without  the  cooperation  of  the  later  arrivals. 


12  i  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

When  the  boundary  line  between  the  parishes  passes  along  on  a  road- 
each  parish  keeps  up  that  portion  falling  within  its  limits;  in  case  of 
doubt  the  expenses  of  repairing  is  equally  divided.  If,  however,  the 
boundary  merely  runs  along  the  side  of  the  road,  the  duty  of  keeping 
in  repair  devolves  wholly  on  the  parish  having  territorial  jurisdiction. 

Propositions  looking  to  the  construction  of  new  roads,  or  the  chang, 
fag  of  the  location  of  existing  roads,  are  to  emanate  from  the  interested 
parishes  and  manors,  who  likewise  are  charged  with  the  management 
of  roads  and  with  the  immediate  direction  of  the  work  of  construction 
and  repair. 

Supervisory  powers  are  exercised  by  the  "  Amtshauptmannschaft," 
which  is  charged  with  the  infliction  of  penalties  in  case  the  parishes 
should  prove  unfaithful  to  their  trust.  But,  as  a  rule,  the  '<  Amts- 
hauptmannschaft," after  a  consideration  of  the  complaints  that  have 
been  lodged,  merely  ordains  the  construction  of  the  necessary  new 
roads,  or  the  thorough  overhauling  of  such  as  are  in  defective  condi- 
tion. It  is  also  customary  for  the  "  Amtshauptmannschaft"  to  specify 
every  year  the  road  work  that  appears  to  be  most  urgent. 

The  jurisdiction  of  every  Saxon  "  Amtshauptmaunschaft"  is  coexten- 
sive with  the  limits  of  a  kind  of  district  formed  by  a  union  of  parishes 
and  for  certain  purposes.  The  district  owns  some  district  property, 
manages  such  affairs  as  concern  several  parishes  at  once,  and  provides 
for  matters  of  a  common  interest  for  which  the  resources  of  the  individual 
parishes  are  not  sufficient.  The  district  board  is  charged  with  the  super- 
vision and  encouragement  of  country  roads,  and  usually  strives  to  attain 
the  desired  results  by  assisting  the  poorer  parishes  in  defraying  the  ex- 
penses of  construction  and  repair  with  the  accumulated  increment  of 
the  district's  property,  also  by  undertaking  to  keep  up  certain  roads 
which  accommodate  the  through  trade  as  district  roads  at  the  expense  of 
the  district ;  in  some  cases  also  by  employing  a  salaried  district  road- 
master  to  assist  the  "  amtshauptmannschaft"  in  the  control  and  super- 
vision of  country  roads,  and  to  perform,  with  reference  to  these,  duties 
similar  to  those  devolving  on  the  state  roadm asters  with  reference  to 
the  state  roads. 

When  it  is  the  desire  of  a  parish  to  discontinue  a  certain  road,  that 
is  to  withdraw  it  from  public  use,  the  "Amtshauptmannschaft"  must 
be  notified  and  makes  public  announcement  of  the  intended  discontinu- 
ance, summoning  all  parties  who  might  have  objections  thereto  to  make 
them  known  within  a  fixed  time.  At  the  expiration  of  this  term  the 
"  Amtshauptmannschaft,"  in  conjunction  with  a  committee  composed 
of  city  and  parish  delegates  and  the  highest  tax-payers  of  the  district, 
decides  whether  the  proposed  discontinuance  is  to  be  approved  as  in 
the  interests  of  the  public  or  whether  it  is  to  be  rejected. 

If  ;i  dispute  arises  as  to  whether  a  road  is  public  or  private,  the  ques- 
tion is  decided,  after  due  examination,  by  the  "amtshauptmannschaft" 
aud  the  district  committee.     A  road  is  considered  as  public  when  it 


EUROPE — GERMANY.  125 

has  been  in  unobstructed  public  use  for  at  least  30  years.  It  is  pre- 
sumed to  be  public  when  returned  by  the  state  land  survey  as  exempt 
of  taxation  and  entered  as  a  public  road  on  the  parish  record. 

Cart  loads  and  foot-paths  differ  primarily  in  the  use  to  which  tliey 
are  put.  As  to  the  width  and  nature  of  these  species  of  highways  the 
law  provides  that  cart-roads  must  have  a  width  of  not  less  than  7  metres 
in  towns,  and  5  metres  in  1  he  open  country,  clear  of  ditches,  if  any,  and 
that  foot-paths  are  to  have  a  width  of  1  metre. 

Every  parish  is  left  free  to  determine  itself  the  manner  of  raising  the 
means  tor  defraying  that  part  of  the  expense  of  construction  and  repair 
of  roads  and  ways  which  is  not  provided  for  by  the  state  or  the  district. 
Some  parishes  have  been  authorized  by  the  state  or  the  district  to  levy 
tolls  on  certain  roads  serving  principally  for  through  transit,  in  order 
thus  to  meet  part  of  the  expense.  These  tolls  are  still  collected,  though 
they  have  been  abolished  on  the  state  roads. 

Owners  of  forests,  rock  quarries,  factories,  mills,  and  the  like,  who 
use  roads  on  which  toll  is  not  permitted  to  be  levied,  for  the  carrying 
on  of  their  business  to  such  an  extent  as  to  cause  a  material  part  of  the 
wear  and  tear,  or  to  make  necessary  more  frequent  and  more  thorough 
repairs  than  would  otherwise  be  required,  can  be  held  to  the  payment 
of  a  special  sum,  in  proportion  to  the  expense  thus  occasioned  to  the 
parish.  In  case  of  dispute,  the  amount  of  this  special  contribution  is 
fixed  by  the  "amtshauptmannschaften"  in  accordance  with  the  judg- 
ment of  experts. 

(3)  Streets. — Host  of  the  provisions  applicable  to  country  roads  apply 
also  to  village  streets.  As  a  rule  the  construction  and  repair  of  the 
streets  are  to  be  borne  by  the  parish.  However,  when  additions  are 
made  to  a  town  necessitating  the  construction  of  new  streets  to  connect 
the  new  addition  with  the  older  portion  of  the  town,  or  to  connect  the 
different  parts  of  the  new  addition  with  each  other,  the  parish  in  au- 
thorizing the  admission  of  the  new  territory  may  require  the  owners  of 
the  land  embraced  therein  to  furnish  the  necessary  rights  of  way  free 
of  charge,  or  even  to  construct  the  new  roads  themselves,  the  parish 
merely  assuming  the  subsequent  repairs.  Nowadays  the  latter  mode 
has  been  generally  adopted  by  cities  and  populous  parishes;  the  rule 
is  that  whoever  seeks  to  convert  acre  property  into  building  lots  must 
construct  the  necessary  streets,  bridges,  culverts,  etc.,  and  transfer  them 
to  the  city  gratuitously,  together  witli  the  title  to  the  soil.  Tnese  roads, 
etc.,  must  extend  the  full  width  which  the  lots  on  which  it  is  intended 
to  build  front  on  the  projected  roads,  counting  not  only  the  width  of 
the  house,  but  also  the  gardens,  courtyards,  etc.,  and  are  to  be  carried 
to  their  junction  with  other  projected  or  existing  roads. 

If  the  land  composing  the  addition  is  the  property  of  different  own 
ers,  the  one  building  first  must  construct  the  necessary  roads,  but  as 
soon  as  the  others  begin  to  build  they  must  pay  the  former  or  his  heirs 
or  successors  a  pro  rata  sum,  depending  on  the  width  of  their  lots 
which  fronton  the  new  roads. 


126  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

It  is  usually  provided  in  the  city  building  ordinances  that  when  the 
public  interests  require  the  continuation,  widening,  or  correction  of 
streets,  ways,  or  public  squares,  or  the  construction  of  new  ones,  or  the 
building  or  widening  of  bridges,  levees  or  dikes,  or  the  construction  of 
culverts  or  drains,  the  owners  of  the  land  adjoining  the  proposed  works 
are  required  to  allow  the  authorities  to  make  all  proper  use  of  their 
land — even  though  it  be  covered  with  buildings — and  to  cede  to  the 
city  such  portions  as  are  needed,  in  consideration  of  a  reasonable  in- 
demnification. 

Before,  however,  private  property  can  be  taken  for  public  purposes 
in  this  manner,  the  department  of  the  interior  must  have  declared  it 
to  be  in  the  interests  of  the  public  and  must  have  authorized  the  nec- 
essary condemnations. 

(4)  Private  ways. — Private  ways,  built  by  land-owners  on  their  own 
land  in  order  to  facilitate  the  cultivation  and  use  thereof,  are  not  sub- 
ject to  any  ministerial  regulations,  being  properly  objects  of  private 
law.  Only  in  so  far  as  they  may  give  rise  to  considerations  of  a  gen- 
eral police  nature,  would  it  become  the  right  and  duty  of  the  authori- 
ties to  occupy  themselves  therewith  and  to  issue  instructions  relating 
thereto. 

As  a  principle  of  common  law  the  rule  obtains  that  the  owner  of  a 
tract  of  land  may  require  his  neighbors  to  permit  him  to  pass  over  their 
land,  granting  him  a  so-called  "  way  of  necessity  "  when  without  such 
way  of  necessity  the  cultivation  of  his  land  would  be  impossible,  or 
when  the  establishment  of  a  different  way  than  the  one  he  asks  for,  or 
the  use  of  another  existing  way,  would  be  attended  by  difficulties  out 
of  all  proportion  to  the  profits  yielded  by  the  land.  Reasonable  com- 
pensation must  be  made  for  the  use  of  such  a  way. 

An  arbitrary  change  in  the  manner  of  using  the  land,  or  the  mere 
personal  convenience  of  its  owner,  do  not  entitle  the  latter  to  demand 
a  way  of  necessity.  Such  easements  are  to  be  limited  to  the  actual 
necessity,  and  their  location  and  direction  are  to  be  determined  in  order 
that,  on  the  one  hand,  the  servient  tenement  may  suffer  the  least  pos- 
sible damage,  aud  that,  on  the  other,  the  expense  to  the  owner  of  the 
dominant  tenement  may  not  become  unreasonably  great. 

CONSTRUCTION  AND   REPAIR  OF   STATE   ROADS. 

No  new  instructions  have  been  receutly  issued  regarding  the  rules  to 
be  observed  in  the  construction  of  new  state  roads.  There  is  no  neces- 
sity for  general  instructions  on  this  subject,  as  such  roads  are  always 
built  in  accordance  with  plans  prepared  by  the  state  engineers,  based  on  a 
due  consideration  of  the  local  needs  and  of  the  available  funds  ;  and  as  a 
these  plans  must  first  be  examined  and  approved  by  the  highest  road 
authorities,  the  latter  always  have  the  opportunity  of  prescribing  such 
special  directions  as  former  experience  and  the  latest  developments  in 
the  act  of  road-building  seem  to  render  advisable. 


EUROPE — GERMANY.  127 

A  circular  instruction  issued  by  the  department  of  the  interior  sev- 
eral years  ago,  and  addressed  to  the  parishes,  though  dealing  prima- 
rily with  the  country  roads — which  are  not  state  roads — serves  to  give 
an  approximate  idea  as  to  what,  in  the  eyes  of  the  state,  are  the  essen- 
tial elements  of  a  satisfactory  and  methodical  road  system. 

According  to  this  circular,  every  road  is  to  consist  of  a  rock  sub- 
structure and  of  a  rock  superstructure.  The  former  supports  the  latter 
and  prevents  its  sinking  into  the  ground. 

The  superstructure  constitutes  the  wearing  surface  of  the  road;  it 
protects  the  substructure  against  wear  as  well  as  against  the  penetra- 
tion of  dampness  with  its  injurious  effects.  The  material  employed 
should  always  be  the  best  that  can  be  obtained  in  the  respective  local- 
ities, the  best  varieties  of  rock  being  basalt,  porphyry,  finely-grained 
granite,  and  clear  quartz. 

The  rock  substructure — ftftiudation — is  to  consist  of  broken  stone, 
carefully  placed  by  hand  on  the  smoothed  and  graded  roadbed,  and  to 
have  a  height  of  12  centimetres  if  the  rock  is  hard,  and  of  15  centi- 
metres if  it  is  soft.  The  pieces  of  broken  stone  are  to  be  as  nearly 
as  possible  of  equal  size,  and  are  to  be  placed  tightly  against  each 
other,  each  one  with  its  largest  plain  surface  downwards  to  prevent 
its  working  loose.  The  intervening  spaces  are  filled  up  with  small  frag- 
ments, carefully  wedged  in  and  rammed  down. 

On  this  foundation  is  placed  a  superstructure  consisting  of  a  layer  of 
8  to  10  centimetres  depth  of  small  broken  stone,'  the  pieces  as  nearly  as 
may  be  of  equal  size,  or  of  gravel.  In  order  to  obtain  a  surface  as  smooth 
as  possible  the  broken  stone  composing  the  superstructure  should  ap- 
proach a  cubical  form  as  nearly  as  may  be,  and  should  be  of  the  size  of 
a  hen's  egg  or  a  walnut,  depending  on  the  quality  of  the  material.  The 
road  is  next  thoroughly  soaked  with  water,  and  passed  over  several 
times  with  a  heavy  roller.  It  then  receives  a  covering  of  fine  gravel  or 
pebbles,  and  is  solidified  by  careful  rolling. 

In  order  to  secure  a  rapid  drainage  of  the  road  and  to  keep  the  road- 
bed dry,  the  surface  must  be  convex — a  central  elevation  of  one-six- 
teenth to  one-eighteenth  of  the  half  width  of  the  road  being  sufficient — 
and  the  road  must  be  provided  with  ditches  on  both  sides,  having  a 
depth  of  not  less  than  0.3  metres  and  a  width  at  the  bottom  of  0.3 
metres.  In  level  country  the  grade  of  the  road  should  never  exceed 
one-fourth  inch,  and  in  mountains  one-twelfth  inch.  At  heavy  curves 
the  road  should  be  as  level  as  possible,  and,  its  width  should  be  in- 
creased by  one-fourth  to  one-half. 

The  rules  to  be  observed  in  keeping  the  public  roads  in  repair  have 
been  quite  fully  set  forth,  partly  in  the  form  of  general  instructions, 
partly  as  specific  regulations  issued  to  the  road  employes. 

A  distinction  is  made  between  general  repairs,  undertaken  to  make 
good  the  deterioration  of  the  entire  roadbed  by  the  action  of  the  weather 
and  traffic,  and  local  repair^  which  are  continually  necessary  to  correct 


128  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

the  partial  wearing  out  of  the  surface  by  mechanical  action,  as  evi- 
denced in  the  form  of  ruts  and  depressions. 

Geueral  repairs  consist  in  covering  the  entire  surface  of  the  road 
with  a  massive  layer  of  broken  stone,  which  is  thoroughly  rolled  down 
so  as  to  fill  out  all  depressions.  When  a  considerable  portion  of  a 
road  is  to  be  covered  with  new  material,  the  work  is  to  be  performed  in 
short  sections  if  the  street  is  narrow ;  if  wide,  the  material  is  to  be 
spread  in  narrow  longitudinal  strips,  so  that  not  more  than  one-half 
the  width  of  the  road  is  being  worked  at  the  same  time,  and  only  when 
the  first  half  is  completed  is  the  second  to  be  begun.  The  road,  when 
thus  covered  with  new  material,  is  to  receive  a  suitable  covering,  which 
however,  is  not  to  be  applied  until  the  mass  of  rock  has  been  sufficiently 
rolled  to  acquire  a  certain  degree  of  solidity  and  to  cause  the  interven- 
ing spaces  to  disappear. 

As  has  been  stated,  a  street-roller  is  employed  for  compressing  the 
mass  of  broken  rock.  The  rolling  is  done  longitudinally,  moving  grad- 
ually from  the  edges  toward  the  center,  and,  when  practicable,  is  to  be 
kept  up  until  the  mass  of  new  matter  is  thoroughly  fixed.  The  mass 
is  to  be  moistened  by  continued  sprinkling,  in  order  to  insure  its  more 
perfect  solidification.  It  has  been  found  that  the  seasons  best  adapted 
for  making  general  repairs  are  the  spring  months  until  the  middle  or 
end  of  June,  and  the  months  of  September  and  October.  The  winter 
mouths  are  not  advantageous,  even  though  the  weather  be  mild,  for  it 
has  been  found  to  be  an  essential  condition  of  durability  that  the  new 
material  be  thoroughly  dried  and  hardened  before  it  is  subjected  to  the 
action  of  the  frost. 

The  frequency  with  which  general  repairs  need  be  made  is  variable, 
but  averages  for  the  state  roads  from  11  to  12  years. 

In.  order  to  insure  the  greatest  possible  durability  of  the  road  surface, 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  covering  of  new  material  be  not  too  thiu 
at  places.  The  old  road  surface  should  therefore  be  specially  prepared 
for  the  reception  of  the  new  covering  by  paring  down  the  protuber- 
ances and  carefully  reestablishing  the  profile. 

When  general  repairs  have  been  made,  the  surface  of  the  road  usually 
remains  quite  smooth  for  years  if  the  traffic  is  but  moderate.  However, 
more  or  less  unevenuess  develops  in  the  course  of  time,  and  to  coun- 
teract the  formation  and  enlarging  of  rough  spots  as  much  as  possible 
is  the  chief  object  of  the  continuous  local  repairs. 

Finely-broken  rock,  either  specially  prepared  or  obtained  by  sifting 
the  coarser  material  intended  for  road  covering,  is  employed  for  making 
the  local  repairs.  Depressions  in  the  road  are  filled  up  not  only  to  pre- 
serve the  smoothness,  but  also  because  vehicles  avoid  such  defective 
spots  and  thus  wear  out  the  rest  of  the  surface  all  the  quicker.  For 
this  reason  the  places  to  be  repaired  are  to  be  selected  in  such  a  manner 
as  will  tend  to  a  uniform  wearing  of  the  whole  road  surface.  As  a  fur- 
ther means  of  obtaining  the  latter  result,  the  track  to  be  followed  by 


EUROPE — GERMANY.  129 

vehicles  may  be  fixed  by  placing  obstructing  stones  *  on  the  road,  which, 
however,  must  be  removed  at  night.  This  is  to  be  done  only  in  damp 
weather,  on  roads  used  for  heavy  hauling,  and  then  only  to  a  limited 
extent  at  a  time. 

When  defects  can  be  remedied  with  a  small  quantity  of  new  matter 
it  is  sometimes  advantageous  to  loosen  the  edges  with  a  pick,  in  order 
to  obtain  a  thorough  union  with  the  old  and  new  material.  The  loose 
matter  should  be  moistened  and  carefully  rammed  down  and  covered 
over.  This  method  is,  however,  employed  to  a  limited  extent  only,  as 
it  is  rather  expensive.  Local  repairs  should  always  be  carefully  con- 
ducted in  order  that  the  solidification  may  take  place  as  speedily  as 
practicable.  They  should  for  the  same  reason  never  be  undertaken 
for^a  large  stretch  of  road  at  a  time,  so  that,  if  dry  weather  should  set 
in,  delaying  the  process  of  consolidation,  the  traffic  may  not  be  un- 
duly interfered  with. 

Not  until  the  mass  of  material  spread  at  the  last  general  overhaul- 
ing has  practically  disappeared  are  general  repairs  again  necessary. 
As  the  surface  does  not  wear  off  uniformly,  the  smoothness  of  the  road 
has  usually  suffered  material  diminution  before  a  new  overhauling  is 
undertaken.  In  some  instances  the  system  of  repair  here  outlined 
proves  insufficient,  even  though  the  road  be  otherwise  strong  enough. 
Thus,  in  villages  where  the  road  is  well  built  up  the  street  crossings 
are  used  by  large  numbers  of  pedestrians,  who,  as  a  rule,  are  more 
exacting  as  to  the  condition  of  roads,  especially  in  wet  weather,  than 
the  drivers  of  vehicles.  In  such  cases  a  stone  pavement  or  some  other 
substantial  substitute  for  the  macadamized  surface  becomes  necessary. 

If,  however,  the  road  itself  is  lacking  in  power  of  resistance,  it  is 
necessary  to  strengthen  the  roadbed  and  at  the  same  time  take  meas- 
ures looking  to  a  uniform  wearing  off  of  the  entire  road  surface. 

Where  the  traffic  is  neither  large  nor  heavy,  and  the  defects  of  the 
roads  are  unimportant,  the  movement  of  vehicles  will  not  be  apt  to 
suffer  in  case  of  bad  weather,  and  even  if  affected,  it  will  be  for 
a  short  time  only.  In  such  cases  it  will  be  sufficient  to.  aim  at  main- 
taining the  status  quo  by  providing  somewhat  more  new  material  than 
will  equal  the  amount  worn  off,  thus  counteracting  the  deterioration 
of  the  roadbed  resulting  from  the  occasional  interruption  of  the  con- 
tinuity of  repairs. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  vehicles  passing  are  both  heavy  and  nu- 
merous, and  the  defects  of  the  road  more  serious,  interruptions  of  com- 
inunicarioiis  are  to  be  looked  tor  more  frequently  and  are  apt  to  be 
of  longer  duration  and  greater  importance.  In  such  cases  it  is  plainly 
imperative  to  try   to  restore  normal    conditions  as  speedily  as  may 

*  The  dimensions  <>f  these  »>1>mi  rnctiti.ir  stones  should  bo  one-third  metre.     To  make 
them  easily  visible,  they  arc  to  be   painted  white.     They  are  to  be  placed  on  the 
road  in  such  a  manner  as  to  keep  the  traffic  off  that  portion  of  the  road  which  it  is 
the  debire  to  withdraw  from  public  use. 
33a 9 


130  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

be.  This  applies  especially  to  roads  whose  defective  portions  are  of 
but  small  extent,  and  to  such  as  suddenly  become  quite  or  wholly 
impassable.  Cases  falling  between  the  two  extremes  cited  must  be 
met  according  to  circumstances.  It  may  be  advisable  at  times  to 
refrain  from  any  attempt  looking  to  a  complete  restoration,  merely 
striviug  to  limit  the  extent  of  the  defects. 

As  to  the  manner  of  procedure  to  give  tbe  roadbed  greater  power 
of  resistance,  it  has  been  found  that  iucreasing  the  thickness  of  the 
superstructure,  or  merely  renewing  it  with  greater  frequency,  is  the 
simplest  method  and  accomplished  with  the  least  interruptions  of  traffic. 
In  so  far  as  new  material  is  used  merely  to  increase  the  thickness  of  the 
superstructure  without  beiug  exposed  to  surface  wear,  a  substance  of 
moderate  quality  will  answer,  the  better  and  more  expensive  material 
being  reserved  for  the  surface  covering. 

Where,  however,  the  roadb  ed  contains  springs  the  method  above 
set  forth  is  not  always  effective ;  it  is  generally  necessary  to  secure 
better  drainage  by  wideuiug  and  doepening  the  ditches,  and  digging 
new  ones,  if  there  are  not  already  enough.  Underground  drainage  is 
now  beiug  iutroduced  for  such  cases,  a  trench  of  0.4  to  0.6  metre  in 
width  being  run  longitudinally  under  the  center  of  the  road,  and  filled 
up  with  loose  stone  and  rough  gravel  to  the  rock  superstructure  of  the 
road.  Tranverse  trenches  from  0.3  to  0.4  metre  in  width  serve  to  con- 
duct the  water  out  of  the  roadbed. 

Even  in  this  way  a  complete  success  has  not  always  been  attained. 
Some  kinds  of  soil  are  not  sufficiently  porous  to  admit  of  thorough 
drainage  in  this  mauner.  In  many  cases,  too,  the  deficient  depth  of  the 
ditches  renders  it  difficult  to  locate  the  drains  at  a  sufficient  depth  and 
at  the  same  time  permit  the  water  to  flow  out  into  the  ditches.  Ac- 
cordingly, when  a  system  of  underground  drainage  promises  but  in- 
complete success  it  will  be  well  to  combine  with  it  a  reeuforcement  of 
the  superstructure  of  the  road,  in  some  cases  even  to  construct  a  new 
roadbed  supplied  with  extra  thickness  of  rock  layers. 

If,  however,  as  happens  in  the  most  difficult  cases,  the  level  of  the 
roads  makes  satisfactory  drainage  impossible,  a  complete  success  can 
not  be  achieved  without  changing  the  level,  or,  what  amounts  to  the 
same,  entirely  rebuilding  that  section  of  the  road. 

When  it  is  the  intention  to  pave  certain  portions  of  a  road,  care  must 
be  taken  to  give  the  substructure  the  necessary  strength  aud  solidity. 

The  detailed  instructions  issued  for  the  guidance  of  the  roads  em- 
ployes are  in  accordance  with  the  general  rules  as  above  set  forth. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  roadguards  to  carefully  ram  down  all  newly 
spread  material  that  has  not  yet  been  thoroughly  fixed.  If  in  places 
the  material  was  not  sufficient,  and  ruts  again  make  their  appearance, 
the  guard  is  likewise  to  apply  new  matter  with  proper  care.  He  is  to 
pare  down  all  ridges  and  projections,  aud  work  the  loose  matter  into 
the  depressions,  in  order  that  the  road  may  be  smooth  and  retain  its 


EUROPE — GERMANY.  131 

original  convexity,  and  if  necessary  be  is  to  put  on  enough  new  mate- 
rial to  attain  this  end.  The  mud  gathering  on  the  road  is  to  be  care- 
fully scraped  off,  especially  when  a  spell  of  wet  weather  sets  in.  The 
dust  that  accumulates  iu  dry  weather  is  likewise  to  be  removed,  care 
being  taken  to  pick  out  the  loose  stones.  The  guard  is  furthermore  to 
stop  up  all  holes  in  the  body  of  the  road  or  the  sides  of  the  ditches, 
using  for  this  purpose  the  mud  that  has  been  scraped  off  the  road,  to 
cleat)  the  ditches,  destroy  the  weeds  that  make  their  appearance  on  the 
roadside,  keep  the  bridges  and  culverts  unobstructed  and  in  good  con- 
dition, open  the  drains  and  put  them  into  repair. 

When  snow  has  fallen  heavily  or  is  drifting,  the  roadguard  must 
shovel  it  off  the  road  so  as  to  keep  a  track  open.  If  he  is  unable  to  do 
this  with  the  assistance  of  hired  day  laborers,  he  must  make  requisition 
on  the  parish  authorities  for  the  necessary  help.  If,  on  account  of  con- 
tinued drifting,  the  road  can  not  be  kept  open,  the  travel  is  to  be  tem- 
porarily led  over  the  adjoining  fields,  care  being  taken  to  mark  the 
location  of  the  temporary  road  by  poles  and  wisps  of  straw.  When  the 
weather  permits  sleighing  for  some  time,  loose  stones  and  gravel  liable 
to  cause  accidents  are  to  be  removed,  and  bare  spots  are  to  be  covered 
with  snow. 

When  thaw  sets  in,  all  snow  and  ice  on  the  roads  must  be  speedily 
removed. 

Another  though  comparatively  subordinate  charge  on  the  road  au- 
thorities is  the  planting  of  trees  along  the  road  and  takiug  care  of 
them.     As  a  general  rule,  trees  must  be  planted  along  every  road. 

This  is  done  partly  to  render  the  direction  and  the  limits  of  the  road 
more  plainly  visible  in  the  dark  and  when  the  snow  is  drifting,  partly 
to  delight  the  traveling  public.  In  the  choice  of  trees  to  be  planted 
climatic  conditions  merit  first  consideration,  attention  being,  however, 
also  given  toward  securing  the  greatest  possible  returns  from  the  trees. 
For  this  reason  fruit  trees  are  preferred  wherever  practicable,  other- 
wise those  forest  trees  whose  wood  has  the  greatest  commercial  value. 

In  so  far  as  professional  knowledge  is  not  required,  the  roadguards 
are  also  charged  with  the  pruning,  removal  of  insects,  clearing  of  tree 
frames,  watering  those  newly  set  out,  and  replacing  those  that  fail  to 
take  root. 

CONSTRUCTION  AND  REPAIR  OF  COUNTRY  ROADS. 

The  rules  governing  parishes  in  the  construction  of  country  roads 
have  been  stated  in  the  course  of  the  remarks  on  state  roads,  to  which 
reference  is  therefore  made. 

The  circular  to  which  reference  has  already  been  made  also  states 
the  general  rules  to  be  observed  in  the  repair  of  country  roads  in  terms 
analogous  to  those  concerning  the  repair  of  state  roads.  However,  it 
does  not  contain  fixed  instructions  which  must  be  obeyed  under  ;ill 
circumstances,  but  is  rather  a  statement  of  facts  and  principles  for  the 
information  of  all  concerned. 


132  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Specific  instructions  are  issued  by  the  "  Amtshauptmannschaft "  to 
meet  the  particular  requirements  of  the  individual  cases  of  u  country 
road  "construction  and  repair.  The  only  general  provisions  have  been 
already  set  forth  and  concern  the  width  of  the  street,  the  planting  of 
trees  wherever  practicable,  and  in  the  default  thereof  the  marking  of 
the  limits  of  the  roads  in  some  other  permanent  manner  which  may  be 
efficient,  especially  in  time  of  snow. 

CONSTRUCTION  AND  REPAIR  OF  STREETS. 

It  is  left  to  the  individual  parishes  to  regulate  the  construction  and 
repair  of  their  respective  town  and  village  streets.  Of  course  the 
necessity  of  establishing  special  ordinances  regarding  streets  exists 
only  in  the  cities  and  populous  parishes  that  have  an  extensive  local 
traffic,  and  the  nature  of  these  ordinances  varies  with  the  varying  local 
conditions.  A  general  provision,  however,  requires  streets  to  be  com- 
posed of  a  substantial  rock  substructure  and  superstructure  and  of  a 
suitable  covering,  the  latter  to  consist  of  large  fiat  rocks  for  the  side- 
walks. It  hardly  could  be  of  interest  to  enter  into  the  details  of  these 
ordinances.  For  those  parts  of  city  streets  where  wagons  pass,  the 
varied  materials  such  as  Belgian  blocks,  cobblestones,  Nicholson  pave- 
ment, asphalt,  pressed  slag,  etc.,  are  used  for  surface  as  they  are  in  the 
United  States.  The  manner  of  putting  the  materials  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  city  streets  does  not  differ  from  that  of  our  American 
cities. 

Water  and  gas  pipes  are  laid,  and  sewers,  catch-basins,  fireplugs, 
and  manholes  are  constructed  and  placed  similarly  to  the  manner 
adopted  in  the  United  States.  An  extended  report  on  city  streets  will 
be  furnished  at  a  later  period  if  desired. 

CULTIVATION  OF  TREES  ON  ROADS  IN  SAXONY. 

The  system  of  tree  culture  along  the  roads  of  Saxony  is  the  admira- 
tion of  every  American  who  observes  it.  The  beauty  and  picturesque 
appearance  of  long  avenues  of  finely-selected  and  well-kept  trees,  stretch- 
ing away  for  miles  in  various  directions,  gladdens  the  heart  of  every 
admirer  of  natural  beauty.  It  is,  as  has  been  stated,  a  consideration  of 
less  importance  than  the  building  of  the  roads,  but  the  following  figures 
will  show  the  value  of  a  well  governed  and  faithfully  managed  system 
of  tree  culture  on  the  public  highways. 

In  the  year  1890  the  noteworthy  sum  of  150,622.55  marks  was  obtained 
for  the  fruit  grown  along  the  state  roads  of  Saxony.  The  district  which 
collected  the  largest  amount  was  the  "Aintshauptniaunschaft"  Dobelu, 
which  turned  into  the  treasury  27,534.50  marks,  while  the  mountain  dis- 
trict, Annaberg,  supplied  the  least,  or  only  15.50  marks. 


EUROPE GERMANY.  133 

The  revenues  from  the  fruit  trees  of  the  other  districts  was  as  follows  : 


Harks. 

Pirua,  land  II 21,713.90 

Grimma 18,077.05 

Leipzig 17,216.00 

Bautzen 15, 733.  50 

Dresden,  I  and  II 15, 63&  50 

Meissen,  I  and  II 11,536.95 


Marks. 

Ziltau 8,853.50 

Zwickau 6,538.20 

Chemnitz 5,178.50 

Freiberg 1,046.50 

Plauen 970.30 

Schwarzenberg 570.00 


These  figures  refer  to  the  state  roads  only.  The  income  from  trees 
along  country  roads  is  greater. 

At  the  risk  of  repeating  a  few  ideas  which  have  been  previously  ex- 
pressed in  more  general  terms,  I  submit  the  following: 

Object  of  planting  trees. — Trees  along  the  public  roads  make  the 
border  of  the  road  discernible  at  night,  as  well  as  after  snowdrifts, 
thereby  warning  the  public  against  embankments  and  other  danger 
along  the  sides  of  the  road.  Trees  also  afford  pleasure  and  comfort  to 
those  who  use  the  roads,  and  area  source  of  considerable  revenue  when 
properly  cared  for,  as  shown  above. 

In  this  connection  care  must  be  taken  to  secure  the  highest  possible 
profit  out  of  such  trees  in  the  interest  of  the  road  administration  and 
the  tax-paying  public  generally. 

Selection  of  trees.— (1)  In  general  such  kinds  of frees  should  be  selected 
for  road  purposes,  which,  as  far  as  the  climate  and  condition  of  the 
soil  permit,  promise  a  good  and  speedy  growth  ;  that  are  not  too  sen- 
sitive to  climatic  and  other  influences  and  can  soon  stand  without  a 
prop,  and  that  especially  promise  a  remunerative  return  in  proportion 
to  the  cost  of  their  raising  and  uursing. 

(2)  In  parts  of  the  country  where  fruit  trees  grow,  and  where  the  crop 
is  not  in  danger  of  damage  by  late  spring  frosts,  such  trees  should  by 
all  means  be  cultivated.  Forest  trees  are  preferable  where  fruit  trees 
can  not  be  grown  successfully,  especially  at  high  altitudes,  and  in 
forests,  and  also  where  wanton  damage  and  considerable  plundering  of 
fruit  may  be  apprehended,  this  being  sometimes  the  case  within  and 
around  thickly  populated  districts  and  near  villages. 

(3)  In  damp  localities  trees  with  broad  thick  foliage,  and  on  narrow 
roads  short-stemmed  trees  with  wide  extending  branches  should  not 
be  planted. 

(4)  It  is  also  advisable,  if  possible,  to  avoid  the  planting  of  such  kinds 
of  trees  as  would  prove  to  be  directly  injurious  to  the  adjoining  prop- 
erty. 

(5)  With  special  reference  to  fruit  trees,  the  planting  of  such  trees  is 
recommended  as  bloom  and  ripen  late,  and  the  fruits  of  which  will 
stand  a  long  journey  ami  will  keep  comparatively  a  long  time  without 
spoiling.  In  order  to  facilitate,  the  leasing  of  such  fruit  trees  if  is  rec- 
ommended to  cultivate  the  same  kind  of  fruit  on  rather  long  stretches 
of  road.  In  case  special  local  conditions  do  not  make  this  appeal  profit- 
able, such  varieties  of  fruit  should  be  planted  as  will  at  least  ripen  at 


134  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

the  same  time  and  always  in  such  number  that  a  proper  and  reasonable 
use  may  be  made  of  the  crop  and  a  favorable  leasing  rendered  practi- 
cable. Avoid,  if  possible,  the  planting  of  timber  trees  in  between  fruit 
trees. 

(G)  If  apple  trees  are  planted  varieties  having  long  stems  and  lofty 
tops  should  be  used,  if  possible.  It  is  not  recommended  to  plant  trees 
in  deep  or  narrow  valleys. 

(7)  For  timber  trees  such  kinds  should  be  given  preference  as  can  be 
profitably  used  for  choice  woods  for  special  purposes.  In  Saxony  the 
planting  of  ash  and  maple  trees,  and,  in  considerable  distance  from  vil- 
lages, wild  cherry  trees  is  specially  noticeable.  Where  the  soil  is  un- 
favorable, especially  iu  mountainous  districts  where  other  kinds  of 
trees  do  not  grow  as  well,  mountain  ash  trees  may  be  recommended. 

(8)  Generally  speaking,  particular  attention  should  be  given  to  young 
strong,  and  well  nursed  fruit  trees  of  such  pedigree  as  are  best  adapted 
to  a  given  part  of  the  country. 

(9)  If  trees  have  been  cultivated  which  do  not  correspond  with  the 
principles  laid  down  inNos.  1  to  7,  endeavor  by  degrees  to  substitute  a 
more  preferable  system  of  transplanting. 

(10)  For  such  renewal  of  trees  a  systematic  plan  must  be  adopted  and 
followed  with  all  the  supplements  rendered  necessary  in  Part  V  of  these 
instructions. 

(11)  A  change  in  the  system  of  planting  is  not  objectionable  in  cases 
where  existing  fruit  trees  can  be  expected  to  yield  a  larger  crop  by  re- 
moving timber  trees  growing  between  the  fruit  trees  and  also  barren 
fruit  trees. 

(12)  When  it  is  ascertained  that  a  change  in  the  kind  of  trees  will 
cause  a  more  remunerative  crop,  which  will  outweigh  the  costs  and 
damages  of  the  change,  the  same  can  be  brought  about  little  by  little 
annually  on  stretches  from  5  to  10  kilometers  of  road.  A  radical  change 
should  always  be  justified  by  circumstances,  as  such  a  course  is  un- 
usual, and  the  same  should  be  explained  by  a  detailed  statement  made 
to  the  chief  supervisors  of  the  roads  in  the  district. 

Rules  of  tree  cultivation. — The  distance  between  the  trees  should  be 
based  upon  the  purposes  mentioned  in  Part  I.  It  should,  however,  not 
be  too  small  iu  order  not  to  injure  the  growth  of  the  trees.  When  the 
security  of  the  traffic  does  not  demand  a  closer  planting,  apple,  pear, 
and  sweet  cherry  trees  should  stand  30  to  40  yards  apart ;  sour  cherry 
trees  and  plums  7  to  9  yards. 

Local  conditions  govern  the  planting  of  trees  along  certain  parts  of 
the  roads  where  tree  planting  appears  impracticable,  because  of  the 
roadsides  being  abrupt  and  rocky,  or  when  trees#or  houses  stand  iu  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  the  road. 

When  trees  are  set  out  hollow  places  should  be  left  at  their  bases  for 
irrigating  and  other  purposes,  which  should  not  be  too  small.  Where 
trees  already  stand  and  these  "hollows"  are  wanting,  they  should  be 


EUROPE — GERMANY.  1 35 

gradually  formed  by  suspending  the  periodical  trimmiug  of  the  edge 
of  the  road  or  by  banking  up  a  basin-like  substitute  therefor. 

The  holes  for  planting  the  trees  should  not  be  too  small,  especially 
when  the  road  lies  in  a  cut  or  when  the  planting  is  to  be  done  on  spots 
where  other  trees  have  stood  formerly.  The  holes  should  be,  for  fruit 
trees,  from  3  to  4i  feet  wide  when  the  soil  is  rich,  and  5  feet  when  the 
soil  is  inferior.  The  depth  should  be  according  to  the  good  or  inferior 
soil :  2  to  3  feet,  less  than  1J  feet  only  being  practicable  for  plum  trees. 
Where  these  holes  can  not  be  dug  in  the  prescribed  dimensions,  then 
they  should  be  dug  out  in  shape  of  a  ditch,  so  that  the  roots  of  the 
tree  can  at  least  find  loose  soil  in  two  directions.  These  holes  should 
be  filled  with  earth  mixed  with  compost. 

Should  a  renewal  in  the  planting  on  long  distances  be  found  neces- 
sary, the  new  trees  should  be  planted  between  the  spots  where  the  old 
trees  stood,  and  eventually  the  kind  of  tree  changed. 

The  poles  destined  to  prop  up  the  young  trees  should  be  polished  and 
blunted  on  the  upper  end,  in  order  to  prevent  them  from  rubbing 
against  the  trees.  These  poles  should  be  fixed  on  the  side  which  is 
mostly  exposed  to  strong  winds;  it  must,  however,  also  be  borne  in 
mind  that  these  poles  protect  the  trees  from  damage  from  the  road. 
The  bands  should  always  be  attached  in  the  shape  of  an  8,  and,  when 
fastened,  special  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  pole  from  rubbing 
on  the  tree. 

When  grafted  fruit  trees  are  to  be  used  care  should  be  taken  that 
the  desired  species  be  obtained  under  guaranty.  In  cases  of  extensive 
plantings,  when  the  desired  species  cannot  be  obtained  with  certainty, 
it  is  recommended  to  plant  wild  trees  that  can  be  properly  grafted  when 
the  time  comes. 

The  trees  should  neither  be  planted  in  damp  nor  cold  weather,  but  in 
weather  when  the  soil  that  has  been  prepared  crumbles  easily,  and 
therefore  can  be  easily  placed  between  the  roots.  Apples  and  pears  can 
be  planted  in  spring  as  well  as  in  autumn  j  for  cherries  and  plums, 
spring  is  preferable.  The  latter  only  require  alluvial  "  mud  dressing." 
When  setting  out  trees  the  sinking  of  the  soil  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration if  the  same  is  specially  heavy.  The  tree  must  not  be  put  as 
deep  in  the  earth  as  it  grew  originally,  so  that  the  proper  depth  of 
planting  is  not  surpassed  by  the  gradual  sinking  of  the  soil  around  the 
roots.  When  the  new  trees  are  tied  to  posts,  care  must  be  taken  that 
they  are  not  prevented  from  settling  themselves  firmly  in  the  soil.  The 
final  fastening  to  props  can  ouly  be  done  when  the  earth  surrounding 
the  roots  has  settled  down. 

Nursing  and  keeping  trees.— When  dry  weather  prevails  the  tree 
"hollows''  should  be  covered  with  moss,  inverted  sod,  or  similar  sub. 
stances.  Newly  transplanted  and  young  trees  should  be  provided  with 
the  uecessary  moisture  by  flooding  water  into  the  "  hollows,1*  if  this 
does  not  cause  a  too  heavy  expenditure.     Where  the  tree  "hollows'' 


136  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

are  very  small  or  are  completely  wanting,  two  or  three  holes  should  be 
dug  around  the  tree  and  filled  with  water.  These  holes  must  be  kept 
open  with  drainage  tubes. 

To  protect  young  trees  against  rabbits  and  hares  in  winter,  or  other 
damages,  the  stems  should  be  tied  up  with  thorns,  straw,  or  reeds. 
Wire  should  be  used  for  this  purpose.  To  protect  the  trees  against 
insects  and  to  prevent  the  bursting  of  the  bark  in  winter,  the  stems  of 
the  fruit  trees  should  in  the  fall  of  the  year  be  whitewashed,  or  cov- 
ered with  a  mixture  of  lime  and  ox  blood,  compost,  clay,  or  similar 
substance.  A  straw  or  moss  covering  is  considered  a  good  protection 
against  the  drying  out  of  young  trees  thatare  especially  exposed  to  the 
sun  and  wind. 

The  earth  in  tree  "  hollows,"  especially  those  of  younger  fruit  trees, 
should  be  frequently  loosened. 

The  so-called  "  suckers"  should  be  cut  off  at  all  times,  if  they  are  not 
required  to  fill  out  the  tree  top  T  for  substitution  in  places  of  old 
boughs.  In  the  latter  case  they  should  be  nursed  with  special  care. 
In  order  to  cause  a  good  growth  of  the  fruit-bearing  top  of  fruit  trees, 
careful  pruning  is  necessary  at  certain  periods,  as  well  as  a  clearing  of 
old  trees  lrom  useless  or  too  numerous  branches. 

In  general,  the  nursing  of  trees  along  state  roads  should  not  suffer 
by  comparison  with  trees  along  the  roads  kept  up  by  communities  or 
private  individuals. 

The  cutting  of  the  young  fruit  trees  should  only  be  done  by  specially 
skillful  persons.  Such  employes  as  have  been  educated  for  such  pur- 
poses are  to  be  preferred. 

The  pruning  of  fruit-bearing  trees  may  be  done  by  inexperienced  em- 
ployes when  such  work  is  superintended  by  experts. 

Cutting  down  of  trees. — The  cutting  down  of  either  fruit  or  forest 
trees  on  roads  is  permitted  only  when  such  a  proceeding  promises  to 
be  profitable,  with  reference  to  a  subsequent  increase  in  the  value  of 
the  timber  trees  to  be  substituted  for  those  removed,  or  in  the  value  of 
future  fruit  crops.  The  costs  of  replacing  and  cultivating  young  trees 
must  be  carefully  considered. 

The  ornamental  point  of  view  should  not  be  overlooked,  especially  on 
avenues  of  trees  that  beautify  that  part  of  the  country  where  they  exist. 
Such  trees  should  not  be  cut  down  without  the  knowledge  and  the  con- 
sent of  the  county  commissioners. 

Dead  or  badly  damaged  trees  which  destroy  the  beauty  of  the 
avenue  and  which,  being  liable  to  break  down  in  storms,  threaten  to 
interfere  with  the  proper  use  of  the  road,  should  be  removed  without 
delay. 

The  trees  should  be  cut  down  in  a  season  in  which  the  wood  can  be 
most  profitably  used. 

Wherever  trees  insure  the  safety  of  the  roads  a  renewal  of  removed 
or  dead  trees  should  take  place  without  delay.    If  replanting  is  not 


EUROPE — GERMANY.  137 

practicable,  on  account  of  the  season,  poles  should  temporarily  replace 
the  trees. 

General  instructions. — Special  care  must  be  taken  to  secure  in  time 
the  necessary  quantity  of  trees  to  be  used  each  season. 

Road  employe's  should  not  be  permitted  to  lease  fruit  trees  or  to  buy 
the  wood,  except  in  cases  where  other  parties  fail  to  make  bids  which 
are  satisfactory. 

State-road  fruit  trees  are  leased  to  the  highest  bidders  and  the 
money  received  is  covered  into  the  state  treasury.  Wood  from  road 
trees  is  sold  at  auction  and  the  money  returned  to  the  public  treasury. 
Nothing  is  lost  or  wasted,  and  those  who  lease  fruit  trees  are  held  to  a 
strict  account  for  any  damage  done  the  trees.  Ladders  must  be  used 
to  gather  the  fruit,  and  any  battering  of  the  trees  with  clubs  or  poles 
to  get  fruit  is  sharply  punished. 

GENERALIZATIONS. 

In  conclusion,  it  will  not  be  inappropriate  to  mention  some  general 
facts  of  more  or  less  importance  which  have  been  omitted  from  the 
foregoing,  and  to  review  briefly  some  provisions  of  the  laws  by  which, 
in  the  interests  of  the  general  public,  the  executive  governing  powers 
seek  to  prevent  certain  of  the  damages  which  might  otherwise  ensue. 

There  are  no  statistics  which  show  the  total  length  of  the  combined 
roads  and  streets  of  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony. 

Of  state  roads  there  are  37,032  kilometres.  The  average  cost  per 
annum  of  keeping  the  state  roads  in  the  splendid  condition  which  al- 
ways exists  is  650  marks  per  kilometre,  while  the  beautiful  macada- 
mized country  roads  require  an  average  annual  expenditure  of  400 
marks  per  kilometre  to  maintain  their  never-failing  excellence. 

These  figures  do  not  include  the  salaries  of  the  employes  who  protect 
and  tend  the  roads.     The  following  salaries  are  paid  to  road  employes: 

•  Marks. 

Road  inspectors 3,300  to  4, 800 

Road  masters 1,500  to  1,800 

Road  guards 660  to     730 

Laborers  receive  about  75  cents  per  day.  lload  masters  and  guards 
are  gratuitously  uniformed  and  are  allowed  80  to  00  marks  per  annum 
with  which  to  keep  their  uniforms  in  repair.  They  present  a  neat  ap- 
pearance, and  are  careful  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties. 

The  rollers  or  surface  crushers  in  use  are  for  both  horse  and  steam 
power.  The  horse-power  rollers  weigh  from  12,000  to  15,000  pounds 
and  cost  from  $350  to  $400.  Gruson  steel  tires  cost  $100  extra.  The 
steam  rollers  are  built  alter  the  system  of  Arding  &  Porter,  of  Roches- 
ter, and  weigh  22,000  pounds.  They  cost  83,()()(>.  Heavier  rollers  arq 
not  practicable  because  of  the  hilly  condition  of  the  country. 

None  of  the  roads  in  Saxony  arc  fenced.  They  are  SO  clearly  defined 
by  the  trees  which  grow  along  their  sides,  and  by  other  boundaries, 


138  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

that  fencing  is  unneessary.  In  this  connection  I  will  report  that,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  picketed  iuclosures,  there  are  no  fenced  grounds 
in  all  Saxony. 

The  charming  appearance  of  this  Kingdom  owes  much  of  its  beauty 
to  the  fact  that  its  wide,  well-tilled  valleys,  its  rolling  hills  crested  with 
dark  pine  forests,  and  its  fruitful  plains  are  not  disfigured  by  fences  of 
any  kind. 

If  the  same  economy  were  practiced  in  the  United  States  our  people 
would  be  much  richer,  for  it  is  a  fact  that  the  farm  fences  (road  and  line) 
cost  more  than  all  the  farm  buildings  in  our  land. 

Even  the  railways  in  Saxony  are  uufenced.  Crossings  on  the  level 
are  guarded  by  descending  barriers,  even  in  the  places  remote  from 
towns  and  villages.  Only  on  such  railways  as  are  narrow  gauge  and 
called  "  secundar"  railroads,  it  is  possible  to  find  level  crossings  which 
are  unguarded  by  employes  hired  and  paid  by  the  railroads.  In  such 
places  warning  signs  and  the  locomotive  bell  guard  the  traveler  on  the 
turnpike. 

On  all  wagon  roads  where  steep*,  abrupt  embankments  endanger 
passengers  or  teams  of  horses,  a  barricade  is  usually  built  of  stone 
posts  connected  with  heavy  angle-iron  bolted  firmly  into  place. 

Square  cut  stones  show  distances  in  kilometres  and  fractions  thereof. 
These  posts  are  painted  white,  and  the  figures  on  them  are  carved 
deeply. 

At  crossing  or  diverging  ways  substantial  iron  direction  plates  tell 
the  distances  to  various  towns  or  hamlets.  In  the  highlands  and 
mountainous  parts  a  society,  called  the  Austro-German  Tourists'  Club, 
has  erected  hundreds  of  guideboards  for  the  use  of  its  members  and 
others  who  are  making  tours  afoot  through  the  enticing  and  pictur- 
esque parts  of  the  country. 

There  are  no  special  rules  giving  to  pedestrians'  rights  of  way  over 
conveyances  of  any  kind.  Drivers  must,  however,  keep  off  that  part 
of  the  road  which  is  reserved  for  and  made  use  of  by  foot  passengers. 
Horses  must  be  turned  to  the  right  when  meeting,  and  several  penal 
regulations  prohibit  fast  driving  or  any  reckless  behavior  on  the 
roads. 

Not  only  the  Koyal  Government,  but  all  local  police  authorities  hold 
a  firm  check  on  any  disregard  of  general  rights  which  the  public  en- 
joy in  the  use  of  the  Saxon  roads. 

All  wagons  must  carry  a  lighted  lantern  at  night,  and  keep  to  the 
right  hand  side  of  the  road.  All  wagons  used  for  heavy  teaming  are 
required  to  be  conspicuously  and  plainly  marked  in  large  and  durable 
letters,  with  the  name  and  residence  of  the  owner.  Horses  must  be 
driven  under  control  of  "  crossed  reins"  as  in  America,  and  only  when 
engaged  in  field  work  are  they  not  subject  to  this  regulation. 

Wheelmen  are  not  granted  any  special  rights  on  roads.  On  the  con- 
trary, they  are  required  to  ride  with  the  utmost  caution  and  care. 


EUROPE — GERMANY.  139 

In  detail,  according  to  differing  local  conditions  the  instructions  to 
wheelmen  differ  as  far  as  police  regulations  apply.  But,  in  general, 
wheelmen  are  subject  to  the  same  rules  as  apply  to  drivers  of  horses. 
They  must  provide  lamps  for  their  wheels;  keep  to  the  right;  carry  a 
metal  shield  on  the  front  of  the  wheel  with  name  and  address  engraved 
on  it;  keep  off  the  footpaths;  ring  a  bell  when  approaching  any  one, 
and  in  some  cases  abstain  from  riding  side  by  side.  When  riding  in 
files  a  given  distance  must  intervene  between  them  and  those  who  pre- 
cede them.     Wheelmen,  as  such,  pay  no  taxes. 

Fines  collected  for  the  violation  of  road  laws  go  into  the  treasury  of 
the  authority  which  imposes  the  fines.  On  state  roads  the  money 
would  go  to  the  uses  of  the  "  Amtshauptmannschaften,"  and  on  country 
roads  to  the  local  police  fund. 

On  some  state  roads  heavily-laden  vehicles  are  required  to  have  a 
certain  minimum  width  of  tire,  while  wagons  having  boltheads  or 
screws  protruding  from  the  tire,  or  having  tires  with  a  rounded  surface, 
are  not  permitted  to  enter  the  road  at  all.  Drivers  of  heavily  loaded 
wagons  pursuing  a  track  already  well  worn  must  drive  on  a  different 
part  of  the  road  when  so  directed  by  any  of  the  road  employes. 

It  is  further  prohibited  to  drive  in  or  across  ditches  or  on  the  foot- 
paths, or  to  ride,  or  to  drive  cattle  at  these  places,  as  also  to  drag  on 
the  road  timber,  farm  implements,  or  other  articles  that  damage  the 
surface  of  the  road,  or  to  do  any  other  act  injurious  to  a  public  road  or 
its  appurtenances.  A  fixed  width  of  tire  to  correspond  to  the  weight 
of  the  load  is  also  sometimes  required  by  local  police  regulations. 

While  a  violation  of  the  above  regulations  constitutes  merely  an 
offense  cognizable  by  a  police  court,  the  willful  destruction  or  injury  of 
roads,  or  of  the  trees  thereunto  belonging,  is  regarded  as  a  misde- 
meauor  punishable  by  the  proper  court. 

H.  F.  Merritt, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate. 

Chemnitz,  April  10,  1891. 


SAXONY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  PALMER,  OF  DRESDEN. 
INTRODUCTION. 

The  division  of  the  public  roads  in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony  into  city 
streets  and  country  roads  is  rendered  necessary  not  only  by  the  fact 
that  their  construction  and  method  of  maintenance  are  entirely  differ- 
ent, but  also  because  they  arc  under  the  control  of  two  administrations 
that  are  strictly  independent  of  each  other. 


140  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

It  will  be  sufficient  to  furnish  a  detailed  report  on  streets  in  larger 
cities  (in  this  case  Dresden  being  selected),  for  the  reason  that,  usually, 
the  streets  in  smaller  towns  and  villages  are  built  on  the  same  princi- 
ple as  the  less  important  streets  in  large  cities,  and  further  because  the 
same  administrative  laws  and  regulations  prevail  in  larger  cities  as  in 
smaller  towns. 

The  roads  in  the  open  country  are  divided  into  two  classes :  (1)  State 
or  governraont  roads.  (2)  Couutry  or  communication  roads  (connect- 
ing two  or  more  towns  or  villages).  The  former  are  maintained  at  the 
cost  of  the  state,  by  a  special  department,  which  also  supervises  the 
navigable  ways.  The  latter  are  built  and  maintained  by  the  city  and 
country  communities,  and  by  the  owners  of  independent  estates  whose 
lands  they  cross;  in  some  cases,  also,  by  all  parishes  within  one  "amt- 
shanptinaunschaft"  (district  commission)  voluntarily  united  for  that 
purpose. 

The  "  communication"  roads  are,  ordinarily,  used  for  smaller  traffic 
and  serve  mostly  for  agricultural  purposes.  Their  system  of  construc- 
tion and  repair  is  in  no  way  different  from  that  of  state  roads  and  they 
may  safely  be  classed  with  inferior  state  roads.  For  this  reason  no 
special  description  will  be  given  of  these  roads,  but,  as  far  as  it  will 
appear  necessary,  they  may  be  referred  to  occasionally. 

In  the  entire  kingdom  of  Saxony  no  distinction  is  made  between 
roads  for  light  and  such  for  heavy  vehicles.  The  public  roads  are,  in 
general,  open  to  traffic  of  every  description,  and  therefore  they  should 
be  built  and  maintained  in  accordance  with  such  requirements.  Iu  the 
city  of  Dresden  the  transportation  of  heavy  loads  that  can  not  be  sep- 
arated is  only  permitted  under  the  condition  that  such  vehicle  be  tested 
by  officials  in  reference  to  its  loading  capacity,  and  that  the  condition 
of  the  foundation,  sewerage,  etc.,  of  the  streets  through  which  such 
heavy  loads  are  destined  to  pass  be  thoroughly  examined. 

Similar  regulations  exist  in  reference  to  state  roads  and  for  crossing 
over  bridges. 

CITY  STREETS. 

The  primary  difference  between  city  streets  and  couutry  roads  con- 
sists in  their  different  manner  of  drainage.  The  latter  are  drained 
by  means  of  longitudinal  ditches  on  each  side  of  the  road,  the  former 
only  by  underground  sewers  located  in  most  cases  in  the  middle  of 
the  street.  These  sewers  not  only  serve  to  drain  all  waste  water  from 
the  houses  without  detriment  to  the  inhabitants,  but  also  make  it 
possible  to  provide  the  street  with  elevated  sidewalks. 

Beyond  this  the  constant  traffic  in  cities,  and  care  for  the  health 
of  the  inhabitants  requires  a  fry?  greater  durability  and  solidity  of 
construction  of  city  streets  and  sidewalks,  and  more  care  must  be 
bestowed  on  their  maintenance  than  is  the  case  on  country  roads. 
Almost  all  city  streets  in  Saxony  are  paved. 


EUROPE GERMANY.  141 

Kecently,  beaten  asphalt  is  being  used  in  the  busiest  streets  of 
larger  cities  instead  of  stone  pavement.  Wood  pavement  was  also 
tried,  but  did  not  fully  meet  the  expectations,  and  after  several  trials 
this  system  was  altogether  abandoned,  the  wood  was  removed  and 
replaced  by  asphalt. 

In  parts  of  cities  where  there  are  only  detached  residences  (villas) 
macadamized  roads  are  preferred. 

Cost  of  materials.— The  cost  of  materials  for  street  and  road 
building,  exclusive  of  all  costs  of  transportation  from  the  different 
quarries  may  be  averaged  as  follows : 

Bough  paving  stones  from  the  quarries  of  PlaneuscheGrund,  from 
Pennrich,  and  Prabschutz,  2.70  marks  per  square  metre  equal  to  2.25 
marks  per  square  yard. 

Hough  paviug  stoues  from  the  quarries  near  Meissen,  from  Scbon- 
boru  and  Dernitz,  2.15  marks  per  square  metre  equal  to  1.80  marks  per 
( square  yard. 

Dressed  paving  stone  from  the  quarries  of  Luptitz  and  Grimma, 
Dornreichenbach  and  Haida  :  first  class,  6.75  marks  per  square  metre, 
equal  to  5.G5  marks  per  square  yard  ;  second  class,  0.35  marks  per  square 
metre,  equal  to  5.30  marks  per  square  yard  ;  third  class.  5.45  marks  per 
square  metre,  equal  to  4.55  marks  per  square  yard. 

Dressed  paviug  stones  of  all  three  classes  from  quarries  Bullevitz 
and  Nrederiocesa,  8.60  marks  per  square  metre,  equal  to  7.20  marks  per 
square  yard. 

Cast  slag  paving  stones,  3.80  marks  per  square  metre,  equal  to  3.15 
marks  per  square  yard. 

Gravel  from  the  river  Elbe,  1.50  marks  per  cubic  metre,  equal  to  1.15 
marks  per  cubic  yard. 

Pit  gravel  (mine  gravel),  1.50  marks  per  cubic  metre,  equal  to  1.15 
marks  per  cubic  yard. 

Sand,  0.80  mark  per  cubic  metre,  equal  to  0.61  mark  per  cubic  yard. 

Extra  solid  and  weatherproof  coarse,  quarry  stones  used  for  "pack- 
ing layer,"  1.50  marks  per  cubic  metre,  equal  to  1.15  marks  per  cubic 
yard. 

Coarse  broken  stones  (same  quality  as  above),  not  exceeding  8  cen- 
timetres in  size,  2.00  marks  per  cubic  metre,  equal  to  1.53  marks  per 
cubic  yard. 

Small  broken  stones  (same  stone  as  above),  not  exceeding  5  centi- 
metres in  size,  3  marks  per  cubic  metre,  equal  to  2.30  marks  per  cubic 
yard. 

Small  broken  basalt  stones  (not  exceeding  4  centimetres  in  size),  from 
Tischlowitz  quarries,  3.50  marks  per  cubic  metre,  equal' to  2.65  marks 
per-cubie  yard. 

Small  broken  basalt  stones  (not  exceeding 4  centimeters  in  size),  from 
Praskowitz  quarries,  4.15  marks  per  cubic  metre,  equal  to3.L7  maiksper 
cubic  yard. 


142  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Small  broken  pieces  of  porphyry,  1.60  marks  per  cubic  metre,  equal  to 
1.22  marks  per  cubic  yard. 

Small  broken  pieces  of  "  griinstein"  (greenstone),  3.00  marks  per  cubic 
metre,  equal  to  2.30  marks  per  cubic  yard. 

Finely  broken  (l  greenstone,"  3.50  marks  per  cubic  metre,  equal  to  2.65 
marks  per  cubic  yard. 

Asphalt  powder,  7.70  marks  per  100  kilograms. 

Dressed  paving  stones  from  the  quartz  porphyry  quarries  near  Brus 
sels,  Belgium,  measure  being  taken  upon  the  completed  pavement,  free 
delivery  to  the  place  of  construction.  First  class,  4.50  marks  per 
square  metre,  equal  to  3.75  marks  per  square  yard  ;  second  class,  3.50 
marks  per  square  metre,  equal  to  2.92  marks  per  square  yard. 

MATERIAL   USED  FOR  ROAD  BUILDING  AND   STREET  PAVING. 

The  kinds  of  stones  universally  used  for  building  roads  and  paving 
streets  are  the  following:  Dressed  paving  stones  of  "griiustein" 
(greenstone),  specific  weight,  3.2;  quartz-porphyry,  syenite,  granite, 
specific  weight  2.8 ;  rough  irregular  paving  stones  of  granite  and  sye- 
nite, shaped  at  the  quarries  before  they  are  made  use  of;  artificial  pav- 
ing stones  cast  from  copper  slags;  small,  broken  pieces  of  basalt,  of 
syenite,  and  of  "  greenstone ;'?  beaten  asphalt  is  obtained  from  Val  de 
France,  Seysel,  and  Sicily.     It  is  delivered  pulverized  and  ready  for  use. 

The  dressed  paving  stones  are  divided  according  to  their  size  into 
three  classes. 

Of  first-class  stones  about  27  will  form  1  square  yard  (32  to  1  square 
metre).  They  must  measure  0.185  to  0.21  yard  (17  to  19  centimetres) 
in  height,  and  0.155  to  0.185  yard  (11  to  17  centimetres)  in  width. 

Of  second-class  stones  about  33  will  form  1  square  yard  (39  to  1 
square  metre).  Height  required,  0.165  to  0.185  yard  (15  to  17  centi- 
metres) ;  width  required,  0.130  to  0.165  yard  (12  to  15  centimetres). 

Of  third-class  stones  about  42  will  form  1  square  yard  (50  to  1  square 
metre).  Height  required,  0.14  to  0.165  yard  (13  to  15  centimetres) ; 
width  required,  0.11  to  0.14  yard  (10  to  13  centimetres). 

The  length  of  the  stones  of  all  three  classes  is  proportionate  to  their 
width  as  5  to  3. 

The  top  of  the  stone  must  be  even  and  have  sharp,  regular  edges. 
Their  shape  must  be  like  a  truncated  pyramid,  and  should  resemble  as 
much  as  possible  a  prism.  The  incline  of  the  sides  must  not  exceed 
one-tenth  of  the  height. 

Natural  stones  hewn  into  exact  cubic  shape  are  not  used,  this  process 
being  too  expensive ;  but  paving  stones  cast  from  copper  slags  are 
delivered  and  used  in  that  shape. 

During  the  year  1890  the  demand  for  good  paving  stones  was  so 
great  that  they  had  to  be  purchased  in  large  quantities  from  the  quartz 
porphyry  quarries  near  Brussels,  in  Belgium.  The  stones  purchased 
from  these  quarries  are  of  two  (first  and  second)  classes,  and  prices 


EUROPE GERMANY. 


143 


have  been  stated  above.    Experience  will  show  whether  it  be  profitable 
to  use  these  stones  for  other  purposes  or  not. 

CONSTRUCTION  AM)  REPAIR  OK  STREETS. 

Macadamised  streets. — Every  macadamized  street  must,  according  to 
the  law,  consist  of  a  rock  substructure  and  a  rock  superstructure.  The 
substructure  supports  the  superstructure  and  prevents  it  from  sinking 
into  the  ground.  The  superstructure  forms  the  wearing  surface  of  the 
street  and  protects  the  roadbed  against  dampness  with  its  injurious 
effects.  Whenever  a  street  or  carriage  road  is  constructed,  the  soil  on 
which  the  rock  substructure  is  to  be  placed  is,  after  necessary  drainage, 
thoroughly  soaked  with  water  and  then  rolled  tight  with  a  street-roller, 
which  is  either  drawn  by  horses  or  propelled  by  steam  power,  until  the 
surface  becomes  completely  smooth. 

The  substructure  consists  either  of  a  layer  of  coarse  broken  stone 
(the  single  stone  not  exceeding  0.09  yard  [=8  centimetres]  in  size),  see 
Fig.  1,  or  of  a  row  of  large  stones,  so-called  «  packing  layer,"  see  Fig.  2. 


Tig.l. 


I  0.055  yd^  ^IIIJI 

0.165  yd  I 
0.220yd. 
w 


z*  Sand-. 

Small  "broken  stones. 


Coarse  broKen  stones. 


0>.O55yd.£& 
<MMyoZ.l°-200yd 


\0.185yd 


Fig.  2. 


Sand. 

Small  broJten  stones. 


TY-Y  YTTYYf  f  ^**^  Zayer- 


The  substructure  of  coarse  broken  stone  is  used  in  such  cases  when  the 
soil  or  foundation  is  found  to  be  soft  and  not  resistant.  This  layer  must 
be  at  least  20  centimetres  thick  and  is  but  slightly  rolled  before  placing 
on  the  superstructure.     (Fig.  1.) 

If  the  natural  foundation  is  solid  the  substructure  generally  consists 
of  large  quarry  stones,  not  exceeding  0.19  yard  (17  centimetres  in 
height.    (Fig.  2.) 

These  stones  form  the  so  called  "  packing  layer,"  and  are  carefully 
placed  by  hand  on  the  smoothed  and  graded  roadbed  in  close  rows  with 
their  broadest  side  downwards  and  their  points  turned  upwards  to  pre- 
vent their  working  loose.  The  spaces  between  these  stones  are  filled 
out  with  smaller  stones  and  the  projecting  tops,  if  any,  knocked  off. 
(Fig.  2.) 

In  both  cases  a  layer  of  small  broken  stone  is  spread  on  the  sub- 
structure, thus  forming  the  superstructure. 


144  STREETS   AND   HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

With  reference  to  Fig.  1  this  superstructure  must  be  at  least  0.16 
yard  (15  centimetres)  thick  to  Fig.  2  at  least  0.2  yard  (18  centime- 
tres) thick. 

Before  spreading,  these  small  stones  must  be  passed  through  a  screen, 
SO  as  to  free  them  from  all  dust  and  earth  ;  their  size  must  not  exceed 
0.055  yard  (5  centimetres)  and  not  be  smaller  than  0.044  yard  (4  cen- 
timetres), according  to  the  firmness  of  the  rock  used. 

It  must  not  be  omitted  to  state  that  this  superstructure  of  small 
broken  stone  consists  of  two  separate  layers,  each  layer  being  sepa- 
rately rolled  tight,  while  soaked  with  water,  thus  increasing  its  firm- 
ness. When  the  desired  road  profile  is  obtained  and  the  stones  lie 
closely  and  firmly  together,  the  dust,  earth,  and  gravel  left  from  the 
screening  of  the  stones  is  spread  over  the  surface. 

The  roller  is  then  again  passed  over,  and  the  road  is  completed  with 
a  layer  (about  0.055  yards  thick)  of  moist,  binding  gravel  sand. 

It  may  be  well  to  add  here  that  the  rollers  used  for  crushing  the  sur- 
face of  the  roads  or  streets,  called  "compression  rollers,"  are  either 
drawn  by  horses  and  w^igh  about  6,000  kilograms,  or  propelled  by 
steam  power  and  weigh  from  10,000  to  15,000  kilograms. 

The  former  can  compact  52  cubic  yards  (40  cubic  metres)  per  day, 
and  the  latter  from  80  to  100  cubic  yards  (60  to  80  cubic  meters)  per 
day. 

The  figures  showing  the  thickness  of  the  different  stone  layers  that 
compose  the  substructure  and  superstructure  of  a  macadamized  street, 
as  indicated  in  red  ink  on  the  above  diagrams,  are  understood  when  the 
street  or  road  is  completed  and  ready  for  public  use;  if,  however,  such 
measurements  were  taken  before  the  street  bedding  has  been  com- 
pacted, the  quantity  of  material  required  would  be  from  one  fifth  to  one- 
eighth  larger. 

Every  street  or  road  must  be  arched,  the  highest  elevation  thus  ob- 
tained measuring  one-sixtieth  of  the  width  (exclusive  of  sidewalks) 
for  macadamaized  streets,  one  eightieth  for  paved  streets,  and  one  one- 
hundred-and-twentieth  for  asphalt  streets.     (Figs.  1,  2,  3.) 

The  curbstones  of  the  sidewalks  are  located  from  0.11  to  0.13  yards 
(10  to  12  centimetres),  above  the  street  surface;  the  sectional  inclina- 
tion of  the  sidewalks  beiug  fixed  at  one-thirty-third,  their  width  being 
under  normal  conditions  one-fifth  of  the  entire  width  of  the  street, 
three-fifths,  therefore,  remaining  for  the  carriage  road.  (See  Figs.  1,  2, 
aud  3). 

City  streets  are  generally  wider  than  country  roads. 

The  width  of  state  roads  varies*  between  6.6  and  10  9  yards  (6  and 
10  metres),  and  the  width  of  country  ("  communication  r)  roads  must 
be  at  least  5.5  yards  (5  metres)  in  open  country  and  7.7  yards  (7  metres) 
within  villages  or  towns.  In  Dresden  all  new  streets  must  measure  at 
least  14.2  yards  (13  metres),  increased  to  34.9  yards  (32  metres)  and 
more,  if  necessary.     It  may  be  stated  that  the  average  width  is  figured 


EUROPE! — GERMANY. 


145 


at  21.8  yards  (20  metres).  Based  upon  the  above-mentioned  widths, 
the  proportion  of  the  sidewalks  to  the  main  carriage  road  of  one-fifth 
to  three  fifths  is  maintained. 


Fig.l. 

Normal  Profile  of  a  Paved  Street. 
Pitch  ±'8o  ■ 3 s~b. 


Normal  Profile  of  cm.  AspliaU  Street. 
Pitch1/i2o-3/so. 


3/SO 

o 

rig.  j. 

Should  any  division  different  from  the  above  be  decided  upon  it  is 
always  in  favor  of  the  sidewalks,  according  to  the  local  requirements. 
It  occurs,  for  instance,  that  very  broad  streets  are  provided  with  a  cen- 
tral elevated  promenade  reserved  for  pedestiians  only. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  rain-water  from  stagnating  on  the  side  of  the 
street  and  to  conduct  it  into  the  sewer  openings  the  street  must  have 
below  the  curbstones  a  longitudinal  incline  of  at  least  1  to  250  alter- 
nately in  both  directions ;  the  minimum  for  this  incline  is  1  to  300. 


PAVED    STKKETS. 


As  above  mentioned  almost  all  city  streets  in  Saxony  are  paved. 
The  bedding  on  which  the  paving  stones  are  placed  consists  in  all  cases 
of  gravel  sand,  called  paving  sand  (from  the  Elbe).  This  bedding  of 
paving  sand  is  placed  immediately  on  the  natural  soil  when  the  latter 
offers  a  good  and  solid  foundation  (Fig.  A).  If,  however,  the  street 
bed  is  artificial,  therefore  less  resistant,  the  foundation  is  strengthened 
by  a  layer  of  coarse  quarry  stone,  upon  which  the  paving  sand  is  then 
spread  (Fig.  B).  Streets  are  frequently  temporarily  paved  with 
coarse  quarry  stones,  which,  however,  must  be  cut  to  fit  without  leav- 
ing too  large  cracks.  These  slones  are  cut  into  paving  stones  averag- 
ing from  0.18  by  0.2  yards  (10  by  10  centimetres)  in  size.  Their  broad- 
0;ja 10 


146  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

est  surface  must  be  plaiu,  but  their  shape  need  not  be  regular ;  their 
width  should  be  about  0.13  by  0.19  yards  (12  by  17  centimetres),  the  in- 
cline of  their  sides  not  exceeding  1  to  5. 

The  paving  stones,  when  set  in  the  sand  layer,*  must  project  about 
00.44  yards  (4  centimetres)  over  the  intended  street  surface ;  they  are 
then  beaten  down  with  hand  rams  of  cast  iron,  weighing  50  kilograms, 
or  partly  rolled  tight  with  a  steam  roller  and  then  rammed.  Before 
this  process  the  cracks  between  the  paving  stones  must  be  carefully 
stopped  up  with  sand  and  sprinkled  with  water. 

While  setting  the  paving  stones  a  wooden  pattern  is  continually 
passed  over  the  surface,  serving  to  maintain  the  exact  arched  profile 
of  the  street. 

In  order  to  secure  a  uniform  wear  and  long  resistance  of  the  pave- 
ment, as  well  as  a  good  appearance  of  the  same,  care  must  be  taken 
that  all  stones  used  be  intact  at  their  edges  and  corners.  Special  care 
is  therefore  recommended  when  loading  and  unloading  such  stones.  It 
is  further  recommended  that  on  one  tract  of  pavement  the  stones  should 
be  of  equal  size  and  come  from  the  same  quarry.  If  these  rules^  are 
strictly  followed,  an  unequal  wear  of  the  surface  of  the  pavement  is. 
almost  entirely  prevented. 

The  sand  bedding  below  the  completed  pavement  must  be  about 
0.175  yard  (16  centimetres)  thick  when  rough  paving  stones  or  third-j 
class  stones  are  used;  for  a  second-class  pavement  and  slag-stone 
pavement  the  sand  layer  must  be  0.153  yard  (14  centimetres)  thick; 
for  a  first-class  pavement,  0.13  yard  (12  centimetres)  thick. 


{0.15 -  0. 20ycleW~f^~  ft,      /\       |\    X^ffiffi 
0.18-0.13yds&  -.."'■' 


Paving  stones  of  ls-t Clme. 
Gravel  s'and. 


Fig.A. 


(0.15- 

/<&  0.205 

\0.185 


-0.20yd. 
^0.105-0.055  yd: 

.185 y d.  W\  \\\    \\    \\\\\    1   Utl.ni.l  \PacKvngJayer. 


I  Paying  stones  ofl^&  3^Class. 
*&~l?'v^$'p'M°  -° S  Gra  vel  sa nd 


'Natural  soil. 


Fiy.B. 

First-class  paving  stones  are  only  used  in  the  most  fashionable  part*- 
of  the  city,  or  for  such  streets  on  which  the  traffic  is  very  heavy; 
third-class  stones, for  less  important  streets  and  centers  of  squares; 
second-class  stones,  for  all  other  streets  and  for  pavement  between; 
street-car  rails. 

Streets  which  are  newly  laid  out  are  at  first  macadamized,  aud  only 
provided  with  a  regular  stone  pavement  after  houses  have  been  erected 
on  the  same.  For  this  reason  th  e  original  macadamized  surface  is  laid 
out  at  a  height  to  serve  as  foundation  to  the  projected  pavement. 

*  This  layer  is  0.22  by  0.26  yards  (20  by  24  centimetres)  thick. 


EUROPE GERMANY.  147 


A  new  kind  of  paving  material — cast  slag  stones — bas  been  invented 
during  tbe  last  10  years.  Tbese  slag  paving  stones  are  exact  cubes, 
measuring  0.175  yard  (10  eenti metres)  in  diameter,  and  are  very  solid. 
Sucb  a  pavement  is  claimed  to  have  an  extraordinary  resisting  capacity 
and  is  regular  and  smooth.  Hardly  any  noise  is  caused  by  carriages, 
etc.,  on  streets  paved  with  slag  stones,  iindit  is  very  easy  to  keep  them 
clean  ;  slag  stones  are,  therefore,  frequently  used  for  sidewalk  crossings, 
and  for  gutters  on  macadamized  streets. 

There  are,  up  to  the  present  date,  but  few  streets  paved  with  slag, 
stones  in  Dresden,  because  its  durability  has  as  yet  not  been  sufficiently 
tested. 

Slag  Stone  Pavement 


0.175  yet.  J        fc         |  :    T    h  l_ Slag  stories. 

0.155  yd.  >i\  v- '•  '     '      '      -       i  -  ~  '~~   Gravel  sand- 


The  principal  disadvantage  of  slag-stone  pavement  is  that  in  course 
of  time  it  becomes  very  slippery  and  offers  little  hold  to  horses'  hoofs. 

Asphalt  pavement. — Asphalt  is  used  most  extensively  for  paving 
streets.  The  quality  used  is  almost  exclusively  compressed  asphalt. 
The  layer  on  which  the  asphalt  is  spread  is  prepared  as  follows:  The 
ground  is  at  first  carefully  rolled,  its  level  beiug  held  at  0.27  yards  (25 
centimetres)  below  the  projected  street  surface.  On  this  is  spread  out  a 
layer  of  cement  concrete,  composed  of  one  part  of  Portland  cement,  four 
parts  of  gravel  from  the  Elbe,  and  six  parts  of  small  broken  stoues. 
This  layer,  when  fresh,  must  be  0.27  yards  (25  centimetres)  thick;  it  is 
then  compressed  to  0.216  (20  centimetres). 

The  cement  layer  must  be  given  sufficient  time  to  thoroughly  harden. 
The  hot  asphalt  is  then  spread  over  the  cement ;  the  asphalt  layer,  being 
at  first  0.076  yards  (7  centimetres)  thick,  is  rolled  down  to  0.055  yards 
(5  centimetres). 

The  kind  of  asphalt  in  principal  use  comes  from  Val  de  France,  or 
Seyssel,  and  is  mixed  with  Sicilian  asphalt  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  3. 

Asphalt  Pavement. 

»»**  ¥/W/WMWMW//<~ 


]\  <>o<l  pavement. —  In  the  year  1877  several  .streets  were  paved  with 
w ()')(!.  This  wood  pavement  consisted  of  paving  blocks  of  pine  wood 
0.LL  yard  (10  centimetres)  iu  size.     The  foundation  must  be  a  layer  of 


148  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES, 

concrete  0.216  yard  (20  centimetres)  thick.  The  cost  of  snch  pave- 
ment proved  to  be  13.80  marks  per  square  yard  (17  marks  per  square 
metre).*  The  wood,  however,  did  not  offer  sufficient  resistance,  and 
was  replaced  by  asph  alt  6  years  later. 

In  1887  another  attempt  was  made  with  oak  paving  blocks  set  on  a 
layer  of  concrete  of  0.216  yard  (20  centimetres),  but  the  cost  of  such 
pavement  amounting  to  17.14  marks  per  square  yard  (20.50  marks  per 
square  metre)* — the  very  cheapes  t  oak  costing  15  marks  per  square 
yard  (18  marks  per  square  metre) — this  system  was  abandoned. 

Very  recently  extensive  attempts  have  been  made  with  beech  wood. 

The  single  blocks  were  fastened  together  with  wire,  thus  forming 
larger  blocks,  and  were  used  for  paving  a  temporary  street-car  line  run- 
ning through  the  promenades  of  a  projected  "ringst  vasse"  (circular 
street  around  the  city).  Considering  the  temporary  character  of  this 
construction,  a  gravel  bedding  only  was  placed  below  the  pavement,  a 
mixture  of  tar  and  pitch  being  poured  over  the  former  to  protect  the 
pavement  against  the  penetration  of  dampness.  The  paving  blocks 
were  then  set  and  the  cracks  filled  out  with  the  same  mixture  of  tar 
and  pitch.  It  has,  as  yet,  been  impossible  to  form  an  opinion  of  tholj 
durability  of  this  kind  of  pavement,  as  it  has  only  been  in  use  for  a 
year. 

COST  OF  STREET  CONSTRUCTION. 

The  cost  of  constructing  the  different  kinds  of  streets,  as  described 
above,  exclusive  of  the  costs  of  transportation  of  building  material  to' 
Dresden,  but  inclusive  of  the  expenditures  for  short  local  transporta-, 
tiou  within  the  city  were  figured  during  the  past  year  as  follows : 

Macadamized  street  having  one  layer  of  small  broken  stone,  0. 164 
yard  thick,  and  one  layer  of  coarse  broken  stone  0.219  yard  thick, 
when  using  finely  broken  syenite,  3.30  marks  per  square  metre  (2.75 
marks  per  square  yard)  j  when  using  Tischlowitz  basalt,  3.40  marks  per. 
square  metre  (2.84  marks  per  square  yard) ;  when  using  Praskowitz 
basalt,  3.45  marks  per  square  metre  (2.88  marks  per  square  yard) ;  when 
using  porphyry,  3.05  marks  per  square  metre  (2.55  marks  per  square^ 
yard) ;  when  using  greenstone,  3.40  marks  per  square  metre  (2.84  marks 
per  sq  uare  yard). 

Macadamized  street,  having  one  layer  of  small  broken  stone,  0.106 
yard  thick,  and  one  layer  of  large  quarry  stones  (packing  layer)  0.187 
yard  thick,  when  using  finely  broken  syenite,  3.15  marks  per  square 
metre  (2.63  marks  per  square  yard) ;  when  using  Tischlowitz  basalt,  3.30 
marks  per  square  metre  (2.76  marks  per  square  yard) ;  when  using* 
Praskowitz  basalt,  3.45  marks  per  square  metre  (2.88  marks  per  square 
yard);  when  using  porphyry,  2.95  marks  per  square  metre  (3.30  marks 
per  square  yard) ;  when  using  greenstone,  3.40  marks  per  square  metre 
(2.84  marks  per  square  yard). 


*  The  prices  for  the  different  kinds  of  wood  pavement  include  wages,  material,  eto 


EUROPE — GERMANY.  149 

Rough  pavement  on  layer  of  grave],  4.80  marks  per  square  metre 
(4.40  marks  per  square  yard). 

Dressed  (regular)  pavement  on  layer  of  gravel,  using  first-class 
stones,  porphyry,  granite,  and  syenite,  9.60  marks  per  square  metre 
fe  marks  per  square  yard) ;  greenstone,  10.80  marks  per  square  metre 
(9  marks  per  square  yard).  Using  second-class  stones,  porphyry, 
granite,  and  syenite,  9.20  marks  per  square  metre  (7.70  marks  per  square 
yard) ;  greenstone,  10.80  marks  per  square  metre  (9  marks  per  square 
yard).  Using  third-class  stones,  porphyry,  granite,  and  syenite,  8.20 
marks  per  square  metre  (6.85  marks  per  square  yard) ;  greenstone,  10.80 
marks  per  square  metre  (9  marks  per  square  yard). 

Slag  stone  pavement  on  layer  of  gravel,  6.40  marks  per  square  metre 
(5.35  marks  per  square  yard). 

"  Dressed  (regular)  pavement  on  layer  of  large  quarry  stones  (packing 
layer).  Using  first-class  stones,  porphyry,  granite,  and  syenite,  10.60 
marks  per  square  metre  (8.87  marks  per  square  yard) ;  greenstone,  11.80 
marks  per  square  metre  (9.87  marks  per  square  yard).  Using  second- 
class  stones,  porphyry,  granite,  and  syenite,  10.15  marks  per  square 
metre  (8.50  marks  per  square  yard) ;  greenstone,  1 1.80  marks  per  square 
metre  (9.87  marks  per  squareyard).  Using  third-class  stones, porphyry, 
granite,  and  syenite,  9.20  marks  per  square  metre  (7.68  marks  per  square 
yard) ;  greenstone,  11.80  marks  per  square  metre  (9.87  marks  per  square 
yard). 

Slag  stone  pavement  on  layer  of  coarse  quarry  stones  ("packing 
; layer"),  7  marks  per  square  metre  (5.85  marks  per  square  yard). 

Asphalt  pavement,  composed  of  0.220  yard  (20  centimetres)  of  con- 
crete, 3.60  marks  per  square  yard  (4  30  marks  per  square  metre);  0.053 
yard  (5  centimetres)  of  asphalt,  10.60  marks  per  square  yard  (12.65 
marks  per  square  metre) ;  giving  a  total  of  14.20  marks  per  square  yard 
(16.95  marks  per  square  metre). 

These  prices  for  asphalt  pavement  were  paid  to  private  building 
companies,  who  undertook  the  first  construction  of  asphalt  streets  in 
Dresden,  giving  guaranty  for  5  years. 

All  asphalt  pavement  is  now  executed  by  the  government  building 
department  and  not  by  private  contractors,  naturally  without  guar- 
anty. The  costs  therefor  being  reduced  by  3.50  marks  per  square  yard 
(4.20  marks  per  square  metre),  thereby  giving  a  total  cost  of  10.70 
marks  per  square  yard  (12.75  marks  per  square  metre)  for  asphalt 
pavement  as  above  described.  It  must  be  further  understood  that  the 
quotations  given  for  asphalt  pavement  include  all  costs  of  transporta- 
tion, as  it  has  been  impossible  to  ascertain  such  costs,  delivery  being 
free  Dresden. 

The  preparation  and  profiling  of  the  natural  foundation  (substruc- 
ture) of  all  street  constructions  amounts  to  0.84  mark  per  square  yard 
(1  mark  per  square  metre)  in  average,  and  is  not  included  in  any  of  the 
foregoing  figures. 


150  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

In  the  city  of  Leipzig,  where  the  paving  of  the  streets  is  mostly  in- 
trusted to  private  contractors,  the  costs  for  the  different  kinds  of  pave- 
ment during  the  past  year  were  figured  as  follows : 

Slag  stone  pavement,  6.20  marks  per  square  yard  (7.40  marks  per 
square  metre). 

Dressed  (regular)  pavement,  first-class  stones,  9.13  marks  per  square 
yard  (10.90  marks  per  square  metre) ;  second-class  stones,  8.48  marks 
per  square  yard  (10.15  marks  per  square  metre);  third-class  stones,  8.23 
marks  per  square  yard  (9.85  marks  per  square  metre). 

Asphalt  pavement,  thickness  of  layers  as  described  above,  13.88 
marks  per  square  yard  (16.60  marks  per  square  metre). 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  costs  for  paving  in  Leipzig  do  not  differ 
very  much  from  those  in  Dresden.  Only  slag  stone  pavement  is  much 
less  expensive,  because  the  rates  for  transportation  are  much  lower  to 
Leipzig  than  to  Dresden. 

During  the  year  1889  the  "Tieflauamt  "  (board  of  substructures)  of 
Dresden  showed  the  following  figures  : 


Macadamized  streets 

Dressed  (regular)  pavement . 
Rough  (irregular)  pavement 
Asphalt  pavement 


Squall' 
yards. 


6,600 
62,  500 
32,  400 

7,500 


Square 
metres. 


5  500 
52,  300 
27,  000 

6,300 


Seven  thousand  four  hundred  and  eighty  yards  (6,850  metres)  of 
sewer,  of  a  medium  oval-shaped  section  measuring  60  centimetres  in 
height  and  40  centimetres  in  width,  and  45,600  square  yards  (38,200 
square  metres)  of  sidewalks,  constructed  partly  for  public  and  partly 
for  private  use.  The  total  expenditure  incurred  by  the  Tiefbauamt 
during  the  year  1889  for  the  above  constructions  amounted  in  a  round 
sum  to  1,115,000  marks.  Since  the  close  of  1889  the  cost  of  material 
and  for  wages  has  considerably  increased. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  SIDEWALKS. 

Most  of  the  sidewalks  are  covered  with  granite  slabs  0.164  yard  (15 
centimetres)  thick,  and  cost,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  stone,  from 
9.20  marks  per  square  yard  (11  marks  per  square  metre)  to  10.86  marks 
per  square  yard  (13  marks  per  square  metre).  The  cost  of  laying  the 
slabs,  inclusive  of  expenses  for  sand  and  cement  (used  to  fill  out  the 
space  between  each  slab)  are  figured  at  92  pfennings  per  square  yard 
1.10  marks  per  square  metre).  Exceptionally  wide  sidewalks  are  pavec 
with  a  single  line  of  granite  slabs,  and  on  each  side  a  "  mosaic"  p 
ment  composed  of  small  stones  is  laid. 

These  "mosaic"  stones  consist  of  limestone  or  of  porphyry;  they  ar 
cubic-shaped,  and  do  not  exceed  9  centimetres  in  size.    This  pavement 
costs  3.90  marks  per  square  yards  (4.68  marks  per  square  metre). 


EUROPE — GERMANY. 


151 


It  is  less  frequent  thai  the  described  portions  of  wide  sidewalks  are 
covered  with  a  layer  of  cement.  In  such  cases  the  cement  layer  must 
be  0.022  yard  (2  centimetres)  thick  and  rests  on  a  foundation  of  concrete 
0.145  yard  (13  centimetres)  thick.  Cement  slabs  0.005  yard  (0  centi- 
metres) thick  and  0.38  yards  in  diameter,  resting  on  a  foundation  of 
mortar  0.022  yards  (2  centimetres)  thick,  are  also  used  for  sidewalks. 
Both  systems  of  construction  cost  3.00  marks  per  square  yard  (4.08 
marks  per  square  metre). 

An  altogether  exceptional  mode  of  paving  sidewalks  consists  in  the 
use  of  ribbed  square  plates  of  "Dutch  tile"  from  Meissen,  0.005  yard 
thick  by  0.38  yard  in  diameter.  The  foundation  consists  of  a  layer  of 
cement,  mortar  or  concrete  0.153  yard  thick.  The  average  cost  is  6.10 
marks  per  square  yard  (7.32  marks  per  square  metre.) 

The  curbstones  for  sidewalks  are  mostly  of  dressed  granite.  The 
cost  for  curbstones,  including  laying,  wages,  etc.,  are:  When  0.44  yard 
wide  and  0.22  yard  high,  7.00  marks  per  yard  (8.00  marks  per  metre); 
when  0.22  yard  high  and  wide,  5.30  marks  per  yard  (5.80  marks  per 
metre). 

Slag  curbstones  are  also,  but  not  frequently,  used,  and  cost  when 
0.105  yard  wide  and  0.22  yard  high,  1.38  marks  per  yard  (1.50  marks 
per  metre). 


Every  city  street  must  be  provided  with  a  means  of  sewerage  and 
drainage;  new  streets,  when  constructed,  and  before  houses  are  built 
on  the  same,  must  be  provided  in  the  some  way.  These  drainages  con- 
sist of  a  main  sewer  located  in  the  center  of  the  street. 

Side  sewers,  0.165  to  0.22  yard  (15  to  20  centimetres)  in  diameter, 
serve  to  conduct  the  water  from  the  street  into  the  main  sewer.  These 
side  sewers  are  made  of  earthen  pipes,  and  are  located  32.7  yards  (33 
metres)  from  each  other.  The  sewer  openings,  serving  to  lead  off  the 
rain  water  from  the  surface  of  the  street,  are  located  iu  the  street  gutter 
or  form  part  of  the  grauite  curbstone.  When  located  in  the  street 
gutter  these  apertures  consist  of  square  iron  boxes. 

To  prevent  the  mud  and  dirt  from  obstructing  or  stopping  up  the 

ide  Walk. 


sewer  pipes,  a  "mud-catcher"  of  brickwork,  or  of  iron,  is  fixed  below 
each  aperture,  and  is  1.10  yards  deep  by  0.44  yard  wide. 


152 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Side  sewer  pipes  of  same  size  as  above  also  serve  to  conduct  tbe  rain 
water  from  the  roofs,  as  well  as  tbe  waste  water  from  tbe  bouses  into 
the  main  sewer. 

In  narrow  streets  the  central  sewers  are  in  most  cases  too  small  to 
permit  men  to  pass  through  for  cleaning  and  repairing  purposes.  Such 
sewers  are  then  provided  with  round  vertical  manholes,  located  at  an 
average  distance  of  32.7  yards  from  each  other,  and  serve  for  cleaning 
as  well  as  draining  purposes.  These  manholes  are  covered  with  iron 
Ibis,  which  are  coated  with  asphalt  or  plated  with  oak,  on  asphalt 
i?trects,  to  prevent  noise. 

Formerly  tbe  sewers  were  constructed  of  sandstone  masonry,  cemented 
with  mortar;  smaller  sewers  were  constructed  of  sandstone  blocks 
hollowed  out  in  shape  of  gutters,  and  either  covered  with  stone  slabs 
(Fig.  1)  or  arched  (Fig.  2). 


V//////////////. 


FigX 

Fig.2. 

At  present  sewers  are  universally  constructed  of  cement,  mortar,  and 
concrete  ;  sewers  of  smaller  diameter  (varying  from  0.49  yard  in  height 
and  0.33  yard  [0.3  metre]  in  width,  to  1.04  yard  [1.5  metres]  in  height, 
and  1.1  yards  [1  metre]  in  width)  are  furnished  ready  for  use  in  one  or 
two  pieces  of  1  metre  (1.1  yards)  in  length. 

Larger  sewers  of  a  profile,  as 
shown  on  the  annexed  diagram, 
have  a  gutter  for  waste  water,  and 
are  constructed  of  stamped  con- 
crete, some  parts  of  the  foundation 
blocks  (as  «,  b,  and  c)  being  fur- 
nished ready  shaped  for  use. 

The  manholes,  as  above  des- 
cribed, are  at  present  also  con- 
structed of  stamped  concrete,  and 
not^>f  brickwork  as  heretofore. 


EUROPE GERMANY.  1  53 

The  width  of  the  sewers  is  based  upon  the  following  calculation  : 


FA] 


0.00015  + 


0.0000045.9 
F 


V  =  The  quantity  of  water  in  cubic  meters  required  to 

be  drained  per  second. 
F  =  The  cross  section  of  the  sewer  in  square  metres. 
S  =  The  iuterior  circumference  of  the  sewer  in  metres. 
=  The  relative  (actual)  incline  of  the  sewer. 

The  quantity  of  water  to  be  drained  per  second  from  1  hectare  (109  16 
square  yards  of  area)  is  assumed  to  be  as  per  following  table: 


Description. 


Densely  built  

Less  densely  built 

Single  bouses  (residences) 


Kain 
water. 


Cub. met  Cub  met.  Cub.  met. 
0.  05  0. 0034  0. 0534 
.04  I      .0023  .0423 

.03  0004  .0304 


The  above  figures  refer  to  the  minimum  profile  or  section  of  a  sewer. 
All  calculations  are  strictly  based  upon  these  figures,  even  if  circum- 
stances rendered  a  smaller  sewer  practicable.  A  rainfall  as  heavy  as 
0.02  yard  (18  millimetres)  per  hour,  is  provided  for  in  the  above  calcu- 
lations. 

The  cost  of  sewers  at  a  depth  of  2  metres,  during  the  past  year,  was 
as  follows : 


Size  of 

sewer. 

Cost  Df 

con- 
struct- 
ing the 

Dig- 
ging 
and  fill- 

Total 
in 

Per  1. 1  yard. 

1  metre  for 

increased 

depth  of 

sewer. 

Height. 
Yards. 

Width. 

channel 

mg  up. 

Yards. 

M.pf. 

M.pf.      M.pf. 

Jf,  pf. 

0.491 

0.  327 

7     40 

8    41      15    81 

2    65 

0.  573 

o.  382 

9     23 

8    88  ,  18    11 

2    83 

0.C54 

0.  436 

11    40 

9    30     20    70 

3    10 

0.817 

0.545 

14     40 

10    30     21     70 

3    33 

0.982 

0.  654 

21     15 

11    70     32    85 

3     61 

1. 14G 

0.764 

27    65 

14    25  1  41     90 

4    47 

1.314 

0. 872 

33    00 

15     40      49     30 

4    75 

1.635 

1.09 

43     75 

18    25     62    nc 

5    40 

The  cost  of  a  manhole  connecting  a  sewer  with  the  street  surface, 
when  the  sewer  is  located  at  a  depth  of  2.6  metres,  is  105  marks  ;  adding 
8  marks  for  extra  work  and  37  marks  for  iron  lid,  gives  a  total  of  150 
marks,  in  a  round  sum.  Each  metre  of  increased  depth  37  marks  more. 
An  oak  plated  lid  costs  53  marks  instead  of  87  marks.  The  side  sewer 
pipes,  when  0.105  to  0.22  yard  in  diameter,  cost,  ready-made,  including 
laying  and  fastening,  from  3.10  to  4.02  marks  per  yard. 


154  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Brick  mud-catchers  provided  with  iron  apertures  cost  32.30  marks 
apiece;  solid  stone  mud-catcliers,  35.30  marks  apiece,  inclusive  of  all 
work  connected ;  granite  apertures  with  stone  lid  cost  44  marks. 

APPORTIONMENT   OF   COSTS —STREET   CONSTRUCTION  AND  REPAIR. 

All  expenses  caused  by  a  reconstruction  or  total  repair  of  an  existing 
street  are  paid  by  the  city  treasury.  New  streets,  however,  are  laid 
out  at  the  cost  of  the  proprietors  of  the  adjacent  grounds  or  houses. 
To  cover  the  expenses  for  sewerage  such  proprietors  are  required  to 
pay  21  marks  per  yard  (23  marks  per  metre)  of  front  extension  of  their 
premises.  For  corner  grounds  the  actual  length  of  premises  must  be 
increased  by  the  average  width  of  the  two  adjacent  streets. 

The  costs  of  primary  construction  of  streets,  such  as  earthworks 
sewerage,  macadamizing,  gravel  footpaths,  in  some  cases  rough  pave- 
ment, must  be  borne  b}r  the  proprietors  of  adjacent  houses  or  grounds 
in  proportion  to  the  extension  of  their  premises.  Street  crossings  are 
constructed  at  the  cost  of  the  proprietors  of  the  four  corner  buildings, 
These  expenses  are  eventually  advanced  by  the  contractors  to  the 
landed  proprietors,  who,  temporarily,  may  not  be  desirous  to  pay  their 
share  at  once,  uuder  the  condition,  however,  that  such  outlays  of  money 
be  refunded  by  the  proprietors  when  houses  are  erected  on  their 
premises. 

In  case  such  primary  construction  of  a  street  proves  to  be  a  public 
necessity,  therefore,  not  originating  from  an  application  of  private  per- 
sons, the  costs  must  be  borne  by  the  city  treasury.  The  money  thus 
expended  can,  however,  later  on,  be  claimed  from  the  lauded  proprietors, 
as  soon  as  they  begin  to  build  on  such  streets. 

The  construction  of  streets  (called  "blind  alleys")  without  any  com- 
munication with  other  streets  is  prohibited. 

The  construction  of  new  streets  is  only  permitted  upon  submission  of 
plans  that  must  be  approved  of  by  the  'Hiefbauamt"  (board  of  sub- 
structures), which  then  undertakes  the  building. 

It  was  formerly  the  duty  of  the  house  proprietors  to  clean  street  and 
sidewalk;  this  is  now  all  done  by  the  city,  but  to  defray  the  expenses 
the  sum  of  2.00  marks  per  square  metre  (1.67  marks  per  square  yard)  is 
collected  from  the  house  proprietors  when  the  area  is  ceded  to  the 
city  for  street  construction  purposes. 

The  street-car  companies  are  at  the  present  time  required  to  pay  the 
city  for  cleaning  the  pavement  between  their  rails,  as  well  as  0.65  yard= 
0.6  metre  width  of  pavement  outside  the  rails,  at  the  rate  of  8.4  pfennigs 
peryard  (10  pfennigs  per  metre.)  For  squares  and  streets  with  only  one 
row  of  houses,  as  for  instance  along  the  river,  the  proportionate  division 
of  the  sums  collected  from  the  house  proprietors  to  cover  the  expense 
of  construction  and  sewerage  varies,  according  to  local  regulations,  be- 
tween the  above  mentioned  figures  and  twice  as  much. 

The  decision  of  the  "  Rath"  (city  council)  is  required  whenever  it  ap- 
pears urgent  to  pave  a  macadamized  street. 


EUROPE— '-GERMANY.  155 

The  first  pavement,  if  rough,  is  .also  executed  at  the  cost  of  the  adja- 
cent proprietors,  and  this  according  to  the  regulations  abovg  men- 
tioned. 

If  the  first  pavement  consists  of  dressed,  regular,  paving  stones  in- 
stead of  rough,  the  surplus  expenses  as  well  as  all  further  costs  for 
repair  and  maintaining,  must  be  borne  by  the  city  treasury. 

It  is  considered  exceptional  when  the  adjacents  desire  a  superior  pave- 
ment on  their  street  than  the  city  authorities  deem  necessary  for  the 
local  requirements.  If  such  applications  are  approved  of  the  applicants 
are  held  to  bear  the  surplus  costs,  or  to  pay  a  certain  sum  upon  other 
mutual  agreement. 

All  repairs  of  streets,  when  completed,  must  be  undertaken  by  the 
city. 

Macadamized  streets  are  usually  transferred  3  months  after  the,\  have 
been  opened  to  the  public,  for  maintenance  to  the  city,  so  that  the  par- 
ties that  origiually  built  the  streets  are  compelled  to  bear  the  expense 
of  maintenance  during  fully  3  months.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  a 
new  macadamized  street  requires  unusual  attention  and  care  during  the 
first  period  of  its  existence.  The  street-car  companies  are  also  held  to 
bear  part  of  the  costs  for  constructing  and  keeping  the  streets.  The 
portion  of  the  street  constructed  and  maintained  at  the  cost  of  these 
companies  consists  of  the  substructure  below  the  rails  and  the  portion 
between  the  rails  extending  to  0.65  yard  (0.0  metre)  beyond  both  out- 
side rails. 

All  sums  expended  by  the  city  treasury  for  repair  and  construction 
of  streets  must  be  approved  of  by  both  the  "  Rath"  and  the  "  Stadt  ver- 
ordneten  ";  on  the  whole  the  construction  of  streets  is  undertaken  upon 
the  petition  of  those  held  by  law  to  bear  the  expenses,  the  estimated 
cost  being  paid  by  these  parties  to  the  city  treasury. 

The  costs  for  new  sidewalks,  or  for  alterations  of  the  same  (that  may 
appear  necessary  through  the  erection  of  new  buildings)  must  be  borne 
by  the  adjacents. 

Should  the  costs  for  sidewalks  exceed  the  standard  estimates  the  sur- 
plus expenditure  is  borne  by  the  city. 

Costs  resulting  from  maintenance  or  reconstruction  of  a  sidewalk, 
occurring  in  case  of  an  alteration  in  the  direction  of  the  street  and  ex- 
penses for  widening  the  same  by  reason  of  an  increase  of  traffic,  are 
paid  by  the  city  treasury. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  year  1S89  the  city  of  Dresden,  counting 
270,000  inhabitants,  possessed  within  its  limits  1,160,000  square  yards 
(970,000  square  metres)  of  paved  streets,  of  which  520,000  square  yards 
(431,000  square  metres)  were  paved  with  dressed  stones,  the  remaining 
with  rough  stones;  further,  840,000  square  yards  (700,000  square 
metres)  of  macadamized  streets.  The  maintenance  and  repair  of  paved 
streets  caused  an  expenditure  of  40,000  marks  during  the  year  1889,  or 
4  pfennig  per  square  yard  (1.74  pfennigs  per  square  metre).    The  main- 


156  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

tenance  of  the  macadamized  streets  cost  in  1889  150,000  marks,  or  17.9 
pfennig jper  square  yard  (21.4  pfennig  per  square  metre). 

It  should  be  stated  that  the  above  figure  for  maintaining  the  macad- 
amized streets  includes  the  maintaining  of  the  gravel  sidewalks.  An 
approximate  calculation  shows  that  the  maintaining  of  that  part  of  a 
macadamized  street  used  only  by  carriages  would  average  15  pfennig 
per  square  yard  (18  pfennig  per  square  metre). 

Excluded  from  the  above  figures  is  that  portion  of  the  streets  con- 
structed and  maintained  by  the  street-car  companies,  covering  an  area 
of  826,000  square  metres  (985,000  square  yards)  of  paved  surface,  and 
100,000  square  metres  (120,000  square  yards)  of  macadamized  surface. 

The  maintenance  of  the  asphalt  streets  covering  an  area  of  19,000 
square  metres  (22,700  square  yards)  did  not  cause  auy  notable  expense 
for  the  reason  that  the  first  asphalt  streets  had  not  been  constructed  by 
the  city,  but  had  been  executed  by  private  contractors  the  latter  still 
having  charge  of  their  maintenance. 

In  addition  to  this  the  repair  of  the  sewers  in  the  city  of  Dresdet. 
cost  during  the  year  1889  12,000  marks  ;  their  cleaning  25,000  marks  ; 
the  maintenance  of  sidewalks  and  footpaths  3,000  marks;  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  "  JBauhof  "  (large  storage  grounds  for  street  material)  2,000 
marks,  and  the  repair  and  renewal  of  apparatus  and  tools  for  street 
construction  purposes  38,000  marks. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  1886  the  city  of  Leipzig,  counting  170,000 
inhabitants  had  486,000  square  yards  (406,000  square  metres)  of  dressed 
pavement,  60,000  square  yards  (50,000  square  metres)  slag  pavement, 
360,000  square  yards  (301,000  square  metres)  rough  pavement,  and 
14,400  square  yards  (12,000  square  metres)  asphalt  pavement.  The 
cost  of  repair  and  maintenance  for  these  streets  was  figured  during 
1886  at  2  pfennig  per  square  yard  (2.4  pfennig  per  square  metre)  for 
dressed  pavement  and  3  pfennig  per  square  yard  (3.6  pfennig  per  square 
metre)  for  rough  pavement. 

In  1883  the  expenditure  for  maintenance  amounted  to  6.3  pfennig  per 
square  metre  (5.3  pfennig  per  square  yard),  no  distinction  being  ob- 
served between  dressed  and  rough  pavement.  It  may  therefore  be 
stated  that  the  average  expenditure  in  Leipzig  wag  equal  to  that  in 
Dresden. 

ADMINISTRATION   OP  STREETS. 

The  administration  and  gen  eral  management  of  all  matters  concerning 
the  construction,  repair,  and  maintenance  of  city  streets  in  Dresden  is  in- 
trusted to  the  "  Stadt  bauamt  (city  building  board),  and  "  Tief  bauamt" 
(board  for  substructures).  The  aBaupolizeiamt"  (building  police 
board)  has  charge  of  the  preparation  and  drawing  of  the  plans  and  dia- 
grams, and  also  of  the  general  regulations  for  construction  with  the 
cooperation  of  the  "  Tiefbauamt;"  it  is  further  the  duty  of  the  "  Bau- 
polizeiamt"  to  grant  permits  for  building  and  to  superintend  the  erec 
tion  of  private  houses. 


EUROPE — GERMANY.  157 

The  duties  of  the  "  Stadtbauamt"  are  the  following: 

(1)  To  regulate  and  settle  all  legal  and  financial  matters  arising  with 
the  construction  of  new  streets  and  their  alterations  (to  an  extent  not 
to  interfere  with  the  duties  of  the  {t Baupolizeiamt"),  until  the  actual 
construction  of  the  street  is  undertaken  by  the  "  Tief bauamt,"  inclusive 
of  the  expropriation.  (2)  To  collect  the  shares  of  payment  from  the 
adjacents  for  street  and  sewer  construction  according  to  the  local  laws. 
(3)  To  secure  guaranties  for  such  payments,  and  to  settle  all  claims  that 
eventually  may  arise.  (4)  To  direct  and  superintend  the  street  police 
force,  partly.  (5)  To  settle  all  legal  matters  involved  in  the  public 
navigable  ways  within  the  limits  of  Dresden,  excluding,  however,  such 
that  refer  to  the  traffic  on  the  river  Elbe.  (6)  To  keep  the  cash  account 
for  the  city  street  construction.  (7)  To  control  the  treasury  for  city 
street  construction  (separate  treasury  department).  (8)  To  submit 
opinions  upon  legal  inquiries  made  by  the  "Hochbauamt"  (board  for 
superstructure),  and  by  the  "Tiefbauamt."  (9)  To  submit  opinions 
upon  inquiries  relating  to  the  publicity  of  a  road  or  street.  (10)  To 
superintend  and  sell  city  property,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  purchase 
private  grounds. 

The  "Hochbauamt"  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  construction  of 
streets. 

The  duties  of  the  "Tiefbauamt"  are  the  following:  (1)  To  plan  and 
construct  streets,  sewers,  and  bridges  in  cities  and  towns,  including 
the  miscellaneous  work,  as: 

(a)  Drawing  up  the  documents  serving  to  raise  the  necessary  fund  ; 
(b)  projecting  and  preparing  plans ;  (c)  purchase  of  material ;  (d)  in- 
surance against  sickness  and  accidents  ;  (e)  the  mediation  of  all  busi- 
ness transactions  between  private  contractors  with  the  city  authorities, 
or  submitting  statements  of  construction  and  estimates  of  funds  re- 
quired for  the  same  to  the  city  authorities.  (2)  To  maintain  and  repair 
the  city  streets,  sewers,  and  bridges  to  the  same  extent  as  referred  to 
sub  No.  1,  and  a  to  e.  (3)  To  offer  technical  assistance  to  the  Stadt- 
bauamt and  to  other  administrative  departments  of  the  "  Stadtrath  " 
(city  council),  by  submitting  suggestions,  estimates,  preparation  of 
plans,  etc. 

Other  works  that  are  executed  in  the  streets,  such  as  the  laying  of 
gas  and  water  pipes,  and  of  underground  telegraph  wires,  practically 
belong  to  the  respective  executive  departments  of  the  "rath  "  or  to  the 
post-office  department,  but  in  all  such  cases  the  work  and  repair  of  the 
street  is  undertaken  by  the  "  Tiefbauamt." 

The  directors  of  the  "  Stadtbauamt,"  the  "  Baupolizeiamt"  and  the 
"Hochbauamt"  and  "Tiefbauamt"  are  salaried  members  of  the  "  Stadt- 
rath "  (city  council). 

These  men  are  academically  educated  as  2  lawyers,  i  architect,  and 
I  engineer. 

The  division  of  the  "  Tief  bauamt n  may  be  of  interest,  as  the  board  is 


158  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

exclusively  intrusted  with  the  technical  supervision  of  the  entire  street 
construction  system. 

The  Tiefbauamt  is,  if  not  distinctly,  practically  divided  into  two  de- 
partments, one  for  the  interior  and  the  other  for  the  exterior  service — 
preparation  aud  execution  of  constructions.  The  first  department 
employs,  besides  the  office  clerks,  6  technical  men,  among  whom  are 
3  studied  engineers. 

The  work  in  the  second  department  is  performed,  according  to  the 
division  of  the  city  district,  into,  3  inspections  for  substructures  by  3  in- 
spectors with  3  assistants,  3  substructure  surveyors,  and  3  substructure 
guards. 

For  maintenance  of  macadamized  streets  an  extra  number  of  30  road- 
guards  are  employed. 

The  superintending  force  of  the  Bauhof  (storage  ground  for  materials 
and  tools)  with  4  officials  forms  a  separate  department,  but  also 
stands  under  the  Tiefbauamt. 

The  Bauhof  serves  to  store  away  all  materials  for  road  and  street 
construction  that  are  not  transported  for  immediate  use  direct  to  where 
the  street  is  being  built,  such  as  sand  and  gravel ;  some  stone  is  partly 
prepared  for  use  within  the  Bauhof.  The  machines,  implements,  and 
tools  are  also  stored  there,  and,  when  necessary,  repaired.  The  Bau- 
hof also  serves  to  store  away  old  used  building  material,  provided  the 
same  be  in  good  condition,  until  further  use  can  be  made  of  it. 

The  administration  of  the  Tiefbauamt  in  the  city  of  Leipzig  is  organ- 
ized in  a  similar  way,  with  the  exception  that  the  head  engineer  is  not 
a  member  of  the  "  Bath."  The  other  men  employed  are,  3  studied  en- 
gineers and  6  technical  employes,  1  street  master,  1  surveyor,  and  6 
guards,  the  latter  three  being  employed  during  the  construction  of 
works. 

In  Leipzig  the  duties  of  the  administrative  force  are  more  extended, 
inasmuch  as  the  "Tiefbauamt"  has  charge  of  the  city  survey  (this  be- 
ing in  Dresden  the  duty  of  the  "  Baupolizeiamt")  and  is  required  to 
superintend  the  laying  of  gas  and  waterpipes,  as  well  as  the  mainte- 
nance and  regulation  of  the  water-ways,  the  latter  being  very  extended. 

The  repair  of  the  macadamized  streets,  on  the  contrary,  belongs  to 
an  entirely  different  branch  of  the  city  administration.* 

The  annual  expenditure  for  salaries  and  stationery  amounts  to  25,000 
marks  for  the  Stadtbauamt  and  71,500  marks  for  the  Tiefbauamt,  14,000 
marks  oeing  used  for  the  offices,  48,000  marks  for  the  three  substructure 
inspections,  and  9,500  marks  for  the  Bauhof  (storage  grounds). 

*  Attention  is  hereby  called  to  a  publication  obtainable  at  all  booksellers,  entitled : 
"Organisation  der  Beborden  fur  die  innere  Verwaltung"  (Organization  of  the  Au- 
thorities for  the  Interior  Administration)  and  to  "  Die  revidirteStadteordnung  vom 
24.  April  1873  (Revised  city  Regulations  of  April  24,  1873).  These  two  books  con- 
tain all  desirable  information  about  the  organization  of  the  city  administration  and 
its  divisions. 


EUROPE — GERMANY.  159 

INFLUENCE   OF   IMPROVED   STREETS   ON   PROPERTY    VALUES. 

What  influence  the  construction  of  a  street  has  on  the  land  value 
may  be  best  judged  from  the  time  when  new  streets  are  laid  out  for  the 
purposes  of  erecting  houses  along  them. 

The  ground  and  the  productiveness  of  the  soil  increase,  under  such 
circumstances,  far  over  ten  times  in  value  when  compared  with  the 
value  of  an  ordinary  field  or  meadow. 

'  Agricultural  land  becomes  practically  city  lots  as  soon  as  the  decision 
of  the  city  authorities  to  construct  a  street  through  it  is  known,  but 
building  can  only  be  begun  when  the  street  is  completed.  The  traffic 
with  the  center  of  a  city  is  greatly  facilitated  when  the  means  of  com- 
munication consist  of  solidly  built  and  well  kept  streets;  therefore  the 
laud  values  and  the  wages  for  labor  increase. 

Good  roads,  as  well  as  railroads  and  water-ways,  form  a  quick  and 
cheap  means  of  transportation  of  the  necessaries  of  life  from  the  coun- 
try to  the  cities,  and  therefore  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most 
important  conditions  for  their  prosperity. 

It,is  far  easier  to  keep  good  streets  clean  than  bad  ones. 

Therefore,  the  sanitary  condition  in  medium  sized  and  large  cities  is 
greatly  dependent  upon  the  system  observed  in  constructing  and  keep- 
ing the  streets. 

STATE  AND   COUNTRY  ROADS. 

In  Saxony  the  highways — state  roads  as  well  as  country  roads — are 
mostly  macadamized. 

The  surface  of  the  more  important  and  more  used  roads  is  strength- 
ened with  small  broken  stones  tightly  wedged  in  and  rammed  down, 
under  which  there  is  a  layer  of  coarse  broken  stone. 

The  surface  of  less  important  roads  is  only  composed  of  a  layer  of 
small  broken  stone  on  gravel  or  sand  ;  in  some  cases  gravel  only  is  used. 

The  stones  used  for  the  construction  and  repair  of  the  roads  are  gen- 
erally obtained  in  the  closest  vicinity,  and  in  this  case  the  best  of  what 
can  be  had  is  chosen.  For  some  state  roads,  especially  those  that  are 
subject  to  frequent  and  heavy  traffic,  the  road-building  material,  which 
must  then  be  of  superior  quality,  is  in  part  brought  from  distant  quar- 
ries ;  for  instance,  basalt  is  brought  from  Bohemia. 

Water-ways  (in  this  case  the  river  Elbe)  are,  wherever  practicable, 
chosen  for  the  transportation  of  such  material,  thereby  greatly  reduc- 
ing its  cost. 

The  stone  from  Bohemia  is  even  transported  as  far  as  Leipzig.  The 
kinds  of  stone  principally  used  for  the  construction  and  repair  of  roads 
are  the  following:  Syenite  (for  paving),  coarsely  grained  granite  (for 
paving),  finely  grained  granite  (preferred  for  paving),  quartz-slate  (used 
tor  repair,  excellent  material  but  rare),  quartz  (use  very  limited),  sand- 
stone (use  very  limited),  greenstone  (excellent  material),  porphyry  (most 
universally  used  in  Saxony),  basalt  (is  considered  the  best  stone),  coarse 
gravel  (screened),  pit  (mine)  gravel,  and  river  saud. 


160  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  coarse  gravel,  cleaned  and  passed  through  a  screen  and  broken 
to  an  egg  size,  is  used  on  state  roads  on  which  the  traffic  is  light  and 
less  frequent,  and  also  to  a  great  extent  on  country  (communication) 
roads  in  fiat  country,  when  a  more  adaptable  stoue  material  can  not  be 
found  in  the  neighborhood. 

Pit  gravel  and  river  sand  are  used  for  covering  the  road  surface,  and 
serve  as  a  joining  material  when  the  smaller  broken  stone  layer  is  rolled 
tight.  Where  sand  is  not  obtainable  finely  pulverized  stones,  slags, 
and  sandy  loam  may  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

All  the  stone  materials  as  enumerated  above  are  obtained  by  the 
Government  board  for  road  construction  partly  from  the  Government 
quarries,  the  latter  being  leased  to  private  contractors  for  the  purpose 
of  breaking  and  transporting  the  stone,  and  partly  from  quarries  owned 
by  other  parties  against  payment  of  interest. 

In  frequent  cases  contracts  are  made  by  the  board  of  road  construc- 
tion with  these  owners  of  quarries  or  with  other  private  contractors  to 
deliver  the  coarse  broken  stone  and  the  small  broken  stone  ready  for 
use  to  the  place  of  construction  or,  at  least,  to  the  nearest  railroad 
station.  (This  refers  to  Bohemian  basalt  transported  to  Dresden  or 
Leipzig.)  The  price  of  such  material  varies  according  to  its  value,  to 
the  greater  or  smaller  difficulties  encountered  in  the  quarry  where  ob- 
tained, and  to  the  distance  of  transportation. 

The  price  for  coarse  stones  from  the  quarry  vary  from  2.30  to  9.20 
marks  per  1  cubic  yard  (3  to  12  marks  per  cubic  metre)  and  for  small 
broken  stone  from  3.80  to  13.80  per  cubic  yard  (5  to  18  marks  per  cubic 
metre),  including  the  costs  of  transportation  to  the  place  where  the  ma- 
terial is  used. 

The  average  price  may  be  fixed  :  For  coarse  broken  stone  and  small 
broken  stone  at  4.G0  to  6.10  marks  per  cubic  yard  (6  to  8  marks  per 
cubic  metre).*  Coarse  gravel  costs  about  2.30  marks  per  cubic  yard  (3 
marks  per  cubic  metre). 

The  rock  substructure  foundation  or  packing  layer,  on  which  is  spread* 
the  layer  of  small  broken  stone,  may  consist  of  softer  stoue,  but  in  all 
cases  it  must  resist  the  effects  of  frost. 

A  still  softer  stone  is  used,  and  its  price  amounts  to  3.80  marks  per 
cubic  yard  (5  marks  per  cubic  metre).  The  costs  for  road  construction 
vary  according  to  whether  high-priced  or  low  priced  material  is  used, 
further  to  the  general  local  conditions,  and  to  whether  the  road  be  in- 
tended for  heavy  or  light  traffic,  and  finally  to  the  width  of  the  road 
surface.  The  costs  of  maintenance  and  repair  are  greatly  influenced 
by  the  frequency  and  the  weight  of  traffic. 

The  width  of  the  state  roads  varies  between  7.7  and  11  yards  (7  and 
10  metres),  giving  an  average  of  9  yards  (8.2  metres).  The  follow- 
ing two  diagrams  illustrate  the  heaviest  and  lightest  system  of  road 

*  These  stones  are  only  broken  by  hand  with  iron  hammers;  stone-breaking  ma' 
chines  have  been  tried,  but  without  satisfactory  result. 


EUROPE GERMANY. 


161 


building  all  constructions  showing  different  figures- are  classed  between 
these  two. 

The  costs  for  the  heavier  construction,  which,  however,  is  less  fre- 
quent, as  illustrated  in  diagram  No.  1,  are  calculated  at  27.43  marks 


K 8^m.-=8.95xjdr 

« 6snt.=6.55yd. *J 

■A"  K  '  'lUaifcr  :-■■-.•  •-'-'  ■  ".■ ' . ■■'■■'.    ■'-  '■,'■-■'■-'-":  •'.'  \  - :  '-'  '  V  -■'."-'-.  ■-■ ' '■  .'■.'■':':  '■'■  •'-":  '--'.  F  ■  l'!}"\u> 


',     .20rm.=d22?/d..  ■  2Ocm.  =  0.22t/d~, 

No.l. 

per  yard,  medium  width. 
The  cost  for  the  lighter  construction,  as  shown  in  diagram  No.  2,  is 


■6%*?— 


No.  2. 

• 
20.07  marks  per  yard,  medium  width. 
The  above  two  figures  may  be  specified  as  follows  : 

Marks. 
1  cubic  metre  of  coarse  stone,  for  delivery  from  quarry,  to  be  broken  up  .. 

Piling  up  in  regular  heaps  along  the  side  of  road 

Breaking  stone 

Spreading  stone  and  covering  with  sand 

Sprinkling  with  water  and  rolling  tigbt 


0.30 

2.20 
0.60 

i.:?o 


10.40 


Total  tost  for  1  cubic  metre 

Now  1  square  metre  of  road  surface  requires  0.22  cubic  metres  of 
small  broken  stone,  0.22  cubic  metres  of  coarse  broken  stone  (for  pack- 
ing layer),  and  0.08  cubic  metres  of  sand.     Whereas : 


0.22  cubic  metre  of  small  broken  stones  delivered  aud  ready  for   use  at  10.40 


marks . 


2.29 


0.26 

0.W4 


0,22  cubic  metre  of  coarse  quarry  stones  (packing  layer),  delivery  and  meas- 
uring, at  .r>.:?0  marks *«17 

For  grading  I  square  metre  of  surface  and  setting  the  coarse  or  packing  stones.     0.44 

For  delivering  and  measuring  0.08  cubic  metre  of  sand 

For  supervision  of  construe t  ion,  wages,  insurance,  etc 

Total  cost  for  1  Bqnare  metre  of  road 5.00 

One  square  yard  of  road,  heavy  construction,  would  therefore  cost 
4.18  marks. 

33A 11 


1G2  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  lighter  system  of  construction  would  require  per  square  metre 
0.18  cubic  metre  of  small  broken  stone  and  0.16  cubic  metre  of  coarse 
stones  (packing  layer)  and  0.26  cubic  metre  of  sand,  the  total  cost 
thereby  beiug  3.34  marks  per  square  yard  (4  marks  per  square  metre), 
based  upon  the  same  calculation. 

These  prices,  as  above  referred  to,  include  costs  of  transportation. 
The  average  distance  of  transportation  of  the  materials  to  the  places  of 
construction  m  ay  be  figured  for  roads  in  Saxony  at  about  12  kilometres = 
13,000  yards,  and  the  costs  for  such  distance,  when  transportation  is 
operated  by  teams  (which  is  mostly  the  case),  would  average  at  4  marks 
per  cubic  meter  (3  marks  per  cubic  yard),  inclusive  of  loading  and  un- 
loading. The  sand  for  covering  the  stone  layers  is  brought  from  the 
nearest  vicinity  as  possible— average  distance  being  3  kilometres  (3,300 
yards),  and  costing  1.50  per  cubic  metre  (1.15  marks  per  cubic  yard), 
including  loading  and  unloading. 

After  deducting  such  expenses  for  transportation  of  material  and 
sand  the  total  cost  for  construction  of  roads  would  be:  For  stronger 
construction,  19  marks  per  yard,  and  for  lighter  construction  13.30 
marks  per  yard. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  STATE  ROADS  (LIGHT  AND   HEAVY  SYSTEM). 

With  reference  to  the  above  figures  state  roads  are  constructed  as 
per  the  following  details  : 

As  soon  as  the  road  body  has  been  drained,  prepared,  and  profiled, 
carefully  smoothened  and  graded  according  to  the  desired  level  and 
width,  the  large  stones  for  the  "  packing  layer"  and  the  small  brokeu 
stones  are  brought  to  the  place  of  construction. 

These  stones  are  piled  up  on  both  sides  of  the  road  in  such  quantities 
as  may  seem  sufficient  for  the  thickness  of  the  different  layers;  the 
small  stones  are  theu  broken  into  pieces  of  as  near  cubic  size  as  possi- 
ble, measuring  0.066  yard  (6  centimetres),  the  other  materials,  as  sand, 
gravel,  and  slag,  are  in  the  meantime  carried  to  the  place  for  use.  The 
road  bed,  which,  as  above  stated,  has  been  carefully  graded  and 
smoothened,  is  rolled  tight  and  rammed,  and  then  the  coarse  packing 
stones  are  set  in  the  same  manner  as  described  in  the  beginning  of  this 
report.  (See  Macadamized  city  streets.)  The  completed  "packiug 
layer"  must  form  a  solid  and  resisting  stone  body,  equally  thick  and 
perfectly  smo  >th  on  its  surface. 

To  secure  quicker  drainage  of  the  road  bed  in  cases  when  the  soil 
below  the  "  packiug  layer  "  does  not  permit  the  water  to  soak  in,  trans- 
verse treuches  20  centimetres  wide  and  15  centimetres  deep  are  dug 
beneath  the  packing  layer  at  intervals  of  11  yards  (10  metres)  and  are 
filled  up  with  loose  stoue  and  gravel.  These  trenches  conduct  the 
water  out  of  the  road  bed  into  the  side  ditches. 

A  good  drainage  of  a  road  and  its  substructure  is  the  principal  con- 
dition for  an  effective  and  cheap  maiuteuauce  of  a  macadamized  road. 


EUROPE GERMANY.  163 

Wherever  practicable  all  roads  should  be  higher  than  the  level 
ground,  aud  the  side  ditches  should  be  at  least  0.55  yard  deep  by  0.44 
yard  ground  width. 

Old  state  roads,  in  regions  where  stone  is  scarce,  are  often  not  pro- 
vided with  a  packing  layer,  the  layer  of  small  broken  stone  having 
been  simply  spread  over  the  old  gravel  surface.  Such  roads,  when 
carefully  and  continually  repaired,  may  stand  the  heavy  traffic  in  dry 
weather,  especially  in  winter,  but  in  spring  they  become  very  soft,  and, 
when  drainage  is  unsatisfactory,  they  often  turn  into  swamps  and  are 
altogether  impassable. 

The  packing  layer  being  completed,  a  layer  of  small  broken  stones 
that  have  been  passed  through  a  screen,  is  spread  over  tbe  former, 
tbus  forming  the  superstructure.  The  whole  is  then  again  rolled  tight 
with  steam  or  horse  rollers,  without  the  use  of  water. 

The  last  covering  consists  of  sand  and  gravel,  which,  while  continu- 
ally soaked  with  water,  is  again  compacted  with  the  rollers.  The  road 
is  then  complete  and  its  surface  must  be  entirely  smooth  and  solid,  so 
that  not  one  stone  can  easily  be  torn  out  or  displaced. 

New  macadamized  roads  are  always  a  little  soft  until  they  have  had 
time  to  dry  out  completely ;  therefore,  in  the  beginning,  after  they  have 
been  opened  to  public  use,  the  road  surveyors  must  carefully  watch  that 
all  formations  of  ruts  be  prevented. 

The  quantity  of  water  required  to  soak  the  road  surface  during  the 
process  of  rolling  varies  greatly  according  to  dry  or  wet  weathera  to 
the  condition  of  the  ground  foundation,  the  thickness  of  the  stone 
layers,  and  the  quality  of  stone  and  of  covering  material  used.  A  steam 
roller  weighing  10,000  kilograms  can  compact  40  to  00  cubic  metres  of 
small  broken  stone  in  about  10  hours,  two  watering  carts,  each  drawn 
by  two  horses,  being  constantly  at  work. 

While  constructing  and  rolling  new  roads  the  engineers  must  see 
that  the  original  arched  profile  of  the  road  surface  be  maintained,  its 
highest  elevation  being  from  one-sixtieth  to  one-fortieth  of  the  width  of 
the  road. 

Eoads  on  very  flat  country,  constructed  with  inferior  material  and 
not  kept  very  carefully,  this  referring  especially  to  country  (communi- 
cation) roads,  must  be  more  arched  than  state  roads. 

Country  roads  subject  to  heavy  traffic  should  have  a  stone  bedding 
(packing  layer  and  macadamized  surface)  0.29  yard  (26  centimetres) 
thick,  when  the  stone  used  is  soft,  and  0.22  yard  (20  centimetres)  thick 
when  the  material  is  hard,  whereas  on  country  roads  with  but  little 
traffic  the  layer  need  only  be  from  0.22  to  0.17  yard  (20  to  15  centi- 
metres) thick. 

On  roads  with  light  traffic  a  layer  of  coarse  broken  stone  can  replace 
the  packing  layer,  these  stones  being  cubic  shaped  not  exceeding  0.08 
yards  in  size.  The  small  broken  stones  are  then  placed  on  this  layer. 
The  incline  of  importaut  roads  on  level  country  must  not  exceed  1  in 


164  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

40,  in  mountainous  regions  not  1  in  12  to  1  in  15 ;  on  the  other  hand,  it 
is  not  advisable  to  construct  entirely  horizontal  roads  on  account  of 
their  drainage. 

The  carriage  road  being  completed,  both  the  sides,  of  which  one  serves 
as  footpath,  the  other  being  reserved  for  the  storage  of  repairing  mate- 
rials, are  covered  with  a  gravel  layer  from  1.1  to  1.6  yards  (1  to  1.5 
metres)  in  width,  and  0.055  yard  (5  centimetres)  thick,  and  rolled 
tight.  The  costs  for  this  work  are  averaged  at  about  36  pfennigs  per 
square  yard  (40  pfennigs  per  square  metre). 

ROAD  TKEES. 

In  order  to  mark  out  the  border  of  the  roads  and  make  it  discernible 
at  night,  also  after  snowdrifts  to  warn  the  public  against  the  embank- 
ments or  other  danger,  trees  are  planted  along  all  public  roads.  This 
is  a  prescription  of  the  law  and  must  be  strictly  adhered  to.* 

Fruit  trees  such  as  apple,  cherry,  pear,  and  plum  trees  are  preferred 
and  are  planted  in  flat  as  well  as  in  hilly  country,  wherever  the  climate 
and  local  conditions  permit  such  trees  to  grow.  The  trees  are  planted 
at  a  distance  of  6.6  to  11  yards  (6  to  10  metres)  from  each  other.  The 
keeping  and  nursing  of  road  trees  is  intrusted  to  the  road  surveyors. 
These  fruit  trees  are  leased,  and  at  times  yield  a  crop  worth  100,000 
marks  and  more  per  annum.  The  costs  for  planting  a  road  with  grafted 
fruit  trees  averages,  at  0.76  mark  per  yard  0.80  mark  per  metre;  with 
wild  trees,  46  pfennigs  per  yard  (50  pfennigs  per  metre). 

As  an  addition  to  the  foregoing  paragraph  on  ''costs  for  road  con- 
struction," it  maybe  well  to  state  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  the 
exact  cost  of  the  preparation  of  the  road  body,  as  this  depends  entirely 
upon  the  local  conditions ;  but  in  flat  country,  where  the  principal  work 
consists  in  digging  the  side  ditches  and  strengthening  the  slope  of  the 
ditches  and  the  border  of  the  road  by  sowing  or  patching  with  grass, 
the  average  cost  for  such  works  would  be  figured  at  1.65  marks  per 
square  yard  of  road  (1.80  marks  per  metre). 

• 

MAINTENANCE   AND  REPAIR  OF  STATE  AND   COUNTRY  ROADS. 

The  maintenance  and  repair  of  state  and  country  roads  consists  prin- 
cipally in  the  renewal  of  the  surface  (superstructure)  that  has  been 
deteriorated  and  worn  off  by  the  action  of  the  weather  and  the  traffic. 

For  this  purpose  the  roads  are,  at  certain  intervals  from  3  to  15 
years,  according  to  the  frequency  of  traffic,  local  conditions  and  climate, 
covered  with  a  massive  layer  of  small  broken  stone  which  is  thoroughly 
rolled  with  steam-rollers,  as  already  described.  This  layer  of  small 
broken  stone  must  be  0.16  yards  (15  centimetres)  thick,  and  the  stone 
used  must  not  exceed  0.05  yards  in  size,  thus  beiug  smaller  than  for 
new  roads.    The  total  length  of  all  state  roads  in  Saxon  is  figured  at 

•There  are  but  few  fences  or  hedges  along  the  roads  or  dividing  fields,  in  Saxony. 


EUROPE — GERMANY.  165 

4,050,000  yards  (3,703  kilometres),  of  which  31,000  yards  (28  kilometres) 
are  paved,  the  rest  macadamized.  Only  about  one-eighth  of  this  entire 
length  is  covered  with  a  fresh  layer  of  stone  material  during  the  course 
of  a  year.  On  all  other  roads  very  little  repairing  is  required.  Per 
1,000  yards  of  all  macadamized  roads,  43  cubic  metres  of  small  broken 
stone  and  13  cubic  metres  of  covering  material  (sand,  gravel)  are  used, 
in  average,  per  annum. 

The  quantity  of  such  material  used  on  single  tractsof  road,  however, 
is  very  irregular,  and  varies,  according  to  the  wear  and  tear,  from  18 
to  170  cubic  metres  per  1,000  yards.  Besides  the  regularly  repeated 
general  repairs  by  covering  the  entire  surface  of  the  road  with  a  mas- 
sive layer  of  broken  stone,  local  repairs  are  continually  necessary,  as 
filling  out  ruts  and  depressions  with  small  broken  stones,  which  serves 
to  keep  the  road  surface  comparatively  even  until  the  time  for  the  gen- 
eral repair. 

Such  local  repairs  are  made  mostly  during  the  rainy  season,  when  the 
ruts  and  depressions  fill  up  with  water  and  interfere  with  the  traffic. 
The  stones  used  are  small,  about  0.03  yard  (0.04  centimetres)  in  size, 
and  after  spreadiug  they  are  covered  with  sand  and  gravel  and  rolled 
tight. 

The  further  consolidation  of  such  repaired  spots  is  then  left  to  the 
traffic,  teams  and  vehicles  being,  on  such  repaired  tracts  of  roads, 
ordered  to  pass  over  that  portion  of  the  road. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  road  surveyors,  together  with  the  road  laborers, 
to  keep  the  surface  of  the  road  scrupulously  clean.  The  dust  and  mud 
is  swept  and  scraped  off  the  road  surface  by  means  of  hand-scrapers, 
brooms,  etc.,  and  deposited  in  piles  along  the  side  of  the  road,  and  then 
collected  in  carts  and  carried  away. 

Larger  apparatus  for  cleaning  purposes  (revolving  cylindrical  street 
sweepers),  drawn  by  horses,  are  only  used  in  the  vicinity  of  cities. 

The  guards  and  road  laborers,  above  referred  to,  must  also  keep  the 
ditches  in  good  operating  condition  ;  they  must  further  take  good  care 
of  tie  road  trees. 

In  winter  they  must  shovel  the  snow  off  the  road,  so  as  to  keep  a 
track  open  for  traffic.  The  roadguards  are  permitted  to  exercise,  to  a 
certain  extent,  the  duties  of theroad  police  service,  in  order  to  facilitate 
the  traffic  and  protect  the  roads,  as  prescribed  by  the  regulations  refer- 
ring thereto. 

It  will  not  be  necessary  to  refer  in  detail  to  the  paved  tracts  of  state 
roads,  as  this  would  only  be  a  repetition  of  what  has  been  said  about 
paved  city  streets. 


MAINTENANCE   OF   STATE  ROADS. 


; 


The  costs  for  maintaining  the  entire  length  of  state  roads  in  the  King- 
dom of  Saxony,  viz.  4,050,000  yards,  averaged  during  the  years  1880  to 
885  52  pfennigs  per  yard  of  road  per  annum,  of  which  -IS  pfennigs 


166  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

was  for  the  maintenance  of  the  entire  road  surface  (including  foot- 
paths) ;  .015  pfennig  for  repair  of  structures ;  .02  pfennig  for  the 
nursing  of  the  road  trees,  and  .005  pfennig  for  miscellaneous  expenses. 

These  costs  have,  since  1885,  increased  to  .55  pfennig  per  yard. 

The  expenditure  for  salaries  and  clothing  of  the  road  guards  was 
figured  during  the  said  years  at  .145  pfennig  per  yard,  and  3  pfennigs 
per  yard  for  official  roadmasters  and  surveyors. 

The  building  of  state  roads,  as  well  as  the  construction  of  navigable 
ways  and  the  building  of  houses  and  railroads,  are  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  third  department  of  the  "  Royal  finanz  ministerium"  (treas- 
ury department).  A  special  technical  director  for  road-building  is 
attached  to  this  department. 

There  are  in  Saxony  17  districts  for  the  supervision  of  roads  and 
waterways,  embracing  usually  two  "amtshauptmanuschaften"  each. 
The  duties  of  the  directors  of  these  districts  are  to  draw  up  the  plans 
for  and  supervise  the  construction  of  the  state  roads  and  of  the  navi- 
gable ways,  and  also  to  attend  to  all  technical  matters  connected  there- 
with. They  are  supplied,  as  the  case  may  require,  with  a  number  of 
engineers  and  government  architects. 

Saxony  is  further  divided  into  76  road-master  districts,  so  that  from 
4  to  5  road  masters  stand  under  each  district  surveying  director.  These 
road  officials  must  survey  and  conduct  the  works  for  road  repair,  aud 
are  intrusted  with  the  control  of  all  the  road  guards,  811  in  number, 
throughout  the  entire  Kingdom  of  Saxony. 

The  road  guards  have  from  3,000  to  7,000  yards  of  road  (in  average 
about  6,000  yards)  each  to  repair,  clean,  and  survey;  in  case  of  necessity 
one  or  two  day  laborers  are  placed  at  their  disposal  for  assistance. 

When  a  general  repair  of  a  road  is  undertaken,  with  the  use  of  a 
steam  roller,  fifteen  to  twenty  extra  men  are  required  for  such  work,  so 
that  the  repair  be  completed  within  the  shortest  possible  time.  In  such 
cases  several  divisions  of  road  laborers  and  road  guards  are  temporarily 
called  together  and  are  superintended  by  a  road  master. 

In  case  of  construction  of  a  new  road  the  road  guards  and  *oad 
masters  must  promptly  report  when  called  upon. 

All  treasury  matters  are  handled  by  the  department,  which  is  en- 
tirely separate  from  the  technical  department.  This  department,  called 
"bauverwaltereieu,"  whose  directors  recently  are  mostly  custom  offi- 
cials, handles  also  the  treasury  matters  for  public  buildings  and  water 
constructions. 

The  police  service  on  the  roads  is  executed  by  the  amtshaupt- 
manuschaften, the  latter  forming  part  of  the  department  of  the  interior. 
They  superintend  the  entire  rural  police  force,  and  are  consequently 
the  superior  authority  to  the  road  masters  and  road  guards,  who,  with 
the  assistance  of  the  other  police  officials,  perform  the  duties  of  the 
road  police  service. 

Considering  that  the  duties  of  the  different  administrative  depart- 


EUROPE — GERMANY.  167 

ments  are  so  closely  connected  with  each  other,  it  is  not  possible  to 
state  the  exact  sum  expended  for  the  supervision  of  state  roads  sep- 
arately, therefore  only  the  following  figures  can  be  given: 

The  present  annual  sum  expended  for  the  use  of  the  "finanz  minis- 
terium"  (ministery  of  finances),  including  offices,  stationery,  main  cash 
and  paying  office,  bookkeeping,  accounts  and  calculations,  may  be 
stated  as  being  2,000,000  marks  in  a  round  sum,  and  the  average  an- 
nual  expense  for  the  use  of  the  administration  of  road  and  waterway 
construction,  4,814,000  marks  in  a  round  sum.  The  latter  sum  em- 
braces all  costs  for  maintenance  of  roads,  bridges,  and  other  structures, 
expense  incurred  by  regulating  the  river  Elbe,  and  also  the  following 
detailed  expenses: 

Salaries:  Marks. 

Academically  studied  officials: 

2  technical  ''Bauriitbe"  (members  of  the  board  for  public  con- 
struction) at  6,600  marks  eacb  per  annum 1:5,200.  00 

19  inspectors  for  roads  and  navigable  ways  at  3,300  to  4,800 
marks;  19  government  architects  and  assistant  architects,  at 

2,100  to  3,000  marks 122,200.00 

Inferior  officials: 

76  roadmasters  (for  building  and  maintenance),  at  1,500  to  1,800 

marks 151,900.00 

811  road  guards  at660  to  720  marks 546,400.00 

Technical  assistants : 

Assistants  for  technical  works  and  roadmaster  candidates 19, 000.  00 

852, 700.  00 
Special  compensations: 

For  clothing  the  inferior  officials 62,  300.  00 

Miscellaneous  extra  expenses 9,100.00 

Gratifications.... 8,400.00 

Contribution  to  protection  fund 103,700.00 

Other  assistance - 49,000.00 

Hospital  taxes,  insurance  against  accidents  and  old  age 16,000.00 

Expenses  for  service,  day  wages,  and  traveling  expenses 122,000.00 

Miscellaneous  petty  expenses - 20,000.00 

Removing  of  enow 170,000.00 

Correction  aud  new  constr  notions  of  roads  and  bridges 805, 000. 00 

Total 2,218,200.00 

Costs  for  maintenance  of  roads  and  planting  of  trees  amounted  to 
2,210,200  marks. 

Sum  paid  to  the  bauverwaltereien  (offices  in  the  departments),  91,500 
marks. 

All  country  roads,  as  prescribed  by  the  law  of  January  12, 1870,  must 
have  a  width  of  5.5  yards  (5  metres)  in  open  country,  and  of  7.K  \  ards 
(7  metres)  within  villages  and  small  towns.  The  width  of  the  macad- 
amized portions  of  country  roads  if,  as  above  stated,  their  total  width 
is  S.Syards,  would  be  about  4  yards,  or  .'5.(5  metres. 

The  costs  of  construction  of  country  roads  having  a  stone  bedding  as 


1C8        streets  and  highways  in  foreign  countries. 

above  described,  would  average  both  for  light  arid  heavy  traffic  from 
10  to  7  marks  per  running  yard.  All  roads  within  villages  and  smaller 
towns  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  magistrate  and  common  day 
laborers  are  employed  for  their  maintenance.  The  average  wages  of  a 
road  laborer  may  be  figured  at  2.50  to  4  marks  per  day  within  Dresden 
and  other  large  cities.  In  the  country,  where  living  expenses  are 
lower,  the  laborers  do  not  get  more  than  2  to  3  marks  per  day. 

In  some  cases  the  supervision  of  country  roads  within  villages  and 
their  repair  is  transferred,  against  extra  remuneration,  to  the  road 
masters  of  the  respective  districts.  Such  road  masters  must  be  offi- 
cially authorized  for  this  purpose. 

In  second  instance  the  country  roads  are  surveyed  by  the  amtshaupt- 
mannschat'ten,  that  is  to  say,  by  their  police  forces  and  road  masters. 
In  single  cases,  however,  the  parishes  of  an  amtshauptmannschart 
(*.  e.  Dippoldiswalda)  will  unite  to  one  corporation  for  the  purpose  of 
mutually  maintaining  their  roads.  Such  work  of  repair,  etc.,  is  done 
by  special  road  guards,  and  also  in  part  by  day  laborers.  The  costs 
therefor  are  borne  by  the  parishes.  All  the  state  roads,  however,  are 
maintained  at  the  cost  of  the  general  government. 

The  toll  on  state  roads  was  suspended  4  years  ago,  as  the  revenue 
did  not  represent  one-tenth  of  the  funds  required.  A  very  few  par. 
ishes  contribute  small  sums  of  money  or  provide  road-building  material, 
this  being  in  single  cases  prescribed  by  an  old  law. 

There  are  no  special  taxes  for  road  building  and  repairing  j  the  funds 
required  are  taken  from  the  total  revenue  of  the  state. 

A  special  provision  of  the  law  prescribes  that  the  parishes  must  sup- 
ply the  necessary  laborers  for  removing  the  snow  from  state  as  well  as 
country  roads  on  their  entire  width  if  practicable.  The  country  roads 
are  maintained  at  the  cost  of  the  town  and  village  parishes  and  of  the 
independent  manor  holders. 

In  small  villages  it  occurs  quite  frequently  that  the  costs  of  repair 
are  borne  entirely  by  the  "  altgemeinden  "  (old  communities).  These 
altgemeinden  were  composed  of  a  number  of  owners  of  old  farms  that 
had  existed  before  the  building  of  the  village,  while  all  later  farm  own- 
ers and  tenants  are  exempt  from  such  duties. 

Persons  that  make  an  exceptionally  frequent  use  of  a  public  road, 
such  as  owners  of  quarries,  mines,  and  brick  factories,  using  their  own 
teams  for  transportation  purposes,  can  be  held  by  the  law  to  bear  the 
expense  of  maintenance  and  keeping  of  such  portion  of  road. 

Poor  communities,  which,  according  to  local  circumstances  (such  as 
communication  to  railroads)  are  subject  to  considerable  costs  of  main- 
tenance of  their  roads,  are  supported  with  funds  by  the  amtshaupt- 
manuschaft  or  by  the  state's  treasury. 

In  such  cases  also  the  costs  of  communication  roads  that  are  being 
newly  built  or  improved  by  reason  of  an  increase  of  traffic,  are  partly 
or  wholly  borne  by  the  state's  treasury.     The  communities  are  geuer- 


EUROPE — GERMANY.  109 

ally  held  to  deliver  building-  material  and  the  necessary  land  without 
compensation.  Such  roads  when  completed  are  turned  over  to  the  com- 
munities (parishes)  for  maintenance. 

The  principal  advantage  that  is  offered  by  a  good  and  well  built  road 
consists  in  the  possibility  of  transporting  considerable  loads  at  a  com- 
parative moderate  expense.  This  fact  naturally  extends  the  market 
and  increases  the  prices  of  all  agricultural  and  mining  products,  such 
as  stone,  coal,  brick,  etc. 

It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  on  one  hand  the  importance  of  the 
principal  roads,  serving  for  through  traffic,  bas  l>een  seriously  if  not 
entirely  destroyed  by  the  railroads  ;  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  because  of 
the  rapid  increase  of  population,  the  traffic  on  the  roads  that  connect 
one  or  more  small  villages  or  towns  shows  a  decided  increase. 

Even  at  present  most  of  the  agricultural  products  are  transported  by 
teams  over  distances  exceeding  20,000  yards  without  the  use  of  the  rail- 
roads. 

Further,  all  country  roads  serving  as  communication  to  the  railroad 
stations  are  of  great  importance,  because  the  transportation  of  freight 
by  rail  is  more  or  less  dependent  on  the  road  traffic.  Higher  prices  of 
all  products  naturally  cause  an  increase  of  the  land  value,  which,  how- 
ever, in  the  country  is  not  as  apparent  as  in  cities. 

The  country  roads,  as  well  as  other  means  of  transportation  and  com- 
munication, represent  an  important  part  of  the  foundation  for  the  wel- 
fare and  civilization  of  a  nation. 

A  comparison  between  the  costs  of  city  streets  and  country  roads  can 
only  be  made  in  reference  to  macadamized  roads.  The  costs  of  con- 
struction of  both  do  not  differ  very  much. 

A  macadamized  city  street  costs  on  an  average  about  3.76  per  square 
yards,  whereas  the  two  kinds  of  macadamized  country  roads  average 
3.26  marks. 

The  difference  is  not  great,  and  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the 
wages  within  a  city  are  considerably  higher  than  in  the  country.  It  is 
different,  however,  with  the  costs  of  maintenance.  In  Dresdeu  the 
average  annual  cost  for  maintenance  of  one  square  yard  of  street 
amounts  to  15  pfennigs.  On  government  roads,  however,  the  costs  of 
maintenance  of  one  running  yard,  inclusive  of  wages  of  road  guards  of 
62.5  pfennigs  on  6,546  yards  width  of  road,  amount  to  9.55  pfennigs  per 
square  yard. 

This  great  difference  of  costs  may  be  explained,  firstly,  by  the  fact 
that  the  traffic  on  country  roads  is  by  far  inferior  to  that  in  the  cities. 
Secondly,  besides  the  above-mentioned  difference  of  wages  on  country 
roads  and  in  city  streets,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  materials  for  main- 
taining and  repairing  the  country  roads  are  by  degrees  during  the 
winter  stored  along  the  side  of  the  roads,  and  prepared  for  use  (break- 
ing and  screening).  Under  such  circumstances  laborers  and  drivers 
can  be  obtained  at  much  cheaper  wages.    Thirdly,  the  material  for  re- 


170  STREETS   AND   HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

pair  is,  for  country  roads,  taken  from  the  nearest  neighborhood,  while 
in  cities  it  is  stored  away  in- the  storage  grounds,  to  which  it  must  be 
trausported  from  considerable  distance.  The  three  points  as  enumer- 
ated give,  undoubtedly,  sufficient  explanation  for  the  large  difference 
in  the  costs  between  maintenance  of  country  roads  and  of  city  streets. 

Regarding  the  use  of  the  roads  it  has  already  been  said  in  the  begin- 
ning of  this  report  that  the  roads  are  open  to  traffic  of  every  descrip- 
tion. This  practically  is  the  case,  but  there  are  a  few  restrictions  to 
this  general  rule,  which  it  may  be  well  to  mention. 

Powder  and  other  explosive  materials  can  only  be  transported  under 
special  instructions  and  in  special  wagons,  and  such  transports  must  be 
escorted  by  police  officials.  (Acts  of  the  Department  of  the  Interior 
dated  November  3,  1879,  November  22,  1884,  and  December  23,  1885.) 

The  transportation  of  road  locomotives,  steam  rollers,  etc.,  is  also 
subject  .to  special  regulations  (acts  of  June  9,  1860,  and  September  26, 
1883).  For  such  transportation  a  permission  from  the  police  authori- 
ties must  be  obtained,  and  an  escort  of  road  guards  is  required.  For 
transportation  of  long  logs  of  wood  or  planks,  the  act  of  July  9,  1872, 
prescribes  that,  besides  the  driver,  such  team  be  accompanied  by  a 
second  individual,  who  must  properly  guide  the  rear  truck. 

The  act  of  April  16,  1840,  prescribes  that  teams  for  heavy  loads,  such 
as  coal,  bricks,  earth  and  stones,  must  have  a  width  of  tire  of  at  least 
10£  centimeters  (.115  yard).  The  same  act  provides  that  all  vehicles 
must  have  a  flat  and  not  rounded  surface  of  tire.  Wagons  with  nails 
or  other  fastening  parts  protuding  from  their  tires  are  not  allowed  to 
enter  the  road  at  all. 

The  same  law  provides  that  all  light  vehicles  (transportation  of  per- 
sons) must  have  a  width  of  tire  of  at  least  .073  (6.5  centimeters)  yard. 
The  greatest  pressure  of  the  wheel  on  the  road  surface  must  not  exceed, 
for  heavy  wagons,  2,500  kilograms  in  summer  and  3,000  kilograms  in 
winter,  excepting  for  transportation  of  loads  that  can  not  be  divided 
(like  steam  boilers,  trunks  of  trees,  etc.). 

The  stadtrathe  (town  councillors)  and  the  amtshauptmannschaften 
have  the  right,  according  to  the  law  of  July  9,  1872,  referring  to  traffic 
on  public  roads,  to  issue  special  rules  on  certain  roads  in  certain  dis- 
tricts for  the  protection  of  the  traffic;  they  can  also  direct  certain 
vehicles  to  pass  on  certain  roads.    Very  little  use  is  made  of  this  law. 

Wagons  that  exceed  8,500  kilograms,  inclusive  of  weight  of  the 
wagon  itself,  are  not  permitted  to  pass  over  older  wooden  bridges. 

The  same  law  provides  that  the  width  of  a  loaded  wagon  must  not 
exceed  2.8  metres,  that  is  to  say  the  load  must  not  extend  beyond  such 
width.  In  exceptional  cases  a  special  permission  from  the  police  au- 
thorities is  necessary. 

In  conclusion,  attention  is  called  to  the  following  books  issued  by  the 
Government  and  published  in  Leipzig,  and  obtainable  at  the  Uossber- 
ger-'sche  Verlagsbuchhaudluug: 


EUROPE — GERMANY.  1 7  1 

"  Die  Gesetzgebung  fiber  Wegeban  and  Expropriation  im  Konigreieh 
Sachsen  n  (the  legislation  concerning  road  building  and  expropriation 
in  the  kingdom  of  Saxony),  by  Ludwig  Wolf.  This  book  contains  all 
the  rules  and  regulations  regarding  the  traffic  on  roads  and  the  manner 
of  the  execution  of  such  laws. 

Uebersicht  der  im  Kouigreich  Sachsen  zur  Chauss6e  Unterhaltung 
verwendeten  Gesteinsarten,  Dresden,  1809.  (Tabular  statement  of  all 
the  species  of  stones  used  for  maintenance  of  roads  in  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony.)  This  book  contains  exact  information  regarding  the  origin 
and  qualities  of  road-building  material  used  in  Saxony. 

Die  Organisation  der  Behorden  fiir  die  innere  Verwaltung  vom  21. 
April  1873  (the  organization  of  the  authorities  for  the  interior  admin- 
istration), and,  "Kevidirte  Stadteordnung,  bez.  Revidirte  Landgemein- 
deordnung  "  (revised  city  regulations  and  revised  regulations  for  country 
parishes*,  containing  all  laws  and  regulations  regarding  the  adminis- 
tration of  country  roads.  The  latter  two  books  have  been  referred  to 
in  a  previous  part  of  this  report. 

Aulick  Palmer, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Dresden,  June  29,  1891. 


STETTIN   DISTRICT. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  KELLOQQ. 
STREETS  OF  STETTIN. 

The  streets  of  Stettin  (116,000  inhabitants)  up  to  some  years  ago 
were  mostly  paved  with  common  paving  stones  obtained  from  erratic 
bowlders  irregularly  cut  with  a  flat  head,  the  price  of  which  when  set 
was  about  14  to  15  marks  per  square  metre. 

In  the  last  five  years  Stettin,  following  the  wake  of  Berlin,  and  the 
other  large  cities,  has  commenced  to  paveher  streets  with  better 
material,  introducing  straight  rows  of  stoues  instead  of  curved  and 
broken  ones  of  former  years.  The  city  authorities  intend,  as  far  as  the 
budget  will  allow,  to  have  at  no  distant  date  ihe  side  as  well  as  the 
main  streets  well  paved  with  the  best  material. 

The  inland  quarries  not  being  able  to  compete  with  those  of  Sweden, 
the  best  paving  stoues  are  hence  imported  from  that  country,  and  espe- 
cially from  the  quarries  at  Carlskaona,  Carlshanon,  Westerwyk,  and 
Warboy.    The  Swedish  granite  is  very  solid  and  of  fine  grain. 

The  prices  of  the  above  stones  delivered  on  the  wharfs  of  Stettin 
range  from  8.50  to  9  marks  per  square  metre. 

The  granite  plates  for  sidewalks  are  imported  from  Christiania  and 
Draunnen,  in  Norway.    The  Norwegian   granite  is  of  rougher  grain, 


172  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

bard,  bat  splitting  easy  and  well  adapted  for  sidewalk  plates.    The 
border  and  gutter  stones  are  also  worked  from  tin's  variety  of  granite. 
Delivered  on  the  wharfs  of  the  town  of  Stettin  the  prices  for  these 
materials  are  as  follows : 

Marks. 

One  square  metre  of  granite  plates  for  sidewalks 9.00 

One  metre  in  length  of  granite  border  stones  for  sidewalks 4.  00 

One  metre  in  length  of  granite  gutter  stones  for  sidewalks 2.25 

The  streets  of  Stettin,  paved  with  stone  blocks  as  they  are,  are  well 
adapted  for  light  and  heavy  traffic.  In  streets  with  a  declivity  of  1  in 
100  and  less  experiments  have  been  made  with  asphalt  pavement  0.05 
metre  thick,  being  laid  on  a  granite  Beton  0.30  metre  thick,  under  which 
is  a  gravel  bed  0.20  metre  thick.  The  asphalt  paving,  including  a  guar- 
anty of  20  years,  costs  14  to  16  marks  per  square  metre. 

Best  block  pavement  costs  11  marks  per  square  metre ;  ordinary 
block  pavement  costs  5  marks  per  square  metre ;  sidewalk  pavement 
(granite  plates)  1L  to  12  marks  per  square  metre.  The  cost  of  keeping 
the  streets  in  good  condition  depends  upon  the  amount  of  traffic. 

Formerly  the  sidewalks  consisted  of  only  one  line  of  granite  plates 
about  1  metre  wide,  and  many  such  walks  are  still  to  be  found,  especially 
in  the  older  parts  of  the  town ;  where,  however,  the  streets  are  well 
paved  with  the  above-described  material  the  walks  are  laid  out  entirely 
with  granite  plates. 

The  edges  of  the  sidewalks  were  formerly  provided  with  granite 
gutter  stones  having  in  profile  the  following  appearance: 


They  are  now  replaced  by  square  granite  stoues  with  flat  tops  laid 
against  the  granite  border  stones  at  the  side  of  the  granite  sidewalk 
plates. 

As  a  foundation  for  the  best  paving  stones  a  composite  of  gravel 
0.30  metres  thick  is  employed  ;  for  the  sidewalk  plates  a  layer  of  sand 
is  used.  After  the  plates  are  laid  the  edges  and  fissures  are  cemented 
with  Portland  cement. 

For  keeping  the  streets  in  good  repair  1  metre  quadrannually  is  reck- 
oned for  each  square  metre  of  pavement  to  be  provided  for  from  the 
budget  of  the  city  government,  whilst  property  owners  are  charged  an 
extra  amount  to  keep  the  sidewalks  in  good  condition  or  to  alter  them 
into  the  new  system. 

The  expense  of  cleaning  the  streets,  carrying  off  dirt,  etc.,  is  paid 
out  of  a  special  tax  fund,  15  pfennigs  per  square  metre  yearly. 


EUROPE — GERMANY. 


173 


Every  property  holder  is  compelled  to  have  his  sidewalks  swept  every 
morning ;  in  the  hot  summer  mouths  they  must  be  sprinkled  several 
times  a  day,  and  in  the  winter  season  the  snow  must  be  swept  from  the 
walks,  the  property  holders  also  having  to  sweep  the  snow  from  the 
middle  of  the  streets  to  the  sides,  and  in  piles,  which  must  then  be 
carted  away.  This  expense  is  borne  by  the  property  holders.  The  ex- 
pense of  carting  snow  away  from  public  places  is  borne  by  the  people 
in  general,  the  city  authorities  generally  giving  the  contract  to  the 
lowest  bidder. 


LONOfTUDINAL   CuT 

of  a  Street  ltc. 


New  streets  are  laid  out  at  the  expense  of  the  property  holders  whose 
property  touches  the  projected  street,  who  are  required  to  keep  them 
in  good  condition  for  four  years.  After  this  period  the  city  takes  the 
responsibility  of  keeping  them. 

Old  streets  are  preserved  and  kept  in  repair  by  the  city  alone. 


COUNTRY  ROADS. 

To  promote  the  laying  out  of  high  roads  and  country  roads,  and  keep 
them  in  good  condition  and  repair,  the  budget  of  the  different  provinces 
of  Prussia  grants  a  certain  sum  every  year,  amounting  in  the  province 
of  Pomerania,  of  which  Stettin  is  the  chief  town,  to  about  400,000 
marks  ($100,000). 

Those  counties  (kreise)  undertaking  to  construct  roads  obtain,  when 
the  proposed  roads  are  considered  a  necessity,  an  allowance  of  33£  per 
cent,  of  the  cost  of  "a  fond  perdu,"  lGg  to 25  per  cent,  of  the  cost  to  be 
collected  by  the  county  itself,  but  the  remaining  50  to  41g  has  to  be  paid 
by  tin-  adjacent  property  holders,  who,  however,  are  reimbursed  partly 
for  this  by  being  paid  for  the  assistance  they  lend  iu  constructing  the 
roads,  such  as  carting  sand,  gravel,  stones,  and  other  material.  The 
adjacent*— such  as  lar^e  or  small  farmers,  country  towns,  or  manufac- 
turers, etc. — have  to  contribute  in  proportion  to  the.  benefits  accruing 
thereby. 


174  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

If  a  county  has  very  heavy  expenses  to  meet,  such  as  those  accruing 
from  the  construction  of  public  works,  as  high  roads  and  local  railroads, 
etc.,  it  is  entitled  to  issue  bonds  at  a  fixed  rate  of  interest,  all  these 
bonds  to  be  called  in  in  about  25  years.  Each  year  a  certain  number 
of  them  are  oanceled,  which  have  been  drawn  by  lot. 

The  immediate  counties  of  the  consular  district  of  Stettin  (the  coun- 
ties of  Stettin  and  Randor)  have  as  yet  not  issued  any  bonds,  but  they 
will  soon  be  compelled  to  do  so  as  a  new  local  railroad  has  just  been 
projected. 

All  high  roads  and  country  roads  are  constructed  either  with  block 
stones  or  macadam,  the  latter  being  consolidated  on  top  with  pounded 
stone  or  gravel.  The  construction  of  roads  is  left  to  the  county  and 
district  communities,  but  rarely  to  a  single  community  or  estate. 

The  system  of  construction  to  be  followed  depends  upon  the  exist- 
ence of  the  material,  such  as  stone,  gravel,  sand,  and  upon  the  condi- 
tion of  the  soil  over  which  the  road  is  to  be  built.  As  there  are  no 
quarries  in  this  consular  district,  the  stone  has  to  be  dug  out  and  gath- 
ered from  the  fields  or  procured  from  other  places  by  water. 

The  administration  of  the  roads  and  their  preservation  falls  upon 
the  authorities  of  the  different  counties,  the  president  of  their  boards 
being  the  county  counsellor  (landrath),  who,  as  regards  the  road,  is 
assisted  by  the  county  architect,  the  inspector  of  highways,  and  the 
guards  of  the  high  roads,  who  are  paid  by  the  county.  The  expense 
of  laying  out  new  roads,  paved  with  block  stone,  which  is  partly  borne 
by  the  provincial  government,  which  also  surveys  the  whole  road,  varies 
from  8  to  20  marks  per  running  metre. 

The  construction  of  new  roads  has  always  been  followed  by  increased 
benefits  to  the  farmer  as  well  as  to  the  manufacturer,  for  it  gives  them 
increased  facilities  for  bringing  their  products  and  wares  to  market. 

In  1875  the  administration  and  preservation  of  the  roads  were  handed 
over  to  the  provincial  board,  but  it  has  since  been  transferred  to  the 
county  board  of  administrators. 

From  the  accompanying  cuts  one  will  see  that  the  roads  are  built 
with  two  objects  in  view,  viz,  for  heavy  and  light  traffic,  and  teams 
accordingly  choose  that  part  of  the  road  over  which,  according  to  the 
loads  they  carry,  they  must  drive. 

The  foundation  beds  of  these  roads  consist  of  unhewn  stones  0.20 
metre  thick,  covered  with  granite  pieces  0.25  metre  in  thickness.  The 
upper  part  of  this  covering,  0.05  metre,  is  composed  of  small  pounded 
6tone  covered  with  a  layer  of  gravel  0.03  metre  thick. 

The  whole  is  rolled  several  times  with  heavy  steam-rollers. 

James  Kellogg, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Stettin,  January  22,  1891. 


EUROPE — ITALY.  175 

ITALY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  JONES,  OF  MESSINA. 
COUNTRY  ROADS  OR  HIGHWAYS. 

In  Italy  the  minister  of  public  works  sees  to  the  laying  out,  mating, 
repairing,  and  police  supervision  of  the  national,  provincial,  commu- 
nal, and  vicerial  highways. 

Carriageable  roads  are  divided  into  national,  provincial,  communal, 
and  vicerial  roads. 

National  roads. — Those  which  connect  the  chief  cities  of  the  kingdom 
with  each  other  and  with  the  seaports ;  the  magnificent  roads  across 
the  Alps  and  Apennines;  and  military  roads,  solely  for  strategic  use. 
When  two  cities  become  united  by  a  railway  their  national  road  be- 
comes a  provincial  road. 

Provincial  roads. — Those  which  connect  the  capitals  of  different  prov- 
inces ;  those  which  connect  the  capitals  of  the  respective  provinces  with 
the  seats  of  the  several  districts  into  which  the  provinces  may  be 
divided  ;  and  those  which  connect  the  capitals  of  the  provinces  and  the 
seats  of  the  several  districts  with  the  nearest  ports. 

Communal  roads. — Those  which  connect  the  county  seats  with  the 
other  towns  in  their  districts;  those  which  run  through  villages;  and 
those  which  run  from  the  county  seats  to  the  parish  churches,  ceme- 
teries, railroads.  All  other  public  roads  are  vicerial  roads,  and  are  kept 
up  by  the  communal  authorities. 

Ownership. — The  land  used  for  national  roads  is  government  property ; 
the  provincial  roads  belong  to  the  provinces;  communal  roads  to  the 
commuues.  The  public  squares  in  cities  and  villages  form  part  of  the 
communal  highways.  National  and  provincial  roads  within  the  limits 
of  a  city  or  village  belong  to  the  communal  highways. 

Construction. — The  government  builds  and  keeps  up  the  national 
highways.  Tolls  on  these  roads  have  been  abolished,  except  on  ferries 
and  floating  bridges.  The  cost  of  building  and  keeping  up  provincial 
highways  devolves  upon  the  provinces,  which  may  levy  tolls  by  royal 
decree.  Provinces  may  also  levy  a  per  capita  road  tax.  In  the  prov- 
ince of  Messina  this  tax  is  4  francs,  or  80  cents,  or  3  days'  work  on  the 
roads,  per  annum  and  per  head.  The  cost  of  building  and  keeping  up 
communal  highways  devolves  upon  the  respective  communes;  these 
expenses  are  paid  out  of  the  communal  revenues  or  by  a  special  tax 
levied  by  the  communes.  The  communes  have  the  right  to  establish 
tolls,  which,  however,  must  be  abolished  as  soon  as  they  shall  have 
realized  the  cost  of  the  road.  The  keeping  up  of  such  portions  of 
national  and  provincial  roads  as  pass  through  a  city  or  village  falls 
upon  the  commune,  the  government  or  province  paying  over  annually 
to  said  commune  a  sum  equal  to  the  cost  of  keeping  in  repair  a  stretch 
of  road  of  equal  length  near  the  city  or  village.    National,  provincial, 


176 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


and  communal  roads  are  invariably  macadamized.  A  roadbed  20  cen- 
timetres (nearly  8  inches)  deep  is  dug  out  and  filled  in  with  broken 
stones,  which,  after  being  well  watered,  are  packed  down  by  means  of 
a  heavy  roller ;  a  layer  of  earth  of  sandy  or  calcareous  character  is  then 
added,  and  when  thoroughly  rolled  is  well  watered  and  again  rolled 
until  the  surface  becomes  firm  and  smooth. 

The  width  of  national  and  provincial  roads  is  8  metres  (say  26  feet); 
the  average  cost  per  kilometre  30,000  francs  or  $6,000.  The  width  of*  the 
communal  road  in  5  metres ;  average  cost  per  kilometre,  20,000  francs 
or  $4,000.  The  soil  in  this  district  is  mostly  clay,  and  a  deep  founda- 
tion is  not  necessary  for  a  good  roadbed. 

Wallace  S.  Jones, 

United  States  Consulate,  Consul. 

Messina,  January  26, 1891. 


BOLOGNA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  GARD1NI. 

The  prevailing  method  employed  in  making  city  streets,  at  Bologna, 
and  other  towns,  is  the  union  of  flint  stones  on  a  bed  of  sand  or  on  a 
foundation  of  sifted  gravel. 

In  many  of  the  principal  streets  of  Bologna,  at  each  side,  are  placed 
two  bands  of  granite  0.60  metre  of  breadth,  and  0.20  metre  of  depth, 
at  the  distance  of  0.60  metre,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  transit  of  vehi- 


Flint  stones  are  of  elyssoidal  form  ;  their  thickness  varies  from  0.09 
metre  to  0.12  metre  j  most  of  them  come  from  the  river  Reno,  and  a 
part  from  the  river  Adige ;  the  sand  is  all  taken  from  the  Reno. 

The  pavement  made  with  flint  stones  of  the  Beno,  on  a  bed  of  sand, 
including  the  necessary  digging,  at  the  depth  of  0.15  metre,  costs  1.30 
lira  per  square  metre. 

The  same  pavement  on  a  bed  of  0.15  metre  of  sifted  gravel,  includ- 
ing the  necessary  digging,  at  the  depth  of  0.30  metre,  costs  2  lire  per 
square  metre. 

The  cost  of  a  pavemeut  made  with  granite,  flint  stones  of  the  Adige, 
on  a  bed  of  sand  and  of  sifted  gravel,  depth  0.15  metre,  including  the 
digging  at  0.30  metre  is  3.80  lire  per  square  metre. 

When  a  paved  street,  according  to  the  last  method,  is  also  furnished 
with  two  bauds  of  granite  of  only  one  line,  each  square  metre  costs  as 
follows : 


Breadth  of  street. 

Cost. 

Breadth  of  street. 

Cost. 

Metres. 
6 

Lire. 

10.  55 
9.65 
8.90 
8.40 

Metres. 

Lire. 
7.90 
7.55 
7.25 

7 

g 

g 

EUROPE ITALY. 


177 


If  tbe  line  of  granite  is  double,  the  prices  per  square  metre  are  the 
following : 


Breadth  of  street. 

Cost. 

Breadth  of  street. 

Cost. 

Metres. 
6  

Lire. 

17.30 
15.  50 
14.20 
13.00 

Metrea. 
10 

Lire. 
12.10 
11.20 
10.65 

11 

12 

8 

9 

At  Bologna  there  are  also  a  few  streets  paved  with  square  stones,  0.15 
metre  in  size,  of  granite,  coming  from  San  Fedeliuo  (province  of  l.iella) ; 
these  square  stones  are  placed  on  a  bed  of  cement  of  the  thickness  of 
0.15  metre;  its  cost  per  square  metre  is  30  lire. 

The  annual  expense  for  maintaining  the  city  streets  paved  by  the 
aforesaid  metbods  is  about  0.12  lira  per  square  metre. 

Carlo  Gardini, 

Consular.  Agent. 
United  States  Consular  Agency, 

Bologna,  January  17,  1801. 


PROVINCE  OF  CATANIA. 


REPORT  BY  CONSUL  HEATH. 


CITY  STREETS. 

The  principal  streets  in  Catania  are  very  good,  and  the  process  of 
making  is  well  worth  imitating  by  cities  in  the  United  States.  The 
foundation  is  of  broken  lava,  2£  inches  and  less  in  diameter,  firmly 
cemented  together  with  burnt  clay  and  lime  to  the  depth  of  about  8 
inches;  this  is  properly  crowned  and  the  stones  pounded  securely  into 
place,  presenting  an  even  surface  for  the  pavement.- 

The  pavement  in  the  best  streets  are  of  No.  1  hard  lava;  it  is  quar- 
ried very  rough  in  blocks  about  16  by  20  inches  and  8  inches  thick, 
and  worked  upon  the  spot  at  time  of  making  the  street. 

These  blocks  are  laid  in  cement,  the  edges  being  fitted  with  great 
nicety. 

Driving  on  such  a  street  is  very  comfortable.  The  comparatively 
smooth  surface  and  large  size  of  pavements  give  none  of  those  disa- 
greeable jilting  sensations  such  as  are  common  on  our  own  paved 
streets.  The  paved  streets  are  much  preferred  for  driving  to  the  coun- 
try roads  by  the  driving  population. 

These  streets  present  several  ideas  which  seem  to  me  to  be  an  im- 
provement on  our  own  methods. 

First,  the  large  paving  blocks  used,  giving  a  superior  surface  for 
driving  or  teaming. 
33a 12 


178 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Second,  the  comparatively  smooth  surface,  with  no  open  joints  to  hold 
dirt,  making  it  an  easy  matter  to  sweep  up  all  surface  accumulations. 

Third,  the  substantial  foundation  of  cement  and  stone,  absolutely  pre- 
venting any  dirt  from  working  up  from  the  ground. 

I  inclose  a  small  plan  of  a  street  as  described. 


Surface. 


of 


Street. 


Lava  tTocks— 8  inches  ~hig~h. 


COUNTRY  ROADS. 

Country  roads  iu  the  province  of  Catania  are  generally  poor,  and 
there  is  no  regular  process  of  making  them.  Only  the  principal  ones 
can  be  driven  over  with  a  carriage. 

Once  a  year  the  principal  ones  are  repaired.  This  repairing  is  done 
iu  the  winter  or  rainy  season,  and  consists  of  crowning  up  the  center 
of  the  road  with  a  thin  layer  of  broken  lava,  2h  inches  and  less  in 
diameter,  of  the  poorest  quality.  On  top  lumps  of  clay  are  thrown, 
and  frequent  rains  and  constant  traffic  do  the  rest. 


EUROPE — ITALY.  179 

The  poor  quality  lava  gradually  crumbles  under  wheels  and  hoofs,  is 
finally  mixed  with  the  clay  through  the  same  agency,  and,  strange  to 
say,  after  a  few  months  makes  a  fairly  good  road. 

This  process,  however,  has  no  merits  excepting  economy,  and  I  hope 
none  of  my  countrymen  will  try  road  making  on  this  plan. 

Charles  Heath, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Catania,  January  24,  1891. 


PROVINCE  OF    GENOA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  FLETCHER. 

More  than  1,000  years  before  Columbus  discovered  the  New  World  this 
province  of  Genoa,  in  which  the  great  navigator  was  born,  and  this  city, 
in  which  he  passed  his  childhood  and  youth  and  was  contemptuously 
called  the  "  mad  boy,"  boasted  of  fine  roads  and  streets.  To  keep  them 
in  good  condition  at  the  present  day  the  following  methods  are  em- 
ployed : 

city  streets. 

A  bed  of  sand  5j*  inches  deep  ;  upon  this  bed  cut  or  worked  parallel- 
opiped  siliceous  stones  are  laid  ;  they  are  placed  so  as  to  slope  gently 
from  center  of  street  to  sidewalks.  Bach  block  of  stone  is  about  11§ 
inches  wide,  7§  inches  thick,  and  2  feet  3£  inches  in  length.  The  face 
of  each  is  notched  or  grooved,  so  as  to  afford  a  sure  foothold  for  horses. 

Sidewalks  are  constructed  from  similar  material  as  above  noted,  but 
the  stones  are  only  3f  inches  thick,  and  rest  upon  a  bed  of  sand  3§ 
inches  in  depth.  The  curbstones  are  also  from  same  material.  Each 
stone  is  2  feet  9£  inches  long,  1%  inches  in  thickness,  and  9§  inches 
wide.  All  rest  on  a  diminutive  wall  composed  of  ordinary  stone 
cemented  with  hydraulic  lime.  The  above  for  comparatively  level 
streets. 

Streets  of  considerable  declivity  (Genoa  has  hundreds  of  them)  on 
which  vehicles  run  are  constructed  of  smaller  faced  stones,  the  average 
measurement  of  each  being  about  5|  inches  wide,  1%  inches  in  thick- 
ness, and  2  feet  5  inches  long.  Between  each  line  or  row  of  stone  is 
placed  a  course  of  hard  brick,  called  here  da  carroggio,  set  on  edge.  Til  is 
is  to  give  horses  a  sure  foothold.  Both  stone  and  brick  resfyon  a  stratum 
of  sand  5f  inches  in  depth. 

Experiments  have  been  made  recently  with  small  round  blocks  of 
oaken  wood  placed  on  a  sand  bed  5^  inches  deep,  but  so  recent  have 
these  experiments  been  made  that  the  durability  of  this  style  of  street 
pavement  is  not  yet  ascertained. 


180  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

There  are  fully  1,000  streets  in  Genoa  too  narrow  to  admit  of  carts 
or  carriages.  These  streets  are  constructed  of  round  or  oblong  flint 
stones  set  on  a  bed  of  sand  3|  inches  deep.  Some  of  those  narrow 
thoroughfares  are  so  exceedingly  steep  that  a  pathway  about  3.3  feet 
wide  made  of  brick  runs  through  the  center.  This  style  of  work  is 
called  here  pagliola.  The  brick  affords  a  sure  footiug  for  pedestrians 
in  rainy  weather. 

Certain  other  streets,  such  as  those  around  the  drive  known  as  the  Cir- 
convallazioneaMonte  (circle  of  the  mountain),  and  those  in  the  suburbs 
of  the  city,  broken  flint  stones  9f  inches  in  depth  are  placed  upon  the 
road-bed  ;  over  this  mass  is  drawn  by  steam-power  a  great  roller  weigh- 
ing 10  tons.  When  the  stones  are  crushed  into  a  fairly  smooth  bed  or 
surface,  water  and  gravel  are  sprinkled  and  scattered  thereon,  after 
which  the  roller  is  again  called  into  play,  and  soon  thereafter  the  street 
is  ready  for  public  use.  Such  thoroughfares  are  called  macadamized 
roads.  The  sidewalks  on  these  streets  are  made  in  a  similar  manner  to 
those  already  described,  and  vary  in  width  from  6  feet  5  inches  to  9  feet 
8  inches. 

STREET  EXPENSES. 

Expenses  incurred  in  making  streets,  sidewalks,  and  roads,  wholly  completed,  per  square 

foot. 

Streets,  as  per  first  condition $1.  05. 9 

Sidewalks,  as  per  first  condition 0.55.7 

Curbstones,  as  per  first  condition 0.26.3 

Streets : 

Flint  stone,  second  condition 0.  09.  5 

Brick  (Pagliolo),  second  condition 0.  31.  9 

Broken  flint  stone  (macadam) 0. 14.  5 

If  the  cost  of  making  streets,  sidewalks,  etc.,  as  above  quoted,  seem 
very  low,  it  should  be  taken  into  consideration  that  all  the  materials 
used  in  their  construction  can  be  found  close  at  hand  and  in  great 
abundance. 

COUNTRY  ROADS. 

Country  roads  or  highways  are  kept  in  order  on  the  macadam  plan, 
except  that  in  many  places  the  roller  is  not  used. 

A  book — paper  covers— containing  161  pages,  is  mailed  with  this  re- 
port. It  is  entitled:  "City  of  Genoa — Office  of  the  Public  Works. 
Special  conditions  for  contract  for  the  ordinary  preservation  of  the 
streets,  conduits,  and  accessory  works."  This  work  is  published  by 
the  municipal  government  -of  the  city  of  Genoa. 

•  James  Fletcher, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Genoa,  Italy,  February  12,  1891. 


EUROPE ITALY.  181 

LOMBARDY, 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  PEPPER,  OF  MILAN. 

Italian  legislation  as  to  roads  is  to  be  considered  distinctively  under 
four  heads:  National,  provincial,  communal,  and  viccinale  or  neighbor- 
hood roads.  There  are  subordinate  roads  of  a  private  character  of 
which  the  legislature  takes  no  interest  in  or  supervision  of.  These  are 
under  the  control  of  local  landholders  who  have  small  properties,  and  who 
build  these  roads  for  their  own  accommodation.  The  mode  of  building 
and  the  expense  of  the  roads  in  Loinbardy  is  uniform,  the  essential 
difference  being  the  reasons  existing  upon  the  special  locality  in  which 
the  roads  are  running,  namely,  in  a  mountainous  region  the  expense 
would  be  greater  than  in  a  plain  open  country. 

In  general  roads  in  villages  or  near  cities  are  paved  with  gravel 
taken  from  the  beds  of  rivers  which  traverse  the  country.  In  the 
cities  and  in  the  large  towns  the  ground  is  also  paved.  Nearly  always 
the  sidewalks  are  paved  with  these  pebbles  for  the  use  of  pedestrians, 
both  sides  of  streets  contiguous  to  which  carriages  and  teams  pass  are 
similarly  paved.  Roads  for  vehicles  are  usually  from  50  to  75  centimetres 
in  width.  The  pavements  are  likewise  of  the  same  material,  arranged 
on  each  side  of  the  streets.  Frequently  instead  of  one  row  of  these 
stones,  two  or  more  often  come  in  contact,  thereby  connecting  these 
streets  together.  The  double  roads  are  usually  of  stone  varying 
from  50  to  70  centimetres  in  width,  and  the  sidewalks  are  of  the  same 
width  and  of  the  same  material.  The  sidewalks  of  towns  and  cities  are 
widened  in  accordance  with  the  taste  and  wealth  of  the  proprietors. 
In  the  construction  of  these  roads  heavy  pebbles  are  placed  upon  the 
earth,  which  contributes  solidity  and  permanency,  also  contributing  to 
the  dryness  and  to  the  freedom  from  the  effects  of  rain.  This  bed  of 
heavy  pebbles  furnishes  a  strong  superficiality,  which  helps  the  character 
of  the  pavement.  The  expense  of  the  pavement  is  calculated  at  1 J  francs 
per  cubic  surface.  Those  of  the  pavements  denominated  grades  for 
trams  cost  20  francs  per  cubic  surface. 

It  is  understood  that  roads  in  Lombardy  are  everywhere  provided 
lengthways  with  a  channel  into  which  the  water  runs.  This  is  said  in 
regard  to  the  leading  roads.  Those  in  the  open  country  are  constructed 
in  the  same  way,  the  water  running  on  both  sides  for  the  mountainous 
localities.  There  is  no  gravel;  the  lack  is  supplied  by  stones  or  frag- 
ments obtained  from  rocks.  There  is  the  only  difference  in  these  roads 
in  width.  The  national  roads  are  usually  from  8  to  9  metres  in  width, 
the  provincial  roads  6,  the  communal  5.  Nevertheless,  in  the  moun- 
tainous regions  a  similar  width  is  tolerated,  as  also  in  the  commune, 
the  construction  of  which  is  obligatory  in  accordance  with  the  law  of 
1868.  However,  this  law  is  not  generally  obeyed  in  Lombardy,  because 
the  street  system  has  existed  for  many  years,  and  has  reached  a  splen- 
did development.  The  triple  distinction  of  roads  between  national, 
provincial,  and  communal  has  reference  solely  to  the  construction  ;in<l 


182  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

maintenance  by  the  national  government.  The  provincial  roads  are 
built  and  sustained  by  the  provinces ;  the  communal  by  the  communes  ; 
the  national  by  the  government.  In  general,  all  these  roads  may  serve 
for  purposes  of  great  traffic.  This  advantage  arises  from  the  uniformity 
with  which  they  are  built.  The  communal  roads  being  the  principal 
ones,  it  follows  that  the  traffic  is  the  greatest. 

It  is  impossible  to  furnish  the  exact  cost  of  roads  built  in  the  open 
country,  as  it  is  termed  by  the  Italians,  because  of  the  variety  of  the 
land,  as  it  is  more  or  less  mountainous.  In  Lombardy,  especially,  where 
the  great  abundance  of  canals  exist  and  the  consequent  need  of  roads 
to  cross  them,  the  building  of  palisades  and  walls  make  it  very  difficult 
to  get  at  the  expense.  About  one-half  the  country  is  included  in  what  we 
have  seen  and  the  other  half  in  the  mountainous  zone.  Difficulties  in- 
crease and  the  expense  becomes  greater  where  rocks  are  to  be  blasted. 
In  the  completion  of  these  roads  it  is  calculated  that  the  expense  of 
roads  in  Lombardy  vary  from  2  to  5  francs,  and  in  some  instances  much 
more,  per  metre.  This  does  not  include  the  expense  of  the  ground.  It 
follows,  from  the  data  which  I  have  gathered,  that  the  provincial 
roads  built  in  the  last  30  years  in  Lombardy  cost  35,000  francs  a  kilo- 
metre ;  that  the  communal  average  7,000.  Eegarding  the  support  of 
these  roads,  I  am  assured  that  for  the  communal,  60  to  80  cubic  sur- 
face gravel  per  year  for  each  kilometre.  The  provincial  and  national 
being  wider  and  the  traffic  greater,  there  is  from  100  to  400  cubic  sur- 
face each  yearper  kilometre.  In  fine  the  expense  of  maintenance  varies 
from  the  minimum  of  250  to  300  francs,  and  frequently  increases  to 
1,000  francs  per  kilometre.  The  condition  of  roads  of  all  descriptions 
in  Lombardy  is  far  superior  to  that  of  any  other  part  of  Italy.  In  a 
word,  the  area  of  this  district,  Lombardy,  is  23,000  kilometres  cubic 
surface,  countiug  20,000  kilometres  for  ordinary  roads,  national,  pro- 
vincial, communal,  that  is  20,000  kilometres  of  roads.  Lombardy  has  1 
kilometre  of  roads  for  every  superficial  kilometre.  Three  fourths  of 
these  roads,  15,000  kilometres,  belong  to  the  communal  category,  the 
balance,  nearly  5,000,  are  provincial,  while  the  national  are  only  about 
500  kilometres. 

Geo.  W.  Pepper, 

United  States  Consulate,     '  Consul. 

Milan,  Italy,  January  24,  1891. 


MESSINA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  J0NE8. 
OITT  STREETS. 


The  municipality  of  Messina,  upon  the  advice  of  the  city  surveyor, 
draws  up  a  schedule  of  prices,  with  the  maximum  wages  for  day  labor- 
ers, hire  of  teams,  prices  of  lime,  stone,  etc.     Sealed  bids,  based  uj  jn 


EUROPE ITALY.  183 

a  reduction  of  so  much  per  cent,  on  the  aforesaid  schedule  of  prices,  are 
handed  in  and  the  contract  for  paving  the  streets  is  given  to  the  lowest 
bidder. 

There  are  four  kinds  of  pavements  in  use :  (a)  Pavement  made  of 
paving  stones,  different  sizes;  (b)  pavement  made  of  cobblestones; 
(c)  pavement  made  of  pebbles  or  drippings;  (d)  pavement  made  with 
longitudinal  and  transverse  lines  of  paving  stones,  the  intervening 
spaces  being  filled  in  with  cobblestones. 

The  streets  are  divided  into  three  classes :  (1)  Streets  with  a  horizon- 
tal, flat  surface ;  (2)  streets  with  a  convex  surface ;  (3)  streets  with  a 
concave  surface. 

Three  sizes  of  paving  stones  are  used :  (1)  Dressed  paving  stones 
must  be  not  less  than  20  centimetres  thick  or  deep  and  the  sides  from 
20  to  50  centimetres  long;  square  blocks  of  stone  (lava)  are  generally 
used.  The  length  of  a  block  must  at  all  eveuts  never  be  more  than 
twice  the  width  of  the  block.  (2)  The  thickness  of  the  paving  stones, 
when  dressed,  must  not  be  less  than  15  centimetres  and  the  sides  not 
less  than  20  centimetres  nor  more  than  40.  (3)  The  thickness  must  not 
be  less  than  12  centimetres  and  the  sides  not  less  thau20nor  more  than 
35  centimetres. 

Curbstones  must  not  be  less  than  70  centimetres  long. 

The  sides  of  the  paving  stones  must  be  at  right  angles  with  each 
other.  The  four  sides  of  the  first  size  paving  stones  must  be  worked 
smooth  for  a  depth  of  10  centimetres  so  that  the  adjacent  blocks  may 
fit  closely  together.  The  sides  of  the  second  and  third  sizes  of  paving 
stones  must  be  worked  smooth  for  a  depth  of  7'and  6  centimetres, 
respectively. 

The  excavation  made  prior  to  laying  the  pavement  must  be  deep 
enough  to  contain  the  paving  stones  and  allow  for  the  bed  on  which  they 
rest.  The  bottom  of  the  excavation  must  be  well  rammed  down  with 
a  heavy  maul,  and,  if  the  ground  should  be  soft  aud  dry,  it  should  be 
well  saturated  with  water  and  rammed  down  whilst  wet.  The  four  kinds 
of  pavements  in  use  are:  (1)  Dry  paving  (lastricato  a  secco).  The 
bed  is  formed  of  a  layer  of  sand  at  least  20  centimetres  deep,  into  which 
—having  been  well  watered— the  closely  fitting  paving  stones  are 
placed  side  by  side.  The  joints,  free  from  sand,  are  filled  up  with  mor- 
tar made  of  pulverized  hydraulic  lime.  (2)  Paving  with  mortar  (las- 
tricato in  malta).  The  paving  stones  are  placed  on  a  bed  of  mortar,  the 
ioints  being  filled  up  as  above.  (3)  Paving  with  mortar  on  a  bed  of 
concrete.  A  layer  of  concrete  (made  of  cement  aud  small  pebbles)  not 
less  than  20  centimetres  deep  is  spread  over  the  bottom  of  the  exca- 
vation, and  on  this  concrete  the  mortar  and  paving  stones  are  embedded 
as  in  Xo.  2.  The  joints  between  the  stones  must  not  exceed  2  milli- 
metres and  should  always  be  filled  in  with  mortar.  (1)  Paving  with 
cobblestones.  The  cobblestones  (of  granite  or  quartz)  are  oblong  and 
so  chipped  with  the  hammer  as  to  fit  closely  one  with  the  other.    The 


184  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

length  of  these  cobblestones  is  never  less  tban  15  centimetres.  '  The 
ground  being  prepared  as  for  paving  stones,  the  cobblestones  are  set 
in  a  bed  of  sand  at  least  10  centimetres  deep  aud  then  covered  over 
with  sand,  and  having  been  thoroughly  saturated  with  mortar,  are 
well  rammed  down.  Sometimes  cobblestones  instead  of  being  set  in  a 
bed  of  sand  are  set  in  a  bed  of  mortar. 

The  Messina  municipality's  latest  price  list  for  wages,  paving  mate- 
rials, etc.,  is  as  follows : 

Workman  (stonecutter) per  day..  $0.60 

Day  laborer do 40 

Boy do 24 

Women do 20 

Wheelbarrow  (hire  of) do 01 

One  borse,  cart,  and  driver do 1.20 

Two-wheel  ox-cart,  one  yoke  oxen,  and  driver do 1.  (>0 

Four-wheel  ox-wagon,  one  yoke  oxen,  aud  driver do 1.80 

Pack  donkey  and  driver do 30 

Pack  horse  and  driver do 60 

Broken  stones per  cubic  metre..     1.00 

Pebbles do 70 

Dressed  paving  stones per  square  metre..     2.00 

Curbstone  75  centimetres  long  by  40  by  20 per  linear  metre..     1.  00 

Rock  lime 22  pounds..       .05 

Ground  lime per  cubic  metre..     2.00 

Hydraulic  lime ....per  ton..     4.40 

Sand per  cubic  metre..       .60 

Digging  earth  and  throwing  it  an  arm's  length,  whensoilis  light do 06 

When  clay  do 11 

Cutting  through  soft  rock , do 23 

Cutting  through  hard  rock do 50 

Rolling  (including  watering)  done  by  rollers  drawn  by  oxen . .  per  square  metre . .  .02 
Chipping  pavement do 06 

In  Messini  the  streets  are  paved  with  lava  from  Mount  Etna,  which 
is  hard,  durable,  and  not  slippery  when  dressed.  The  cost  of  paving 
the  main  thoroughfares — Corso  Vittorio  Emmauuele,  Oorso  Cavour — 
over  which  the  heaviest  hauling  is  done,  is  12  francs,  or  $2.40  per  square 
metre;  side  streets,  8.50  francs,  or  $1.75  per  square  metre. 

Wallace  S.  Jones. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Messina,  January  26,  1891. 


TUSCANY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  DILLER,  OF  FLORENCE. 
STREETS  OF  FLORENCE. 

The  streets  of  Florence  are  divided  into  three  longitudinal  zones,  of 
which  one,  the  central,  is  for  wheels  and  the  two  lateral  for  sidewalks. 
The  central  part  reserved  to  wheels  is  made  in  a  convex  form,  with  a 


EUROPE — ITALY.  185 

ceuter  corresponding  to  about  one  forty-fifth  of  the  chord.  The  material 
used  for  paving  consists  of  first  quality  hard  stone,  in  rectangular 
pieces,  and  costs  12.50  lire  per  square  metre,  including  the  rubble 
work  underneath,  set  in  ordinary  lime  and  fluting  the  surface  of  the 
stone. 

The  two  zones  for  sidewalks  are  paved  with  hard  gray  stone,  con- 
sisting of  one  or  two  pieces  with  raised  heading,  0.12  metres  high,  fluted 
at  the  surface,  with  a  decline  of  0.01  metre  to  each  square  metre.  Said 
stones  fixed  in  their'place  cost  7.80  lire  per  square  metre. 

The  breadth  of  the  zones  is  established  in  proportion  to  the  breadth 
of  the  street  and  generally  three-fifths  for  wheels  and  two  fifths  for 
sidewalks. 

The  maintenance  of  a  street,  made  as  above,  costs  0.26  lire  per  year 
for  each  square  metre. 

COUNTRY  ROADWAYS. 

Country  roads  in  Tuscany  are  divided  into  national,  provincial,  com- 
munal, and  parish  roads,  each  supported  respectively  by  said  organiza- 
tions. Sometimes  adjoining  provinces  or  communes  contribute  to  the 
making  and  maintenance  of  the  same  road.  The  Italian  law,  dated 
March  20,  1865,  provides  for  the  manner  of  constructing  and  care  of 
the  different  classes  of  roads. 

The  breadth  varies  from  5  to  10  metres,  according  to  the  importance 
of  the  road  and  the  localities  placed  in  communication  thereby.  That 
portion  reserved  for  vehicles  is  usually  three-fifths  of  the  width  of  the 
road,  the  remaining  one-fifth  on  each  side,  when  practicable,  being 
reserved  for  pedestrians.  For  the  protection  of  traffic  as  well  as  of 
foot  passengers,  stone  pillars,  round,  square,  or  rectangular,  from  2  to 
3  feet  in  height  are  placed  about  4  or  5  feet  apart,  and  where  the  road- 
way is  dangerous  these  pillars  are  connected  by  a  heavy  piece  of  timber 
passing  through  them  near  the  top. 

Roadways  paved  with  hard  stone  or  granite,  broken  small,  including 
digging,  cost  about  $2.30  per  square  metre,  if  made  with  the  common 
stone  of  the  locality  in  the  same  manner,  about  $1.30  per  square  meter, 
and  the  ordinary  country  roads  not  so  much  used,  made  with  stone  and 
sand  with  a  surface  of  gravel,  cost  about  40  cents  per  square  metre. 
It  is  proper  to  mention  here  that  in  many  cases  the  roads  follow  the 
course  of  the  streams,  especially  in  the  mountain  districts,  and  such 
materials  as  river  stone,  gravel,  and  sand  are  plentiful,  hence  the  cost 
is  small  for  material. 

The  yearly  maintenance  of  highways  average  about  4  or  5  cents  per 
square  metre.  When  side  walls  are  necessary  to  protect  the  road  in 
case  of  precipices  or  river  banks,  they  are  built  of  the  stone  found  in 
the  locality,  well  cemented  with  lime  and  river  sand,  as  are  also  the 
gutters  to  carry  off  the  water. 

The  prevailing  system  for  the  maintenance  of  parish  roads  is  of  an- 


186  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

cient  date,  viz,  the  compulsory  attendance  of  all  males  over  15  years  of 
age  to  perform  free  labor  for  a  few  days  whenever  the  condition  of  the 
road  renders  such  service  necessary.  The  same  rule  holds  good  when- 
ever the  parish  authorities  agree  to  open  a  new  road. 

Isaac  E.  Diller, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Florence,  January  30, 1891. 


SICILY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  PTJQM,  6f  PALERMO. 

There  are  perhaps  few  countries  where  a  description  of  their  road  con- 
struction would  be  attended  with  the  same  unsatisfactory  and  unprofit- 
able results  as  in  Sicily.  It  is  true  that  both  city  streets  and  country 
roads  are  constructed  in  accordance  with  national  regulations,  but  the 
mannef  of  building  and  appliances  used  are  of  such  primitive  character 
as  to  make  a  detailed  account  not  only  uninteresting  but  of  no  practical 
benefit,  as  the  cost  of  street  and  road  construction  in  Sicily  would  con- 
vey but  meager  idea  of  the  cost  of  like  construction  in  the  United  States, 
both  on  account  of  the  abundance  of  materials  and  cheapness  of  labor. 

MATERIALS. 

Sicily  is  so  distinctively  an  island  of  rock  as  to  make  the  construc- 
tion of  streets  and  roads  of  any  other  material  than  stoue,  eveu  were  it 
to  be  had,  absolutely  out  of  the  question. 

The  rock  of  Sicily  is  of  two  principal  species,  one  a  limestone  abound- 
ing in  such  high  percentage  of  lime  as  that  the  numerous  crevices  and 
caves  in  the  mountains,  made  perhaps  by  volcanic  action,  are  filled 
with  nearly  pure  powdered  lime,  which  taken  from  such  receptacles 
constitutes  a  large,  important,  and  inexpensive  factor  in  road  construe 
tion  when  mixed  with  the  rock  itself,  which  is  easily  broken ;  the  other, 
a  soft  porous  rock  of  coral  and  shell  formation,  so  soft  in  fact  as  to  be 
susceptible  of  being  cut  from  the  quarries  with  ordinary  axes.  This 
latter,  while  resembling  the  softest  and  most  porous  sandstone,  also  pos- 
sesses lime  in  such  considerable  quantities  that  the  cuttings  and  easily 
crushed  smaller  pieces  form  another  important  element  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  less  important  city  streets,  that,  like  country  roads,  are  built 
of  broken  limestone  with  the  cuttings  from  this  soft  stone  spread  over 
to  obtain  a  smooth  surface. 

CITY  STREETS. 

On  account  of  the  abundance  of  limestone,  as  well  as  cheapness  of 
labor  in  preparing  it,  the  principal  streets  of  cities  are  paved  with 
solid  blocks  of  this  stone,  from  18  inches  to  2  feet  square  by  8  to  10 


EUROPE — ITALY.  187 

inches  in  thickness,  placed  on  a  concrete  bed  of  broken  stone,  lime, 
and  sand,  the  blocks  being  laid  in  mortar  for  the  purpose  of  properly 
imbedding  the  stone  and  leveling  the  surface.  The  durability  of  streets 
thus  constructed  is  so  apparent  that  comment  is  unnecessary. 

The  cost  of  paving  a  street  with  the  black  stone  as  above  mentioned 
is  15  lire  or  $3  per  square  metre.  (A  metre  is  3  feet  4  inches.)  The 
wages  paid  for  labor  is  as  follows :  To  the  stonecutters,  who  shape  and 
fit  the  blocks,  per  day  of  11  hours,  60  cents ;  to  ordinary  laborers,  same 
hours,  40  cents ;  to  boys,  who  beside  their  other  work,  cut  large  por- 
tions of  the  stone,  30  cents. 

COUNTRY  ROADS. 

Country  roads  are  constructed  wholly  of  broken  stone,  the  crude 
lime  above  mentioned  and  sand,  compressed  with  heavy  cylindrical 
stone  rollers,  this  admixture  with  the  first  rainfall  forming  a  solid  con- 
crete mass. 

The  construction  of  roads  in  this  manner  is  simplified  and  materially 
aided'  here  by  the  fact  that  the  substructure  is  solid  rock,  the  thin 
stratum  of  soil  varying  only  with  the  unevenness  of  the  underlying 
rock. 

With  the  exception  of  carting  the  larger  stone,  all  the  material  used 
in  the  construction  of  both  streets  aud  roads  is  moved  by  hand.  The 
broken  stone  and  sand  is  carried  in  baskets,  the  soil  carried  from 
place  to  place  in  the  same  manner  in  leveling  the  grade,  and  a  great 
portion  of  this  is  done  by  boys  from  13  to  18  years  of  age. 

The  cost  of  the  less  important  city  streets  and  country  roads  paved 
with  broken  stoue,  spread  superficially  with  lime,  sand,  and  rolled  as 
above  described,  is  76  cents  per  square  metre ;  country  roads,  without 
the  sand,  60  cents  ;  while  the  wages  paid  per  day  of  11  hours  is  as  fol- 
lows :  To  the  master  workmen  who  have  charge  of  grading,  leveling, 
etc.,  60  cents ;  to  common  laborers,  40  cents;  to  boys  workiugat  either, 
24  cents;  to  horse  aud  cart  for  transportation  of  unbroken  rock  and 
sand,  together  with  the  owner  who  must  load  aud  discharge  same, 
$1.20. 

TAYMENT  FOR  STREET   AND  ROAD   CONSTRUCTION. 

For  the  purpose  of  showing  the  sources  from  whence  the  expense  of 
street  and  road  construction  is  derived,  a  translation  of  those  portions 
of  the  Italian  laws  bearing  upon  the  subject  are  here  given : 

DESCRIPTION   OF  STREETS. 

Article  IX.  Common  streets  of  public  use  are  classified  into  national,  provincial, 
municipal  and  vicinal  streets. 

National  streets. 

Article  X.  National  streets  are : 

(a)  The,  long  lines  of  roads  which  in  their  course  join  directly  several  of  the  prin- 
cipal cities  of  the  kingdom  or  the  latter  with  the  nearer  first- olasa  commercial  ports. 


188  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

(h)  Those  joining  the  foregoing  with  the  long  commercial  lines  of  neighboring 
states. 

(o)  Those  having  exclusively  a  military  scope. 

Article  XL  There  cannot  be  a  national  road  between  two  points  of  territory 
joined  by  a  railroad.  When  railroads  are  opened  up  to  public  use,  running  in  the 
same  direction  as  existing  national  roads,  the  latter  shall  pass  to  the  class  of  provin- 
cial roads  at  the  beginning  of  the  immediately  subsquent  solar  year,  should  the 
opening  happen  within  the  first  half  of  the  year,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  follow- 
ing second  year  when  it  happens  in  the  second  half  of  the  year.     *     *    * 

Provincial  streets. 

Article  XIII.  Provincial  streets  are : 

(a)  The  streets  which  serve  for  the  more  direct  communication  between  the  chief 
place  of  a  province  and  those  of  neighboring  provinces. 

(fc)  Those  which  lead  from  the  chief  town  of  a  province  to  the  chief  places  of  the 
districts  into  which  it  is  divided. 

(c)  Those  joining  the  chief  towns  of  a  province  or  district  with  adjacent  most  im- 
portant maritime  ports. 

(d)  Those  which  are  known  to  be  of  great  importance  to  the  industrial,  commer- 
cial, and  agricultural  relations  of  the  province. 

Municipal  and  vicinal  streets. 

Article  XVI.  Municipal  streets  are  : 

(a)  Those  necessary  to  put  in  communication  the  greatest  number  of  inhabitants 
of  a  community  with  the  chief  places  of  the  respective  districts  and  those  of  the 
neighboring  towns.  Communities  separated  each  from  the  other  by  an  elevated 
chain  of  mountain  are  not  considered  as  being  contiguous. 

(b)  Tho  e  which  are  in  the  interior  of  inhabited  places. 

(c)  Those  which  lead  from  the  most  numerously  inhabited  places  of  a  community 
to  tho  respective  parish  churches  aud  cemeteries.     *     *     * 

(d)  Those  serving  to  unite  together  the  most  important  parts  of  a  community.     * 

Article  XIX.  All  other  streets  not  described  in  the  foregoing  category  or  subject 
to  public  use  are  vicinal,  *  *  *  and  are  liable  to  the  vigilance  of  the  municipal 
authorities. 

Article  XXII.  The  land  of  the  national  streets  is  the  property  of  the  govern- 
ment; that  of  provincial  streets  belongs  to  the  provinces,  and  that  of  municipal 
streets  appertain  to  the  municipalities.  The  following  are  considered  as  parts 
attached  to  the  streets.  *  *  *  The  lateral  ditches  which  solely  and  principally 
serve  for  the  drainage  of  the  streets,  the  causeways,  the  elevated  footpaths,  and  tli6 
art  works  of  any  kind  established  along  the  sides,  sheltering  houses  and  those  of 
street  guardians.     *     *     * 

In  the  interior  of  cities  it  is  considered  as  constituting  parts  of  the  municipal 
streets  the  squares,  spaces  and  narrow  streets  contiguous  thereto,  and  on  the  public 
lands,  the  habits,  existing  conventions,  aud  private  rights  remaining  in  full  force. 

The  branches  of  national  aud  provincial  streets  within  the  limits  of  a  city  or 
town  constitute  part  of  the  municipal  streets,  save  the  aid  by  the  government  or 
province  in  the  expenses  of  preservation  aud  betterment  as  per  article  xli  and  fol- 
lowing. 

Article  XXX.  National  streets  and  all  structures  alongside  of  the  same  to  give 
passage  to  natural  water  flows,  are  constructed,  adapted,  and  maintained  at  the 
expense  of  the  government.     *     *     * 

Article  XXXVII.  The  construction,  systemization,  and  maintenance  of  provincial 
streets  and  the  works  embellishing  them  are  made  at  the  expense  of  the  province  in 


EUROPE — HOLLAND.  189 

which  they  are  located,  or  of  two  or  more  provinces  joined  in  copartnership ,  voluntary 
or  obligatory,  in  virtne  of  law  when  snch  streets  extend  into  more  than  one  province. 

Article  XXXIX.  For  the  construction,  systemization,  and  maintenance  of  mu- 
nicipal streets,  the  respective  municipalities  provide  either  separately  or  in  copart- 
nership with  other  municipalities,  they  concurring  together  in  the  expenses  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  interest  of  each.     »    *     • 

Article  XLI.  The  systemization  and  maintenance  of  branches  of  municipal  and 
provincial  streets  comprised  within  populous  towns  or  cities,  are  to  be  supported  by 
the  respective  municipalities  under  the  technical  surveillance  of  government  or  pro- 
vincial engineers.  In  respect  to  the  maintenance  thereof  the  government  or  the 
province  gives  the  municipality  au  annual  indemnity  equal  to  the  expense  of  main- 
tenance of 'a  contiguous  branch  of  street  of  like  length  in  the  identical  condition 
outside  the  populous  places.     *    *     * 

Article  XLII.  Wheu  the  government  or  provincial  administration  thinks  the  total 
renewal  necessary  of  a  branch  of  national  or  provincial  street  comprised  within  a 
populous  place,  it,  as  far  as  the  normal  width  of  the  street,  supports  the  relative  ex- 
pense. t*    *     * 

(a)  Entirely  in  towns  having  less  than  1,000  inhabitants. 

(b)  One-half  iu  towns  having  less  than  4,000  inhabitants. 

(c)  One-fourth  in  towns  having  4,000  inhabitants  and  upward. 

Article  LI.  The  reparation  and  maintenance  of  vicinal  streets  are  supported  by 
those  who  make  use  of  them  in  going  to  their  properties  either  if  the  latter  are  or  are 
not  contiguous  to  thesame  streets,  when  by  right  or  custom  such  a  support  may  not 
be  against  determinate  properties  or  persons.  The  municipalities  could  also  be  held 
to  a  concurrent  share  in  the  repairing  expenses  of  the  more  important  vicinal  streets. 

COST   OF   MUNICIPAL   STREETS. 

The  average  cost  of  each  kilometre  of  municipal  street  is  as  follows : 

In  plain  land $400 

In  hilly  land 800 

In  mountainous  land 1,000 

The  depth  of  the  pavement  of  country  roads  varies  from  simply 
smoothing  the  surface  of  rock  over  which  the  roadway  passes  to  a  pave- 
ment of  broken  stone  6  inches  in  depth,  and  the  effect  of  such  road 
making  upon  contiguous  laud  can  not  be  estimated,  as  there  is  neither 
a  market  for  nor  sale  of  farming  lauds  iu  Sicily. 

Horace  O.  Pugh, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Palermo,  Italy. 


HOLLAND. 
ROTTERDAM   AND   SCHIEDAM. 

RETORT  BY  CONSUL  (JARDSER. 
ROTTERDAM. 

The  materials  employed  for  street  paving  in  Rotterdam  are  bricks  of 
clay,  bricks  of  scoria  or  slag,  and  blocks  of  limestone  and  porphyry. 
The  clay  bricks  are  manufactured  iu  the  Netherlands,  aloug  the  river 


190  STREETS   AND   HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

de  Waal ;  the  scoria  bricks  by  the  Tees  Scoria  Brick  Company,  of  Mid- 
dleborough-on-Tees  (England);  while  the  limestone  and  porphyry  come 
from  Belgium,  and  are  cut  in  blocks  at  the  quarries. 

The  uniform  and  only  paving  foundation  in  Rotterdam  is  a  bed  of 
sand,  carefully  packed ;  and  the  thickness  or  depth  of  pavement  upon 
this  bed  is  as  follows,:  Clay  bricks,  4£  inches;  scoria  bricks,  5  inches; 
limestone  and  porphyry,  6  inches.  "  The  underlying  soil  there,  as  in 
other  Netherlands  cities,"  says  the  adjunct  director  of  public  works  in 
Rotterdam,  "  presents  great  difficulties  in  the  way  of  a  level  pavement 
surface,  being  for  the  most  part  formed  of  sand  and  turf  unevenly  com- 
pressed, and  affording  but  indifferent  subfoundation  for  heavy  traffic." 
Nevertheless,  the  pavements  in  Rotterdam  are,  despite  the  difficulty 
here  cited,  remarkably  well  maiutained. 

The  average  cost  to  the  city  for  its  clay-brick  pavement  is  62£  cents 
(American)  per  square  yard;  for  limestone,  62£  to  $1.25  per* square 
yard ;  for  porphyry  $1.56  and  for  scoria  brick  $1.25  per  square  yard- 
all  put  down.  The  original  work  of  paving,  and  the  work  of  main- 
taining pavements,  is  at  the  expense  of  the  municipality,  and  is  done 
by  workmen  in  the  city's  employ.  The  original  cost  of  streets  is  at  the 
charge  of  private  owners  only  when  at  their  option  streets  are  opened 
through  their  own  property  with  the  view  to  increase  valuations.  In 
such  case,  the  streets  being  properly  made,  are  accepted  by  the  city, 
and  thereafter  maintained  at  the  city  expense. 

As  to  the  average  duration  of  the  different  varieties  of  pavement 
employed,  the  city  officers  of  Rotterdam  are  unable  to  give  authoritative 
information,  and  are  also  unable  to  state  with  accuracy  the  total  mileage 
of  paved  streets  or  the  proportion  of  each  pavement  in  use. 

The  present  average  cost  to  Rotterdam  (population,  210,000)  for  main- 
taining and  extending  its  paved  thoroughfares  is  $40,000  per  year. 
Ten  years  ago  the  average  annual  cost  was  $32,000. 

Asked,  "  which  pavement,  in  view  of  the  experience  of  Rotterdam, 
does  the  public  works  department  deem  to  be  the  best  and  most  eco- 
nomical for  light  traffic  and  heavy  traffic,  respectively?"  the  adjunct 
director  replied,  "  for  light  traffic,  our  Netherlands  brick ;  for  medium 
traffic,  Scoria  bricks  and  the  best  kinds  of  limestone ;  for  heavy  traffic, 
paving  blocks  of  porphyry." 

Rotterdam  streets,  it  is  to  be  added,  are  built  for  heavy  teaming; 
there  is  almost  no  driving  for  pleasure.  The  din  of  traffic  over  the  un- 
yielding stones  is  ceaseless  and  distracting.  Rotterdam  pavements 
are  possibly  the  best  for  the  needs  of  this  always  busy,  always  toiliug 
city.  But,  on  the  whole,  even  in  the  judgment  of  many  of  the  good 
people  of  Rotterdam,  their  street-pavement  system  is,  for  other  cities, 
a  very  good  system  to  avoid. 


EUROPE — HOLLAND.  101 

SCHIEDAM. 

This  city  (population  26,000)  employs  in  its  street  making,  river  sand, 
clay  brick,  and  granite.  The  brick  are  of  Netherlands  manufacture; 
the  granite  comes  (cut  in  blocks)  from  Belgian  quarries.  No  artificial 
stone  is  used. 

Upon  its  sand  foundation  the  brick  pavement  of  Schiedam  is  4£ 
inches  depth ;  the  granite,  5-^  inches.  The  former  costs,  put  down, 
on  the  average,  58  cents  (American),  and  the  latter  $1.50  per  square 
yard.  Only  small  side  streets  and  the  sidewalks  of  principal  streets  are 
brick-paved,  granite  being  used  for  the  roadways  of  all  main  streets. 

^11  original  work  and  all  work  of  maintaining  the  streets  is  done 
under  the  authority  and  at  the  expense  of  the  city,  by  city  employe's. 
The  present  average  annual  cost  of  street  maintenance  in  Schiedam  is 
$5,200. 

Walter  E.  Gardner, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Rotterdam,  Netherlands,  January  27,  1891. 


NETHERLANDS   PUBLIC   ROADWAYS. 

[Translation  of  notes  relating  to  Netherlands  public  roadways,  furnished  by  the 
honorable  secretary-general  of  the  Netherlands  department  of  publio  works.] 

[Inclosure  in  Consul  Gardner's  Report.] 

The  general  system  of  dikes  in  the  Netherlands  is  not  created  and  maintained  at 
the  expense  of  the  national  treasury.  There  are,  however,  some  dikes  thus  maintained, 
in  pursuance  of  early  conditions,  or  agreements  entered  into  with  a  view  to  the  gen- 
eral interest,  or  because  of  the  utter  inability  of  persons  or  communities  to  protect 
themselves.  The  general  rule  of  the  Netherlands  is  that  dikes  are  at  the  expense  of 
those  whose  property  is  protected  by  the  dikes.. 

The  public  roadways  over  the  dikes  are  usually  at  the  expense  of  the  several 
provinces,  communities,  or  "  polders  "  (drained  lakes)  benefited.  Only  in  certain  cases 
are  some  parts  of  these  roadways  at  the  expense  of  the  General  Government,  for  the 
same  reason  as  is  given  above  for  the  Government  maintenance  of  certain  portions  of 
the  dikes.  By  royal  decree,  however,  a  network  of  roads  is  assigned  to  be  main- 
tained by  the  Government,  being  so  arranged  that  unhindered  communication  be- 
tween the  different  parts  of  the  country  and  with  adjacent  countries  is  secured. 

The  materials*  of  which  these  roadways  in  the  Netherlands  are  constructed  are : 
(1)  natural  stone;  (2)  bricks;  (3)  gravel,  or  broken  bricks;  the  material  employed 
differing  according  as  the  ordinary  traffic  is  heavy  or  light.  The  natural  stone  is 
used  and  recommended  for  the  heaviest  traffic,  the  bricks  and  gravel  for  lighter 
weights. 

Including  a  sand  bed  of  0.20  to  0.30  metre  deep,  in  which  the  bricks  or  natural 
stones  are  put  down,  the  cost  per  square  metre  for  road  making  is  as  follows  :  Natural 
stone,  3  to  G  florins  ($1.20  to  $2.40);  bricks,  1.50  to  1.75  florins  (GO  to  70  cents); 
gravel,  1  to  1.50  florins  (40  to  60  cents). 

The  price  greatly  depends  upon  the  cost  of  transportation  of  the  material  used ; 
the  natural  stone,  for  example,  all  being  brought  from  foreign  countries,  at  heavy 
outlay  for  freight.  The  prices  above  quoted  do  not  include  the  expense  of  making 
the8ub  or  earthen  roadway.     The  average  depth  of  the  road   pavements,  including 


192  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

the  roadbed,  is :  For  natural  stone  roads,  0.40  to  0.50  metre ;  for  brick  roads,  0.30  to 
0.40  metre  ;  for  gravel  roads  (without  sand  bed),  0.20  to  0.25  metre.  In  many  parts 
of  the  Netherlands  a  sand  ground  is  found,  and  in  such  localities  no  special  sand  bed 
is  required ;  but  in  all  other  cases  (gravel  roads  excepted)  the  sand  bed  is  uniformly 
made. 

It  is  provided  in  the  constitutional  law  that  the  King  [the  Queen  regent]  shall  have 
supervision  of  all  matters  relating  to  "  waterstaat,"  thus  also  including  the  dike 
roadways;  while  the  law  also  provides  that  the  provincial  states  respectively  are  to 
be  charged  with  the  adequate  supervision  of  all  public  roadways  within  their  own 
limits. 

The  artificial  roadways  over  the  Netherlands  dikes  are  for  the  most  part  gravel 
roads,  the  cost  of  construction  of  which  has  been  already  stated.  The  total  length  of 
roadwaysin  this  country  maintained  by  the  Government  is  1,983.696  kilometres.  This 
figure  does  not  include  roads  running  alongside  of  canals  or  over  Government  dikes. 
As  to  the  expense  for  yearly  maintenance  see  Exhibit  A  hereto  attached,  stating  tho 
cost  for  the  last  8  years.  The  cost  of  maintenance  of  each  kind  of  roadway  can  not 
be  given,  as  such  cost  is  not  separately  specified  in  the  contracts,  which  are  usually 
made  for  3  years. 

The  influence  of  the  steady  improvement  of  roadways  in  the  Netherlands  upon  the 
value  of  real  property  is  not  easily  stated  in  figures,  as  there  are  many  other  modify- 
ing conditions.  In  general  and  naturally  it  can  be  said  such  influence  is  very  im- 
portant. 

Finally  it  is  to  be  mentioned  that  several  principal  roadways  have  been  and  still 
are  made  and  maintained  by  the  various  provinces  with  subsidies  from  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  Netherlands,  and  by  various  towns  with  subsidies  granted  by  the"prov 
inces. 


Exhibit  A. 

Cost  of  maintenance  and  improvements  of  the  great  Government  roadways  in  the  Neih< 

lands. 

[One  florin,  40.2  cents,  American.] 


Ordinary  maintenance. 

1882. 

1883. 

1881. 

1885. 

1886. 

1887. 

1888. 

1889. 

Florins. 
CO,  211 

155,  907 
85,  872 
62,  517 
25,  767 
61,071 
54,  230 
88,  246 
36,  577 
18,  981 
43,  585 

Florins. 
58,  883 
150,  780 
103,  8-".9 
60,  286 
23,  329 
7C,  342 
51,041 
87,  962 
29,  776 
19,  939 
43,  585 

Florins. 
59,  023 
151,795 
108,000 
59,  456 
23,  554 
68,101 
51,  969 
87,  552 
33,  977 
18,  997 
43,  585 

Florins. 
59,013 
146,  600 
95,  764 
53,  760 
23,  568 
61,818 
52,  250 
94,  009 
47,  247 
20,  570 
43,  585 

Florins. 
63,  520 

147,814 
89.  750 
54,  351 
20,  905 
63,  800 
46,  002 
94,  009 
31,  776 
20,  570 
44,  386 

Florins. 

59, 152 
147,  877 

9.1,  154 

53,  923 
21,  897 

54,  928 
42,  700 
94,009 
29,  196 
21,  900 
44,  386 

Florins. 
57,  636 

124, 130 
86,  955 
84, 431 
30,  859 
51,  554 
45,  160 
98,  696 
16,071 
21,939 
44,  380 

Florins. 
G4.  285 

125,  092 

83,  340 

48,  971 

20,  654 

53, 951 

Friesland 

Overvssel  

41,359 

88,  258 
15,587 

18,  X67 

43,  272 

Province. 

Improvements. 

.1882. 

1883. 

1884. 

1885. 

1886. 

1887. 

1888. 

1889. 

Florins. 
45, 057 
24,011 

20,  908 
870 

Florins. 
35,0i0 
21.027 
10,  993 

Florins. 
32,  828 
21,748 
13,  547 

Florins. 
21,  725 
11,891 

Florins. 
16,  814 
3,821 

Florins. 

19,  935 

814 

8,860 

Florins. 
18,117 
11,  617 

Florins. 
1,456 

4,601 

4,422 

650 

416 

553 

624 

161 

13,112 

15,617 

31,778 

302 

4, 1X7 

548 

30,  667 

29,  799 

1.995 

9,  :;tg 

5,126 
29,  874 

17,  776 

4,581 
18,  024 
13,619 

5,770 
20, 216 
13,  252 

731 
23,  085 
6,  550 

1,022 

Oven  ssi'l 

16,  033 
1,  29  I 

27,  107 
82 

8;  B3§ 

10,  949 

10,  398 

14, 454 

12,047 

7,  538 

EUROPE — RUSSIA.  193 

RUSSIA. 

REPORT  BY  OONSU1  -GENERAL  CRAWFORD.  OF  ST.  PETERSBTJRO. 

The  streets  aud  roadways  of  Russia  are  in  a  very  primitive  condition, 
and  every  year  some  new  method  is  introduced  from  abroad  looking 
toward  the  betterment  of  streets  aud  highways. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  anything  definite  about  the  price  of  repairing  the 
streets  iu  the  city,  because  this  is  done  at  the  exiien.se  of  proprietors, 
under  private  contracts,  which  show  a  great  variation  in  prices  and  in 
methods. 

The  roads  in  Russia  can  be  divided  into  three  distiuct  categories,  as 
follows:  First,  the  highways;  second,  the  roads  in  the  suburbs  of  the 
city ;  third,  the  streets  in  the  city  itself. 

HIGHWAYS. 

The  highways  are  the  work  of  the  ministry  of  ways  and  communica- 
tions, and  are  made  and  maintained  at  the  expense  of  the  Government, 
no  special  tax  being  levied  for  this  purpose.  Toll-bars  exist  only  on 
the  eastern  Siberian  highway,  or  Sibirsky  Tract,  by  which  most  of  the 
tea  is  imported  from  China  into  Russia,  coming  through  the  Irkoutsk 
custom-house.  There  the  peasants,  who  make  a  regular  business  of 
carrying  these  goods  to  and  from  Russia,  pay  a  certain  tax  per  horse 
or  wagon,  and  although  this  toll  is  very  small  it  is  more  than  sufficient 
to  maintain  the  road  in  good  order  and  the  surplus  goes  towards  mak- 
ing new  roads  in  Siberia. 

Each  province  in  Russia  has  its  own  management  or  zemstro,  which 
receives  taxes,  expends  such  sums  of  money  as  have  been  allowed,  and 
renders  full  statement  of  the  general  affairs  to  the  different  ministries. 

In  this  manner,  when  there  is  a  surplus  in  any  province  it  is  not 
turned  over  to  the  Government,  but  is  used  for  the  public  improvement 
of  the  province.  Thus  these  provinces  levy  no  tax  for  the  roads,  and 
it  follows  that  the  Government  grants  them  certain  monetary  beuefits. 

In  some  parts  of  the  Empire,  in  the  Crimea  for  instance,  the  roads 
are  naturally  very  good,  but  this  can  not  be  said  of  all  the  provinces, 
for  in  the  provinces  of  Tamboff,  Saratoff,  Kharkow,  Biazan,  Novgarod, 
the  roads  are  very  bad,  and  apart  from  putting  wooden  bridges  where  ab- 
solutely necessary,  and  posts  in  the  ground  every  10  or  15  yards  to  indi- 
cate that  it  is  the  highway,  nothing  is  done  for  their  maintenance. 
Horses  run  in  lfoot  of  dust  in  dry  weather,  and  are  up  to  their  knees 
in  mud  during  wet  weather,  while  all  communication  ceases  in  autumn 
and  spring,  and  this  is  the  reason  why  all  traffic  or  business  in  Russia 
is  done  in  winter  with  sleighs. 

During  summer  all  the  principal  cities  which  have  railroad  commu- 
nication make  their  supplies,  and  can  Ollly gel  rid  of  them  in  winter, 
;ind  even  then  nature  must  provide  them  with  plant y  of  snow  and  I  rust, 
33  A 13 


194  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

otherwise  the  country  is  in  distress.  Such  are  the  circumstances  which 
attend  highways.  It  cau  therefore  be  said  that  only  such  highways 
exist  iu  Russia  which  have  been  built  by  the  ministry  of  ways  aud 
communications  aud  which  are  under  its  supervision,  and  I  do  not 
know  of  any  besides  the  Siberian  tract  and  the  highway,  built  a  few 
years  ago,  from  the  Yalta  to  Symferopol,  along  the  littoral  of  the  Black 
Sea,  in  the  province  of  Tauride,'  known  as  the  Crimea. 

SUBURBAN  ROADS. 

The  roads  in  the  environs  of  a  city  are  maintained  entirely  at  the 
expense  of  the  town.  Their  maintenance  is  given  out  under  contracts, 
a  definite  sum  being  allowed  per  verst,  and  no  tax  is  levied  for  this 
purpose.  The  roads  are  made  of  crushed  cobblestones,  which  are 
placed  about  1  foot  deep  along  the  road  and  beaten  into  a  solid  mass 
with  sand-earth  by  the  use  of  a  heavy  roller  moved  by  horse  power. 
Some  other  roads  in  the  suburbs  are  made  in  the  same  manner  as  those 
iu  the  city,  namely,  of  cobblestoues,  hammered  into  the  ground,  as  near 
to  each  other  as  possible,  the  spaces  left  open  by  the  shape  of  the  stone 
is  filled  up  with  sand  and  little  bits  of  stone,  which  are  brushed  over, 
and  the  whole  is  beaten  down  by  the  aid  of  hand-rammers.  This  pave^ 
ment  costs  about  $2  per  square  fathom. 

CITY  STREETS. 

The  third  category  comprises  the  streets  and  roads  within  the  city 
boundary.  These  are  maintained  iu  good  condition  by  the  house  pro- 
prietors. There  are  four  methods  employed,  the  most  commou  being 
the  use  of  cobblestones  as  above  described.  Then  comes  the  wooden 
pavement,  which  is  made  as  follows :  The  ground  or  basis  is  well  beaten 
in  and  when  level  two  side  planks  are  firmly  fixed  in  the  space  which  is 
to  be  paved  and  are  maintained  upright  by  the  interception  of  boards 
which  are  put  down  on  the  ground  as  a  floor.  This  floor  is  well  tarred, 
and  then  the  wooden  cubes  are  placed  in,  pinned  together  with  nails  or 
wooden  pegs. 

This  system  costs  $3.50  per  square  fathcfin.  This  includes  both  ma- 
terial and  hand  labor. 

This  system  has  been  tested  iu  a  new  form  as  a  trial.  The  wooden 
blocks  were  in  the  shape  of  bricks,  and  had  been  left  to  moisten  iu  a 
certain  ehemical  preparation,  which  prevents  the  wood  from  rotting ; 
the  bricks,  instead  of  being  pinned  one  to  the  other,  are  affixed  with 
cement.  This  means  was  introduced  for  the  first  time  last  year  by  some 
French  engineers,  and  it  is  said  that  such  a  street  will  last  3  years ;  al- 
though somewhat  more  expensive  than  the  ordinary  pavement,  still,  if 
it  should  prove  to  endure  the  rigorous  winter  frost  it  will  be  largely 
adopted  iu  Russia,  where  the  roads  have  to  be  repaired  each  summer. 

I  might  say  here  that  wheu  Alexander  Dumas,  the  French  author, 
returned  from  Russia,  which  he  had  been  visitiug,  he  was  asked  how 


EUROPE — SPAIN.  195 

he  had  found  the  streets  and  roads,  to  which  he  answered  that  he  had 
scarcely  seen  any,  inasmuch  as  during  the  winter  season  they  were  cov- 
ered with  snow,  and  during  the  summer  they  were  in  process  of 
repair. 

Although  the  above  may  seem  an  anecdote,  yet  it  represents  a  truth  > 
for  as  soon  as  spring  sets  in  all  the  principal  streets  are  put  under  re- 
pairs, while  the  less  important  are  repaired  later  iu  the  season. 

Asphalt  is  very  little  used  for  street  pavement.  Only  two  streets  of 
little  thoroughfare  are  paved  with  asphalt,  and  it  has  proved  a  failure 
for  the  contractors. 

Two  long  streets  of  this  capital  were  paved  two  years  ago  with  blocks 
of  hard  stone,  such  as  the  streets  of  Paris  and  London,  and  although 
this  process  turned  out  very  expensive, it  is  hoped  to  be  cheaper  iu  the 
end,  especially  so  if  it  does  not  require  to  be  repaired  this  year. 

In  some  of  the  principal  streets  the  wooden  pavement  is  made  obliga- 
tory,and  any  proprietor  who  refuses  to  coucede  to  the  ruling  is  promptly 
fined,  and  the  work  done  by  the  municipal  authorities  at  his  expense. 

J.  M.  Crawford, 

Consul-  General. 

United  States  Consulate-General, 

St.  Petersburg,  March  21,  1891. 


SPAIN. 


REPORT  BY  CONSUL  TURNER,  OF  CADIZ. 
ROMAN   ROADS   IN   SPAIN. 

Since  mankind  constructed  society  and  became  distributed  over 
countries  roads  have  been  necessary.  From  the  time  of  Moses  there 
have  been  royal  roads.  First  the  Egyptians,  afterwards  the  Israelites, 
and  then  the  Greeks  called  their  lines  of  travel  that  were  not  used  for 
special  purposes  royal  roads,  or  the  king's  highways.  In  Greece  the 
royal  roads  were  inspected  and  cared  for  by  the  Senate  at  Athens.  In 
Lacedemonia,  Thebes,  and  other  states  they  were  under  the  supervision 
of  the  most  eminent  men.  Their  roads,  however,  were  not  the  best  of 
the  ancients.  It  was  reserved  for  a  commercial  city,  Carthage,  to  build 
the  first  paved  roads. 

The  Romans  followed  the  example  of  the  Carthaginians,  and  their 
great  highways,  which  connected  Home  with  its  provinces  were  the 
most  renowned  and  durable  ever  constructed.  All  over  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa,  wherever  their  emperors  ruled,  they  built  roads  that  have 
been  supposed,  by  the  vulgar  of  different  ages,  to  have  been  of  super- 
.natural  origin.  This  is  attested  by  the  names  applied  to  them  in  Italy, 
England,  France,  and  Spain.  In  the  hist  mentioned  they  have  been 
known  by  such  appellations  as  Calzada  del  diablo  (road  of  the  devil), 
C'alzada  do  las  gigantes  (road  of  the  giants),  etc. 

According  to  St.  Isidoro,  the  first  paved  roads  of  Spain  were  built  by 


196  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

the  Carthaginians,  and  the  same  authority  states  that  the  Phoenicians 
opened  (and  left  to  their  successors)  a  road  across  the  Pyrenees  and 
the  Alps  many  centuries  before  the  Christain  era. 

The  most  ancient  Roman  road  outside  of  Italy  was  in  Spain,  and  led 
from  Cartagena  to  the  Pyrenees,  where  it  connected  with  others  that 
led  across  the  Alps  to  Rome.  This  road  was  traveled  by  the  legions  of 
Scipio  the  Less.  The  reign  of  Augustus  is  renowned  for  the  roads  then 
completed.  This  emperor  made  the  system  of  communication  so  com- 
plete that  little  else  was  left  for  his  successors  to  do  than  to  care  for 
the  roads  already  constructed.  Of  his  successors  Trajanus  was  the 
most  zealous,  as  is  shown  by  various  inscriptions  found  in  Spain,  in  pre- 
serving the  public  highways  and  in  constructing  others.  His  example 
was  followed  by  Adrian,  Lucius,  and  others,  but  afterwards  the  author- 
ity of  the  emperors  decayed  and  little  care  was  given  to  distant  public 
works.  The  removal  of  the  court"  to  Byzantine  by  Constantine  com- 
pleted the  abandonment  of  road  building,  and  was  the  beginning  of  the 
ruin  of  that  magnificent  system  of  highways  that  laced  Rome  to  its 
most  distant  provinces.  The  Romans  divided  their  roads  into  military 
highways,  called  also  consular  or  pretorian  thoroughfares,  and  local  vias. 
The  first  were  built  to  facilitate  the  marching  of  armies  and  to  connect 
the  capital  with  the  principal  cities  and  strategic  points.  They  were 
constructed  and  kept  in  repair  by  the  imperial  government.  The  sec- 
ond were  the  routes  of  commerce  and  connected  towns  and  trade  cen- 
ters,  and  were  constructed  to  facilitate  the  relations  and  intercourse  of 
traffic.    They  were  built  and  maintained  by  municipal  governments. 

These  highways  were  pavements  firmly  aud  simply  leveled,  and  of 
such  solidity  that  reinuants  of  those  of  the  first  class  are  still  found  in 
a  state  of  fair  preservation  in  various  countries.  They  were  generally 
narrow,  being  from  4  to  6  meters  in  width,  aud  constructed  as  follows: 

The  road-bed  was  excavated,  and  iu  it  was  first  placed  a  layer  of 
stones.  The  stones  of  this  bottom  layer  were  sometimes  united  with 
mortar.  Over  it  was  placed  a  strat  a  of  plaster  made  of  stone  or  brick 
pounded  with  mortar.  This  was  followed  by  another  of  sand  aud  lime 
or  sand  and  earthenware  clay,  which,  like  its  predecessors,  was  pounded 
and  leveled  with  great  force.  The  top  was  made  of  irregular  stones 
united  with  cement.  The  road  formed  a  pronounced  curve  between 
strongly  made  curbs,  which  at  regular  distances  were  elevated  to  serve 
as  stiles  for  the  mounting  aud  dismounting  of  horses.  All  roads  were 
supplied  with  mile-posts,  the  Roman  mile  being  approximately  equal 
to  1£  kilometers. 

At  a  distance  of  about  30  miles  apart  on  the  principal  routes  the  Ro- 
mans established  a  series  of  stations  called  mansiones.  Each  of  these 
mansiones  was  supplied  with  40  horses  and  carts,  oxen  and  pack-mules 
necessary  for  the  tra  nsportation  of  baggage  and  other  effects.  Mid 
way  between  the  mansiones  were  smaller  stations  called  mutationes, 
where  only  20  horses,  etc.,  were  kept.  An  ancient  document,  said  to 
be  the  Itinerary  of  Antoninus  Augustus  Caracalla,  shows  the  total 


EUROPE SPAIN. 


197 


number  of  imperial  or  military  highways  to  be  372,  of  which  only  34 
belonged  to  the  province  ofHispania,  which  is  to-day  known  as  Spain 
and  Portugal.  The  total  mileage  of  these  M  roads  was  G,926.  Accord- 
ing to  Coello,  who  collected  data  relating  to  the  Roman  roads  of  Spain, 
there  were  20,000  miles  constructed.  He,  of  course,  includes  commercial 
routes,  of  which  the  itinerary  referred  to  makes  no  mention.  These 
roads  were  undoubtedly  numerous.  They  are  often  referred  to  in  the 
writings  of  Pliny  and  other  historians. 

Although  the  Itinerary  of  Antoninus  Augustus  Caracalla  can  not  be 
accepted  as  a  complete  plan  of  the  military  roads  of  Rome,  it  is  certain 
that  it  includes  the  most  important,  and  is  very  useful  in  the  study  of 
Roman  highways.  For  that  reason  I  herewith  present  that  part  of  it 
which  refers  to  the  Roman  roads  of  Spain. 

It  shows  the  Roman  names  of  the  mansiones  and  the  modern  names 
by  which  their  ancient  sites  are  known  to-day.  The  mileage  is  also 
shown. 

Eomanroads  of  Spain  accotding  to  the  itinerary  of  Antonino  Augusto  Caracalla. 
1.  ROAD  FROM  ITALY  TO  SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL. 


Ancient  name  of  mansions. 


Present  name  of  ancient  sites  of  mansions. 


Summo  Pyreneo 

Deciana 

Juncaria 

Cinuiana 

Gerunda  

A  quia  voconia 

Sece  ras    

Praetorio 

Seiuproniana 

Arragone  

Barcinone 

Fines  

Antistiana 

Stabulo  novo 

Palfuriana 

Sairagone 

Ad  septimum  decimnm 

Ad  novas 

gerda 

Mendiculcia 

Tolous  

Caum  

Pertusa 

Osca 

Bortinae 

Gallicum 

Caesar  Augusta 

Allobone 

Balsione 

Cascanto 

Gracur  ria 

Calagurra '. 

Barbariana 

Vercla 

Tritio  

Antiliana  

Libia  

Segasamunclo 

Verovesca 

Tritium 

Deobrigula 

Segisamone 

Des^obriga 

Lacobi  i  l'ii 

Viininacio 

^Camala 

Palantia 

Lance 

Ad  Legionem  vii  Gominam 


Coll  do  Pertus  . 

Jnngnera 

Figueras 


Gerona  

Cables  de  Malavella 

Hostalrich 

Llinas  .., 

La  Roca  


Barcelona 

Cerca  del  Castillo  de  i 

Junto  a  Moryos 

Castelluou 

Alo  del  aico  de  Bara. 

Tarragona 

Vilavert 

Vinaixa 

Lerida 

Cerca  do  Algayon 

Monzon 


Pertusa 

H  in  sea 

Llano  deViolada. 
Cerca  de  Zucra... 


Alagon 

Cercade  Mallen 

Cascanto 

Cerca  deCorella 

Calahorra  

Junto  a  Agoncillo 

Varea,  cerca  de  Logrono 

Kodilla 

La     Inula 

Cerca  de  Leiba  

Cerezo  de  Bio  liron 

Bribiesca 

Kodilla 

Rabe  de  las  Calzadas. 

Sasamoo 

i  .1  ca  de  <  toorno    

Cerca  de  Carrion  de  loa  Condea. 

Dcspoblado  de  Pozanova 

[ninediaeiones  de  Sabagan 

Hacia  Reliegos 

Cei  ro  de  Lancia. 

Leon  


198 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Roman  roads  of  Spain  according  to  the  itinerary  of  Antonino  Augusto  Caracalla— Cont'd, 
2.  ROAD  FROM  ITALY  TO  SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL  VIA  NARBONA.* 


Ancient  name  of  mansions. 


Present  name  of  ancient  sites  of  mansions. 


Ildum   

Bechi 

24 

22 

Parlutadel  Toy 

22 

Adello 

Ilici 

Viniolis 

ROAD  FROM  CORDOBA  TO  CASTULO. 


4.  ANOTHER  ROAD  FROM  CORDOBA  TO  CASTULO. 


18 
32 

5.  ROAD  FROM  CASTULO  TO  MALAGA. 


Tusia  

Traxinum 

16 

Alba .UP. 

'  The  same  road  as  No.  1  as  far  as  Tarragona. 


EUROPE — SPAIN. 


199 


Roman  roads  of  Spain  according  io  the  itinerary  of  Antonio  Auf/uato  Caracalla-  -Cont'd. 
6.  ROAD  FROM  MALAGA  TO  CADIZ. 


Ancient  name  of  mansions. 


Present  name  of  ancient  sites  of  mansions.       Miles. 


Mnlaea 

Buel 

Cilmana 

Barbarians  — 
Calpe  oartiam.. 

Porta  A) bo 

Mellaria 

Bellone  clandia 

Besippone , 

Mergablo   

Adherculem  ... 
Gades 


Malaga 

Valdesnel 

Torre de  las  B6vedas  ... 

V<'ni;i  de  guadiaro 

Tone  de  Cartagena 

Algeoiras 

Near  to  Tarifa  

Despoblado  de  Bolonia. . 

Cc  rca  de  Barbate 

Cnnil    

Castillo  de  Sancti  Petri . 
Cadiz 


7.  ROAD  FROM  CADIZ  TO  CORDOBA. 


Gades 

Adpontera 
Ad  po;  turn 

Asta 

TJgia 

Oiippo 

Hispali 

Basilippo.. 

Carula 

Ilipa 

Ostippo.... 

Barba  

Antiearia  . 
Angellaa... 

Ipajiro 

Ulia 

Corduba  .. 


Cadiz 

Puentode  Zuazo. 

Puerto  <le  Santa  Maria 
Despoblado  de  Mesa  de  Asta  . 

Cabezas  de  San  Juan  

Turn-  de  los  Herbeios  

Sevilla   

Cerro  del  Cincbo 

Puebla  de  Cazalla 

,Ceri  o  de  Repla 

Despoblado  de  Tebala  Viceja. 

Cerca  de  la  Pizarva 

Antegncra 

Castil  Azul 

Deliesa  de  los  Moriles 

Montexmayor 

Cordoba 


8.  ROAD  FROM  SEVILLA  TO  CORDOBA. 


li 

Car 

f»hi  on\i 

42 

A  afl 

Ecja               

16 

AH  1  ~       " 

12 

24 

9.  ROAD  FROM  SEVILLA  TO  SAXTA  PO:N"CE. 


Sevilla 

Santa  Ponce 


10.  ROAD  FROM  SEVILLA  TO  MERIDA. 


Celti    

Aldea  de  las  Navaa 



27 

41 

V  'r  inna 

P 

11.  ROAD  FROM  CORDOBA  TO  EMKKITA. 


Corduba 

Mellaria 

Arti-i  

McltellillUtU 

Eiuerita 


Cordoba 

Cerro  de]  Castell  >. .  .. 
Despoblado  de  Argall 

Me.lellin  

Merlda 


1  It  is  the  same  road  as  No,  8  as  far  as  Asti^i. 


200 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Roman  roads  of  Spain  according  to  the  itinerary  of  Antonino  Augusto  Caracalla— Cont'd. 
12.  ROAD  FROM  OBISPO  TO  EMERITA. 


Ancient  name  of  mansions. 

Present  name  of  ancient  sites  of  mansions. 

Milt,*. 

V          1 

fw''l  !•• 

O          l'"a 

Malateca 

16 

12 

44 

17 

9 

13.  ROAD   FROM  SALACIA  TO  OSSONOBA. 


14.  ROAD  FROM  OLISIPO  TO  EMERITA.' 


38 

28 

8 

30 

15.  ANOTHER  ROAD  FROM  OLISIPO  TO  EMERITA. 


Olisipone 

Jerabriga 

Scalabin 

Tubucci 

Fraxinnra 

Mundobriga 

Ad  Septem  Aras 

Flagei  aria 

Emerita 


Lisboa 

Villafranca  de  Jira 

Santarem 

A  league  from  Abrantes  

Bi-twoen  Gafote  and  Oastelho  da  Vide. 

Rninas  de  San  Anton 

Near  Albuquerque 

Despoblado  de  la  Matanza 

Merida 


16.  ROAD  FROM  OLISIPO  TO  BRACARA  AUGUSTA. 


30 

17.  ROAD  FROM  BRACARA  TO  ASTURICA. 


Bra- 

A  sella                                                     " 

20 

Despoblado  de  Sansuena 

Dierent  from  No.  12. 


EUROPE — SPAIN.  201 

Roman  roads  of  Spain  according  to  the  itinerary  of  Antonio  Augnsto  Caracalla— Cont'd. 
18.  ANOTHER  ROAD  FROM  BRACARA  TO  ASTURICA. 


Ancient  name  of  mansions. 

Present  name  of  ancient  sites  of  mansions. 

Miles. 

Braeara -.. 

Braga 

21 
18 
14 
16 
13 
18 

Tidira      . 

Nemitouriga 

19 
18 
18 
20 
30 

Near  CJ-estoso 

RoinaadelBiargo 

Onaniiol 

19.  ANOTHER  ROAD  FROM  BRACARA  TO  ASTURICA. 


19 

Burbida 

12 

Mellid  . . . 

22 

ROAD  BY  THE  COAST  OF  BRACARA  TO  ASTURICA. 


Betanzaa 

21.  ROAD  FROM  ESCERI  TO  PAX  TULIA. 


16 

ia 

20 
25 
36 

Serpa  

*  Stadia. 

tFroin  here  continues  the  road  No.  13  as  far  i 


Salacia,  and  according  to  the  road  No.  12  to  Ebora. 


202  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Roman  roads  of  Spain  according  to  the  itinerary  of  Antonino  Augusto  Caracalla— Cont'd. 
22.  ROAD  FROM  ESURI  TO  CASTROMARIN. 


Ancient  name  of  mansions. 

Present  names  of  ancient  sites  of  mansions. 

Miles. 

40 

36 

1 

23.  ROAD  FROM  OSTIA  FLUM1NIS  AN*  AYAMONTE. 


Presidio 

Ail  rubras 

Onoba  

Illpla 

Tucci 

Italica 

Mouie  Mariorum 

Curiga 

Coutributa 

Perceiana 

Emerita 


Villanueva  de  los  Castillejos 

Cabezaa  rubias 

Huelva 

Niebla 

Ruinas  de  Tejada 

Santi  ponce 

Puerto  Moral    

To  the  south  of  Monasterio 

Between  Medina  ile  las  Tones  and  Calzadilla 

Villat'rauca  de  los  Barros 

Merida 


24.  ROAD  FROM  EMERITA  TO  CESAR  AUGUSTA. 


Emerita 

Ad  sorores 

Castris  caeeili 

Tuimulos 

Rustic  ana 

Capara 

Oasoilio  Vico 

Ad  lippos 

Sentice  

Salinautice 

Sabariam 

OceloDurf 

Albocela 

Amallobriga , 

Septiruanea . 

Nivaria 

Cauca 

Segovia 

Miacum 

Titulciam 

Complutum 

Arnaca 

Caasada 

Segoutia , 

Arcobriga 

Aquas  Bilbitanorum 

Bilbili 

Nertobriga 

Segontia 

Caesar  Augusta 


Merida 

Baldio  de  Santiago 

Caceres 

Ventas  de  Alconetar 

Near  Kiobolos. 

Venta  de  Caparra 

Puerto  Bejar 

Near  Valdelascasas 

Frades 

Salamanca 

Torre  dei  Sabre 

Zamora .■ 

Toro    

Despoblado  de  Aronillas 

Simaneas 

Despoblado  de  Uardiel 

Coca 

Segovia 

Despoblado  de  los  Meagues 

Bajona  de  Titulcia 

San  Juan  del  Viso,  near  Alcalade  Henares. 

Guadalajara 

DespablaUo  do  Monte 

Sij;iieuza 

Arcos  de  Medinaceli 

Alhama  de  Aragou 

Calatavua... 

Calatoras 

Near  Peratnan 

Zaragoza ■. 


25.  ANOTHER  ROAD  FROM  EMERITA  TO  CESAR  AUGUSTA. 


20 

24 

29 

26.  ROAD  FROM  ASTURICA  TO  CJSSAR  AUGUSTA. 


20 

27 

14 

'  From  here  the  road  No.  24  continues  to  Caesar  Augusta. 


EUROPE — SPAIN. 


203 


Roman  roads  of  Spain  according  to  the  itinerary  of  Antonio  Augusto  CaracaJla — Cout'd 
27.  ANOTHER  ROAD  FROM  ASTURICA  TO  C^SAR  AUGUSTA. 


Ancient  name  of  mansions. 

Present  name  of  ancient  sites  of  mansions. 

Miles, 

20 
22 

Tela 

24 
40 

26 
24 
25 
25 
23 
17 

37 

28.  ROAD  FROM  TURIASO  TO  CAESAR  AUGUSTA. 


Tcriasone Tarazona  ... 

Ualsione Hear  Mallen 


29.  ROAD  OF  EMEIUTA  TO  C^SAR  AUGUSTA  BY  LUSITANLA 

Merida 

\r, 

Sisapune 

Nneetra  Senora  ile  las  Virtudea 

24 

Cerro  de  la  Mesa 

18 

30.  ROAD  FROM  LA.MLXIUM  TO  TOLETUM. 


Despablado,  two  leagues  from  Villaharta 

Con»uegta  

Toledo 

27 

Teletum 

44 

ROAD  FROM  LA  MINIUM  TO  OJESAR  AUGUSTA. 


32 

I. hi  .i             

Iiilbilis 

32.  ROAD  FROM  ASTURICA  TO  TARRACO. 


AMutica... 
Vallata.... 
Intcramnio 
I'alaiitin  ... 


i 

V;illailaiig<p8  .. 
i  i.limii) 


204  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Roman  roads  of  Spain  according  to  the  itinerary  of  Antonino  Augusto  Caracalla — Cont'd. 
33.  KOAD  FROM  CESAR  AUGUSTA  TO  BENEARNEEM. 


Ancient  name  of  mansions. 


Present  name  of  ancient  sites  of  mansions. 


Miles. 


Csesar  Augusta. 
Foro  galloruni  .. 
Klxdlino 


Tacca 

Suuimo  Pyreneo. 


Zaragoza 

Guvrea  del  Gallego — 
Libia's  del  Marcuello  . 

Taca 

Puerto  de  Canfran 


34.  KOAD  FROM  HISPANIA  TO  AGUITANIA. 


12 

13 

7 

12 

21 

22 

8 

ROAD  MAKING  IN  SPAIN. 


General  plan.— Boads  are  of  three  classes.  Those  of  the  first  being 
8 ;  those  of  the  second  7,  and  those  of  the  third  6  metres  in  width. 

Koads  of  the  first  order  are  the  most  useful  and  important.  They  are 
generally  the  thoroughfares  that  connect  Madrid  with  the  capitals  of 
the  provinces,  the  departments  of  the  navy,  and  the  principal  ports  of 
the  kingdom  ;  the  branches  that  lead  to  some  of  these  points  from  a 
railroad  or  a  highway  of  the  first  order,  those  which  join  two  or  more 
railroads  passing  by  a  city  of  not  less  than  15,000  inhabitants,  and  those 
which  unite  two  or  more  highways  of  the  first  order,  passing  by  some 
capital  or  center  of  population  or  traffic,  either,  of  the  interior  or  coast, 
provided  it  exceeds  20,000  inhabitants. 

Eoads  of  the  second  order  are  those  which  place  two  provincial 
capitals  in  communication,  those  which  connect  a  railroad  with  a  high- 
way of  the  first  order,  those  which  starting  from  a  railroad  or  a  high- 
way of  the  first  class  terminates  in  a  head  town  (a  town  that  is  not 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  another)  or  one  that  has  a  population  of  more 
than  10,000  and  those  which  in  the  Balearic  Islands  put  the  capital  in 
communication  with  other  seaport  towns  or  unite  points  of  production 
and  exportation. 

Boads  of  the  third  order  are  those  which  do  not  come  under  any  of 
the  foregoing  definitions.-  Boads  of  the  third  order  are  generally  use- 
ful to  one  or  two  towns  only. 

Plans  and  specifications  of  a  road  determine  its  route,  longitudinal 
and   transversal  outlines,  cubical   movement  of  earth,  etc.,   gives  a 


EUROPE — SPAIN.  205 

description  of  the  work  and  estimate  of  its  cost,  and  states  whether  it 
is  to  be  built  of  the  ground  and  material  adjacent  to  the  road  orof  ma- 
terial to  be  brought  from  a  distance. 

Direction  or  route  of  a  highway  or  the  points  it  is  to  serve  are  always 
based  upon  political  commercial  orstrategic  considerations  and  reduces 
the  problem  to  a  search  for  the  most  available  route  between  the  deter- 
mined points.  If  there  be  no  impediment  it  is  clearly  understood  that 
the  most  direct  should  be  selected,  but  sometimes  on  account  of  the 
ownership  of  certain  lands  being  vested  in  influential  parties,  ecclesias- 
tical or  civil  corporations,  and  for  many  other  reasons  arising  from  the 
topography  of  the  country  between  the  given  points  it  has  been  found 
convenient  in  Spain  to  make  indirect  and  curved  roads.  It  has  also 
been  customary  to  follow  the  bed  of  streams,  such  routes  offering  the 
lines  of  least  resistance. 

Grades,  etc.  The  upward  slope  of  a  Spanish  road  must  not  exceed  5 
centimetres  to  the  metre.  The  water  shed  or  transversal  slopes  must  not 
rise  to  exceed  2  centimetres  to  the  metre.  At  the  sides  of  each  road  are 
paths  that  are  used  by  the  road  overseers  for  places  to  deposit  material 
for  repairs.  These  paths  are  also  used  by  footmen  and  as  places  for  the 
erection  of  posts,  etc.  The  outside  margins  of  these  paths  terminate  in 
gutters,  into  which  the  lateral  slopes  of  the  road  are  expected  to  precipi- 
tate dust  and  rain.  Suburban  roads  are  sometimes  paved  with  granite 
blocks  and  asphalt,  or  vrith  a  concrete  of  broken  stones,  lime,  sand, 
gravel,  and  clay,  but  it  is  seldom  that  a  country  road  is  constructed  of 
any  other  material  than  that  of  the  adjoining  land. 

HISTORY   OF   ROAD  BUILDING. 

Highways,  such  as  are  known  to  the  present  age,  did  not  exist  in 
Spain  before  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Before  this  date 
Spanish  roads  were  simply  paths.  Reforms  were  inaugurated,  but  in 
almost  every  case  by  private  individuals,  who,  encountering  more  or 
less  difficulty,  built  bridges  across  the  principal  rivers.  The  foregoing 
does  not  mean  that  there  were  no  roads  in  Spain  during  the  middle 
age,  for  there  are  documents  which  show  that  some  attention  was  paid 
to  road  building,  but  it  is  impossible  to  unite  such  documents  and 
ascertain  clearly  the  extent  of  such  undertakings,  neither  can  they  be 
compared  with  what  has  since  been  done. 

In  1749  Fernando  VI  constructed  the  highway  from  Reinoso  to  San- 
tander,  and  some  pieces  of  the  Guadarrama,  employing  soldiers  for  the 
work.  To  this  and  to  the  building  of  some  roads  in  the  Vascongada 
and  Navarra  provinces  is  limited  all  that  was  done  in  12  years  in  this 
branch  of  public  work. 

In  1761  thegovernment  first  commenced  to  fix  its  attention  upon  the 
subject  and  to  dictate  regulations  for  the  classification,  construction, 
and  conservation  of  general  highways,  paying  particular  attention  to 
the  roads  from  Madrid  to  the  royal  resorts,  and  from  Madrid  to  Barce- 
lona. 


206  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

The  dispositions  of  17G1  and  the  modifications  of  1778  were  unsuc- 
cessful, and  no  real  advancement  was  made. 

In  1794  the  supervision  and  building  of  public  roads  was  delegated 
to  a  special  bureau  of  the  government.  But  this,  too,  proved  unsatis- 
factory on  account  of  a  lack  of  road-building  intelligence  in  the  per- 
sonnel of  the  bureau.  The  only  good  roads  of  that  time  were  built 
under  the  direction  of  foreign  engineers,  or  of  the  Spanish  military 
engineers,  whose  knowledge  of  such  undertakings  was  vastly  superior 
to  that  of  the  bureau  that  the  state  intrusted  with  the  work. 

Up  to  this  time,  right  ideas  as  to  permanent  estimates  of  expendi- 
tures for  preserving  and  constructing  roads,  and  as  to  material,  etc., 
were  not  dominant.  This  will  be  readily  understood  when  it  is  known 
that  at  the  end  of  the  past  century  there  were  in  Spain  only  2,000 
kilometres  of  road,  in  a  fearful  state  of  conservation,  and  605  bridges 
to  show  as  the  results  of  over  50  years  of  endeavor. 

Nothing  better  can  be  said  of  the  present  century  until  the  year  1834. 
But  it  is  just  to  say  that  now  progress  of  a  substantial  character  is 
being  made.  The  wars  that  have  received  the  energies  and  treasure  of 
the  country  explain  the  fact  that  up  to  the  year  above  cited  the  sum 
total  of  highways  had  reached  but  4,700  kilometres,  and  they  were  in 
a  wretched  state  of  preservation. 

Iu  1833  a  bureau  of  roads,  highways  and  canals  was  created,  and  a 
special  school  established  for  the  education  of  civil  engineers.  This 
school  graduated  its  first  corps  of  engineers  in  1839.  At  the  end  of  the 
first  Carlist  war,  attention  was  again  aroused  upon  the  bettering  and 
repairing  of  public  highways,  and  some  repairing  was  done,  and  a  few 
new  roads  commenced  from  Madrid  to  the  coasts  and  frontier.  Devel- 
opment was,  however,  very  slow,  because  even  though  the  state  had 
good  plans  and  intentions,  they  could  not  be  executed  because  of  the 
bad  state  of  the  treasury.  The  bureau  struggled  against  these  difficul- 
ties, and  at  the  opportune  moment  was  able  to  dictate  amendments  to 
the  existing  law.  Thus  in  1842  a  law  was  adopted  which  brought  into 
existence  a  national  corps  of  roadbuilders.  They  are  called  peones 
camineros,  and  are  classified  and  uniformed,  and  are  employed  by  the 
state  in  building  and  repairing  roads.  They  constitute  a  distinct  branch 
of  the  public  service.  This  change  was  important,  and  soon  placed 
experienced  workmen  under  intelligent  direction. 

From  1834  to  1856  4,800  kilometres  of  road  were  completed,  and  3,000 
more  projected. 

At  the  present  time,  according  to  the  latest  data  (1888),  the  length  of 
the  completed  public  roads  of  Spain  is  as  follows : 

Kilometres. 

First  order 6,873 

JSecond  order 8,338 

Third  order 11,097 

Total 26,308 


EUKOPE SPAIN.  207 

The  kilometre  equals  0.62137G  of  a  mile. 

In  addition  to  the  above  amount  there  are  31,000  kilometres  pro- 
jected. I  mean  by  this  that  no  work  has  been  done  on  the  31,000  kilo- 
metres, but  that  part  of  the  legal  preliminary  steps  have  been  taken 
to  establish  additional  roads  aggregating  that  length. 

GENERAL   ROAD   SYSTEM. 

Roads  of  the  first,  second,  and  third  order  form  what  is  called  the 
general  system. 

Modifications  of  the  general  system. — To  introduce  a  road  into  this  sys- 
tem it  is  necessary  to  draft  a  memorial  outlining  the  proposed  route. 
This  is  submitted  to  the  city  councils  along  the  proposed  line,  to  the 
provincial  assembly,  to  the  council  of  agricultural  industry  and  com- 
merce, to  the  chief  engineer  of  the  province,  and  to  the  civil  governor 
of  the  province,  who  forwards  it  to  the  miuistro  de  fomento,  who  con- 
sults with  the  council  of  roads,  canals,  and  ports  and  determines 
whether  the  proposition  to  include  the  road  in  the  general  system  shall 
be  submitted  to  the  Cortes.  This  minister  determines  whether  the  road 
shall  be  assigned  to  the  first,  second,  or  third  order. 

The  above  is  also  the  mode  of  procedure  when  it  is  desired  to  vacate 
some  road  or  part  of  a  road  included  in  the  general  system. 

Formation  of  plans. — It  is  the  duty  of  the  ministro  de  fomento  to  pro- 
pose plans  within  the  legislative  credits  provided  for  making  roads, 
always  confining  such  propositions  to  highways  of  the  general  system. 
The  approbation  of  all  plans  for  highways  belongs  to  this  officer,  who, 
upon  information  derived  from  the  chief  engineer  of  the  province  and 
the  council  of  roads,  canals,  and  ports,  drafts  the  royal  order  of  ap- 
proval. After  the  approval  of  a  plan  it  can  only  be  modified  by  going 
through  anew  the  process  of  formatiou. 

Construction  and  reiHiiring.^-^So  road  can  be  constructed  until  it  has 
been  classified  and  its  plan  approved  by  the  miuistro  de  fomento. 

Each  year  the  amount  to  be  spent  upon  public  roads  is  fixed  and  a 
specified  sum  designated  for  each  class.  In  this  way  a  harmonious  de 
velopment  of  the  system  is  intended.  In  arranging  expenditures  pref- 
erence is  given  to  roads  that  have  been  left  iti  an  unfinished  state. 

The  building  of  roads  is  let  by  contract  to  private  corporations  or 
individuals,  or  performed  under  the  direction  of  the  engineer  corps  of 
the  council  of  roads,  canals,  and  ports.  If  let  to  contractors  the  inter- 
ests of  the  Government  are  guarded  by  a  commission  selected  by  this 
council. 

The  Government  can  impose  separate  taxes  and  tolls  on  roads  for  re- 
pairs and  construction. 

PROVINCIAL   ROADS. 

The  provinces  also  have  their  system  of  roads.  The  board  of  public 
work 8  of  each  province  forms  ami  presents  to  the  diputaoion  (provin- 
cial assembly)  a  plan  which  includes  all  the  highways  that  are  of  in- 


208  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

terest  to  tbe  province  and  determines  the  order  of  construction  and 
improvement.  This  plan  is  placed  before  the  public  from  30  to  60  days, 
with  all  its  details,  for  examination.  During  this  time  it  is  examined 
and  discussed  by  the  city  councils  of  the  province  and  by  interested 
citizens.  At  the  end  of  the  time  specified  the  diputacion  examines  the 
observations  of  the  board  of  pubMc  works,  of  those  of  the  provincial 
council  of  agriculture,  industry,  and  commerce,  and  to  those  of  the 
chief  engineer  of  the  province,  and  decides  what  shall  be  .included  in 
the  system  of  public  roads  that  shall  be  requested  of  the  department 
of  fomento.  When  this  is  done  the  civil  governor  of  the  province 
forwards  the  plan  of  the  diputacion,  with  a  proper  memorial,  to  the 
ministro  de  fomento,  who,  after  consulting  the  council  of  roads,  canals, 
and  ports,  decides  definitely  what  shall  be  granted.  If  he  is  favorable 
to  the  plan  admitted,  it  is  immediately  announced  by  royal  decree. 

The  same  procedure  is  followed  in  adding  to  a  system  of  provincial 
roads  or  in  vacating  them  in  whole  or  in  part.  If  the  plans  do  not 
affect  the  public  domain,  the  approval  of  the  diputacion  is  sufficient, 
otherwise  they  must  also  be  approved  by  the  civil  governor.  In  either 
case  the  chief  engineer  of  the  province  is  consulted,  and  if  there  should 
be  a  disagreement  it  is  adjusted  by  the  ministro  de  fomento. 

Building  and  repairing. — Work  on  a  road  can  not  be  commenced  until 
the  estimated  cost  is  provided  for  in  the  provincial  budget.  Repairing 
of  roads  must  be  paid  from  special  funds  collected  for  such  purpose. 
If  a  road  is  to  be  paid  for  from  the  general  funds  of  the  province  the 
submitted  plans  must  so  state. 

The  same  rules,  as  to  contractors,  prevail  in  the  province  as  in  the 
state,  inspection,  etc.,  being  delegated  to  the  chief  engineer  of  the  prov- 
ince and  officers  of  the  board  of  public  works. 

The  ministro  de  fomento  can  also  inspect  the  building  of  such  roads, 
and  if  not  satisfied  must  communicate  at  once  with  the  diputacion  of 
the  province,  which  must  take  immediate  steps  to  remedy  the  defects 
cited.  If  the  diputacion  refuses  to  act,  then  the  civil  engineer  of  the 
province,  in  conjunction  with  the  civil  governor,  must  see  that  the  work 
conforms  to  the  requirements  of  the  departmento  de  fomento.  When 
a  road  is  completed  it  must  be  accepted  by  the  chief  engineer  of  the 
province  before  it  is  used  by  the  public.  This  is  indispensable,  and  if 
auy  dispute  arises  regarding  the  acceptance  it  is  taken  first  before  the 
civil  governor,  whose  decision  can  be  reviewed  and  set  aside  by  the 
ministro  de  fomento. 

The  provincial  diputacion  may  levy  tolls  and  taxes  on  the  roads  of 
the  province  to  create  a  fund  for  building  and  repairing.  It  is  neces- 
sary, however,  to  first  secure  the  consent  of  the  ministro  de  fomento  to 
such  levies. 

ROADS  AFFECTING  TWO  PROVINCES. 

In  such  cases  each  province  prepares  a  plan  and  sends  it  to  the 
ministro  de  fomento,  and  if  he  should  not  approve  either  plan  he  is 
authorized  to  decide  what  shall  be  done  without  more  ado, 


EUROPE SPAIN.  209 

Highways  supported  by  mixed  funds. 

These  are  roads  that  for  various  reasons  are  built  and  supported 
jointly  by  the  state  and  a  province.  The  chief  reason  for  these  mixed 
fuuds  is  the  necessity  of  the  road  tor  the  welfare  of  the  province  and 
of  its  financial  inability  to  build  it  without  aid  from  the  general  gov- 
ernment. 

RURAL   ROADS. 

By  royal  decree  of  April  7,  1848,  the  law  of  May  28,  18  J 9,  and  that 
of  May  4,1877,  all  roads  of  interest  to  particular  towns,  cities,  or  local- 
ities were  called  carainos  vecinales.  They  are  not  included  in  the 
system  of  national  or  provincial  highways.  They  are  also  known  as 
caminos  rurales,  i.  e.,  rural  roads. 

The  construction  and  conservation  of  these  roads  have  at  times  been 
under  the  control  of  the  general  government,  and  at  other  times  munic- 
ipalities have  supervised  and  built  them.  This  responsibility  has  been 
from  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  in  harmony  with  the  ten- 
dencies of  different  governments  towards  centralization  or  local  self- 
government. 

The  law  of  July  22,  1859,  scheduled  these  roads  as  highways  of  the 
third  class  and  placed  them  under  the  control  of  the  general  govern  ment. 
The  law  of  November  14,  1868,  placed  them  again  under  the  control  of 
city  governments,  and  the  laws  of  December  21),  1876,  May  4,  1877,  and 
regulations  of  August  10,  originated  the  present  mixed  system.  By 
this  system  city  councils  must  provide  for  the  roads  under  their  juris- 
diction which  are  those  that  have  been  constructed  to  satisfy  the  needs 
of  their  locality  and  are  not  therefor  a  part  of  the  national  system. 

In  order  to  secure  a  new  road  of  this  class  its  plans  must  be  drafted 
by  the  engineer  of  public  works  under  the  authorization  of  the  city 
council.  This  draft  is  submitted  to  the  inspection  of  the  public  and 
any  citizen  can  file  objections  to  it.  In  the  course  of  time  the  council 
considers  the  plan  together  with  any  objections  that  may  have  been 
filed,  after  which  it  is  sent  to  the  civil  governor  of  the  province,  accom- 
panied by  an  appropriate  memorial.  The  governor  then  submits  the 
plans,  etc.,  to  the  civil  engineer  and  to  the  provincial  assembly  (dipu- 
tacion),  after  which  it  is  returned  to  him  with  their  findings  for  his 
disposition.  Should  the  plan  not  meet  with  his  approval  he  must  re- 
turn it  to  the  city  council  with  his  objections.  If  the  council  refuse  to 
accept  his  conclusions  the  whole  matter  is  by  appeal  brought  before 
the  ministro  de  fomento  at  Madrid  for  final  solution.  Two  or  more 
towns  or  cities  may  be  interested  in  the  construction  and  maintenance 
of  a  road  and  there  may  be  questions  as  at  what  point  the  responsi- 
bility of  one  ends  and  another  commences.  One  may  desire  the  build- 
ing of  a  new  road  and  another  be  unwilling  to  share  the  expense,  etc 
In  all  such  cases  the  line  of  procedure  is  the  same.  The  cit.v  con  noils 
send  plans  and  memorials  to  the  civil  governor  who  confers  with  the 
33a 14 


210  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

civil  engineer  and  with  the  diputaeion  of  the  province  before  rendering 
his  decision,  which  cau  be  received  and  set  aside  by  the  ininistro  de 
fomeuto.  Cities  of  less  than  2,»i00  inhabitants  can  not  submit  plans, 
neither  cau  those  that  are  without  resources  to  execute  them.  Cities 
that  are  satisfied  with  the  facilities  offered  them  by  the  system  of  na- 
tional and  provincial  roads  can  not  be  compelled  to  assist  iu  construct- 
ing rural  or  local  ones. 

The  execution  of  the  work  of  building  a  road  can  be  let  by  contract, 
which  is  sold  to  the  lowest  responsible  bidder.  The  bids  are  sealed, 
etc.  Or  it  can  be  perfor  med  under  the  direction  of  a  civil  engineer  se- 
lected by  the  city  council  from  among  persons  of  kuown  professional 
rank  and  aptitudes. 

As  soon  as  plans  have  been  approved  the  council  must  take  imme- 
diate steps  to  complete  the  work. 

The  city  council  can,  by  securing  the  consent  of  the  ministro  de  haci- 
enda, impose  and  collect  tolls  for  the  use  of  the  roads  under  their  con- 
trol. Application  is  made  for  this  privilege  to  the  ministro  de  hacienda 
through  the  department  of  the  ministro  de  fomeuto. 

PRIVATE   ROADS. 

These  include  all  roads  for  the  use  of  mines  and  other  industrial 
works  and  roads  of  private  estates.  Such  roads  cau  be  opened  by  first 
obtaiuiug  the  consent  of  the  civil  governor  of  the  province.  If  it 
becomes  necessary  for  an  individual  to  open  a  private  road  through  the 
estate  of  a  neighbor,  the  consent  of  the  civil  governor,  who  condemns 
the  property  of  the  route  selected  aud  assesses  all  damages,  must  be 
obtained.  All  expenses  of  procedure,  condemnation,  and  damage  must 
be  paid  by  the,party  who  petitions  for  the  road. 

If,  in  the  course  of  time,  a  private  road  becomes  desirable  to  the  pub. 
lie,  it  is  condemned  as  a  private  road  and  purchased  for  public  use. 

CRITICISM. 

The  defects  of  the  foregoing  laws  and  regulations  of  Spanish  road 
building  are  plain.  The  activity  of  diputaeion  of  the  province  aud  of 
city  councils  in  constructing  roads  is  dampened  by  the  most  absurd 
centralization  of  power  in  the  ministro  de  fomeuto.  The  general  gov- 
ernment puts  its  hand  upon  or  intervenes  in  the  construction  of  the 
most  insignificant  local  road,  and  by  a  complex  system  for  a  simple 
branch  of  public  work  uselessly  consumes  the  energies  of  local  assem- 
blies of  cities  and  provinces  iu  addition  to  killing  by  slow  degrees  the 
spirit  of  local  enterprise,  which,  if  left  to  itself,  would  carry  out  the  proj- 
ects it  initiates. 

COST  OF  ROADS. 

The  original  cost  of  roads  depends  upon  the  topography  of  the  coun- 
try.   The  material  used  is  generally  the  adjacent  soil. 

I  have  not  been  able  to  secure  information  as  to  the  first  cost  of 
roads,  but  1  hazard  the  opinion  that  road-building  in  Spain  is  expensive, 


EUROPE SPAIN.  211 

for,  although  labor  is  cheap,  it  is  a  primitive  kind,  and  in  the  end  is 
more  expensive  than  so-called  high-priced  labor  of  modern  methods 
and  implements.  For  instance,  grading  and  leveling  are  done  with 
material  that  are  carried  to  position  in  small  baskets  balanced  on  the 
heads  of  laborers,  who  walk  leisurely  back  and  forth  between  the  road- 
bed and  the  situation  of  the  material.  Each  basket  holds  about  three 
shovelfuls.  Such  a  workman  earns  from  40  to  GO  cents  per  day,  but 
it  should  be  remembered  that  the  road-builder  who  uses  modern  meth- 
ods and  earus  from  $2.50  to  $3  per  day  c  an  easily  do  in  from  8  to  10  hours 
ten  times  as  much  as  the  tirst-mentioned  can  in  his  working  day  of  10 
or  12  hours.  In  extensive  works  the  patient  and  slow-going  donkey  is 
substituted  for  the  mau  with  the  basket.  Each  donkey  is  equipped 
with  large  saddle-bags  made  of  Spanish  grass,  a  kind  of  hemp.  The 
pockets  of  these  bags,  one  of  which  hangs  on  each  side,  are  loaded 
with  material.  Forty  or  fifty  of  these  animals  and  their  attendants 
constitute  a  gang,  and  pass  to  and  from  the  place  of  loadiug  to  the 
roadbed,  sometimes  with  and  at  others  without  drivers.  A  gang  or 
herd  of  donkeys  and  the  men  who  load  and  unload  them  can  not  accom- 
plish more  in  a  day  than  could  be  done  by  a  team  of  good  horses,  a 
revolving  scraper,  and  2  men. 

STREET-BUILDING.         / 

All  these  methods  of  road-building  are  true  of  street-making  also. 
Instead  of  steam  rollers  a  nd  crushers,  men  level  the  streets  with  huge 
mauls.  The  annual  cost  of  preserving  the  roads  of  Spain  is  about  GOO 
pesetas  per  kilometre.  In  the  province  of  Cadiz  there  are  375  kilo- 
metres, the  care  of  which  for  1890  cost  307,500  pesetas,  or  820  pesetas 
per  kilometre.  In  addition,  the  engineers  and  other  road  officials  re- 
ceived about  37,000  pes  etas  in  salaries  and  office  rent. 

In  some  of  the  provin  ces  the  cost  of  caring  for  the  roads  is  as  high 
as  1,400  pesetas,  and  in  others  as  low  as  400  pesetas  per  kilometre. 

Of  street-making  I  can  say  nothing  that  would  be  of  interest.  The 
cities  of  this  part  of  Spain  are  of  Moorish  pattern  and  the  streets  are 
narrow  and  crooked.  The  systems  of  paving,  etc.,  are  like  the  sewer 
systems,  obsolete. 

Streets  are  named  by  city  councils  and  change  with  the  governments, 
as  each  city  council  desires  to  do  houor  to  celebrated  men  by  naming 
the  streets  of  the  city  for  them.  Thus  there  are  in  almost  every  city  of 
Spain  streets  called  Calle  Castelar,  Calle  Isaac  Feral,  Calle  Sagasta, 
etc. 

The  houses  are  numbered,  the  odd  nu  rabers  on  one  side  the  even  on 
the  other.  The  system  goes  no  further,  and  streets  are  never  num- 
bered. 

E.  W.  Turner, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Cadiz,  iSpain,  February  4,  1891. 


212  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

SPAIN. 

REPORT  BY  OONSVL  BOWEN,  OF  BARCELONA. 
COUNTRY  ROADS   OR  HIGHWAYS  IN   SPAIN. 

In  Spain  country  roads  or  highways  are  either  national  or  provincial 
Those  that  are  national  are  paid  for  by  the  nation,  and  those  that  are 
provincial  are  constructed  under  the  management  of  provincial  com- 
mittees who  spend  not  any  fixed  sum,  during  any  term  of  years,  but 
such  sums  as  from  time  to  time  their  work  requires.  Each  province 
has  a  provincial  committee.  The  national  roads  are  equally  cared  for 
throughout  Spain,  and  are  declared,  officially,  to  be  equally  good.  The 
provincial  roads,  on  the  contrary,  vary ;  those  in  the  wealthier  and 
more  public-spirited  provinces  are  equal  to  the  national  roads,  while 
those  in  the  poorer  and  more  lethargic  provinces  are  hardly  worthy  of 
comparison  with  anything  except,  perhaps,  with  one  another.  The 
material  used  is  principally  small,  compact,  hard  stone,  sometimes 
granite,  sometimes  limestone,  and  sometimes  sandstone,  according  to 
the  locality;  and  the  system  of  construction  is  always  that  that  was 
conceived  by  Macadam.  The  cost  of  construction  depends  on  the  kind 
of  stone  used,  and  in  the  distance  it  is  drawn,  but  it  never  rises  higher 
than  32  cents  nor  lower  than  21  cents  the  square  metre  for  an  average 
thickness  of  20  centimetres.  The  annual  expenditure  for  repairs 
amounts  to  3f  cents  the  square  metre.  It  is  the  opinion  of  all  the  bi- 
cyclists with  whom  I  have  talked  in  Spain  that  the  roads  in  northern 
Spain  are  fairly  good,  while  the  roads  in  southern  Spain  are  execrable. 
The  president  of  one  of  the  three  bicycle  clubs  in  this  city  of  Barcelona 
assured  me  that  Spanish  roads  are  not  to  be  compared  with  those  of 
France  or  England,  but  that  he  hopes,  now  that  the  Spanish  Govern- 
ment has  a  bicycle  branch  in  its  post-office  department,  that  the  roads 
of  Spain  will  be  made  equal  to  any  iu  the  world  ;  and  he  believes  that 
no  opposition  will  be  made  by  the  tax-payers,  nor  by  those  that  will 
have  to  pay  assessments,  as  the  past  has  proven  conclusively  that  im- 
proved roads  improve  the  value  of  adjacent  land,  and  I  have  no  doubt 
that  he  also  believes  that  they  improve  the  owners  by  bringing  them 
into  easier  and,  therefore,  closer  communication  with  one  another  and 
with  the  rest  of  the  world. 

Herbert  W.  Bowen, 

Consul. 

Barcelona,  Sgain,  December  18, 1S90. 


EUROPE — SPArN.  213 

BARCELONA. 

JiErORT  XT  OOXSUL  BO  KEN. 
CITY  STREETS  OF  BARCELONA- 

Tbe  corporation  of  the  city  of  Barcelona  is  charged  with  the  con. 
struction  and  preservation  of  the  pavements  of  the  streets,  and  conse- 
quently pays  the  costs  of  new  as  well  as  of  the  maintenance  of  old 
streets.  As  a  rule  the  owners  of  contiguous  realty  are  not  required  to 
bear  directly  any  part  of  the  cost,  but  in  special  cases,  as  for  instance 
when  a  new  road  is  made  for  the  benefit  of  the  proprietor  of  a  large 
building-,  or  of  a  block  of  houses,  the  first  cost  is  borne  by  individuals, 
but  only  the  first  cost. 

The  city  of  Barcelona  is  divided  into  two  parts,  of  which  one  is  tbe 
old  city  and  the  other  is  the  new  city,  or  "ensauche."  The  greater  num- 
ber of  the  streets  in  the  old  city  are  paved  with  stone,  while  only  a  few 
are  paved  with  wood,  asphalt,  cement,  cylindrical  pegs,  and  with  flags. 
Of  the  stone  pavements  a  part  were  laid  over  15  years  ago,  and  consist 
of  sandstone  procured  from  quarries  near  to  the  city,  and  collocated  or 
laid  on  a  foundation  or  bed  of  sand  from  12  to  14  centimetres  deep. 

They  are  placed  at  a  distance  of  a  centimetre  from  one  another,  and 
the  intervening  space  is  not  filled  with  mortar  or  any  other  prepara- 
tion, but  with  coarse  sand.  The  pavements  of  stone  laid  since  15  years 
ago  consist  of  harder  stone,  more  or  less  silicious,  brought  from  quarries 
distant  from  Barcelona  and  laid  on  a  well-moistened  foundation  of  sand 
12  centimetres  deep.  The  stones  of  this  pavement  are  from  9  to  10 
centimetres  wide,  18  to  20  centimetres  long,  and  16  to  18  centimetres 
high.  The  old  stone  pavements  cost  from  15  to  16  pesetas  per  surface 
metre,  while  those  laid  during  the  last  15  years  cost  from  22  to  23 
pesetas ;  but  the  difference  is  to  be  accounted  for  principally  by  the 
difference  in  the  charges  of  transportation  from  the  neighboring  and 
from  the  distant  quarries. 

In  the  construction  of  wooden  pavements  in  the  old  city,  a  plaster 
foundation  was  first  laid,  15  centimetres  deep,  upon  which  were  then 
placed  blocks  of  the  red  pine  of  northern  Europe  or  of  the  Swedish  fir, 
8  centimetres  wide,  from  18  to  20  long,  and  15  high.  These  blocks 
were  then  cemented  together  with  a  mixture  of  Portland  cement,  fine 
sand,  and  water.  To  prevent  the  putrefaction  of  the  blocks  they  were 
subjected  to  a  bath  of  creosote  and  sulphate  of  iron.  The  pavements 
recently  laid  were  constructed  by  contract  with  the  conditions  prece- 
dent that  20  years'  time  be  given  in  which  to  pay  for  them,  and  that 
the  cost  per  surface  metre  be  from  25  to  26  pesetas,  including  the  cost 
of  maintenance  during  the  20  years. 

The  asphalt  pavements  that  have  been  laid  in  the  old  city  cost  from 
10  to  14  pesetas  the  metre,  but  they  have  proven  unsatisfactory,  as  they 
were  not  laid  with  due  respect  to  the  terms  of  the  contract. 

Flag  pavements  have  also  been  laid  at  a  cost  of  16  pesetas,  and 


214  STREETS   AND   HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

although  they  have  proven  satisfactory  for  the  use  of  carriages,  they 
have  not  acquired  general  popularity. 

At  present  several  new  kinds  of  pavement  are  being  laid  and  tested. 
One  kiud  is  an  artificial  cement  pavement,  which  consists  of  a  hydraulic 
plaster  from  10  to  12  centimetres  thick,  on  which  is  laid  a  cover  of  Port- 
land cement  from  4  to  5  centimetres  deep,  mixed  with  coarse  sand,  and 
then  rigidly  rolled  and  compressed.  The  durability  of  this  pavement 
is  said  to  be  great,  and  it  is  well  adapted  for  the  use  of  carriages  and 
bicycles.  Another  kind  consists  of  pegs  that  are  made  from  the 
branches  or  trunks  of  the  oak  tree,  and  that  are  10  centimetres  long, 
and  from  3  to  6  centimetres  iu  diameter.  These  pegs  are  laid  verti- 
cally over  a  layer  of  stone  broken  in  pieces  from  4  to  5  centimetres  in 
size,  and  rigidly  rolled  and  compressed,  and  covered  with  a  coating  of 
coarse  sand  from  5  to  6  centimetres  thick.  The  spaces  between 
the  pegs  are  filled  with  sand.  The  cost  of  this  kind  of  pavement  is 
about  11  pesetas  the  surface  meter. 

In  the  new  city,  or  "ensanche,"  the  streets  are  of  great  length  and  of 
a  width  that  is  never  less  than  20  metres  and  that  attains  sometimes 
30,  50,  and  even  60  metres.  In  fact  they  compare  favorably  with  the 
very  finest  streets  in  the  world.  The  pavements  laid  there  are,  for 
reaosus  of  economy,  made  from  stone  brought  from  the  neighboring 
quarries  of  Moutjuicb.  The  system  employed  is  that  of  macadam. 
As  all  the  finest  residences  of  Barcelona  are  in  the  "ensanche,"  and  as 
it  is  growing  rapidly  in  extent  and  beauty,  doubtless  the  finest  modern 
pavements  will  soon  be  demanded  by  the  people  there  and  substituted 
for  the  macadam  pavements,  which  are  not  altogether  satisfactory  to 
those  who  cultivate  nerves  and  aspire  to  repose  of  manner  and  speech. 
As  a  rule  the  streets  of  the  entire  city  of  Barcelona  compare  favorably 
with  those  of  the  other  large  cities  of  Spain.  One  million  three  hundred 
thousand  pesetas  are  expended  annually  in  the  maintenance  of  old  pave- 
ments, and  600,000  pesetas  in  the  construction  of  new  pavements,  and 
yet  the  authorities  are  not  satisfied  with  the  work  done.  They  recog- 
nize the  fact  that  a  civilized  people  should  be  satisfied  with  only  the 
perfection  of  pavement. 

Herbert  W.  Bowen, 

United  States  Consulate,  Consul. 

Barcelona,  January  10,  1891. 


carthagena. 

report  by  consul  molina. 

city  streets. 


Carthagena  and  Murcia  are  the  only  towns  in  this  province  and  dis- 
trict iu  which  any  care  is  taken  to  improve  the  street  pavements.  It  is 
only  16  years  ago  that  the  municipalities  began  paving  the  principal 
streets  without  any  difference  as  to  those  of  light  and  heavy  traffic. 


EUROPE — SPAIN.  215 

The  streets  in  this  town  and  in  Murcia  are  laid  with  pavement  blocks 
of  gritty  stone  of  an  excellent  quality  from  quarries  near  Valencia. 
The  blocks  measure  13£  inches  in  length  by  6£  inches  in  width  by  6  to 
to  6£  inches  in  depth.  They  are  badly  cut,  having  an  exaggerated 
wedge  form,  the  bottom  face  looking  very  reduced,  and  for  this  reason 
they  can  not  be  laid  on  sand  as  are  the  well  cut  stone  blocks  in  the 
streets  of  Madrid  and  other  places.  Here  they  are  laid  in  mortar,  i.  e., 
a  mixture  of  clay  and  sand  with  which  the  joints  are  also  tilled  up. 

There  is  no  sort  of  foundation  used  but  the  natural  substratum, 
which  is  previously  leveled  and  rammed,  it  being  so  soft  that  the  heavy 
traffic  streets  are  full  of  hollows  shortly  after  they  are  paved. 

The  cost  of  the  aforesaid  blocks  free  aud  ready  in  Carthageua  pSr 
square  meter  (equal  to  10.76  square  feet)  is  from  $1.40  to  $1.80,  the  cost 
of  the  labor  aud  other  materials  being  from  30  cents  to  50  cents  per 
square  meter. 

The  Carthageua  town  corporation  is,  however,  actually  using  as  a  trial 
in  some  of  the  heavy  traffic  streets  paving  stone  blocks  of  other  sorts 
aud  sizes,  some  imported  from  Belgium  and  made  out  of  smelted  slag 
from  blasting  furnaces,  etc.,  and  also  blocks  cut  from  limestone  quarries 
in  Mazarron,  16  miles  to  the  west  of  this  port. 

The  Belgian  blocks  measure  10.76  square  feet  for  every  52  blocks, 
and  they  cost  at  this  port  $3.05. 

These  are  laid,  after  the  substratum  is  properly  rammed,  on  sand 
covered  with  a  very  light  mixture  of  one-fourth  sand  aud  remainder 
Portland  cement. 

Full  cost  of  square  metre,  including  labor,  sand,  and  cement,  is  $4. 

The  footpaths  or  sidewalks  are  now  built,  in  general,  with  bands  or 
edges  of  square  stones,  and  the  remainder  made  as  follows:  First,  a 
base,  2£  iuches  thfck,  of  small  gravel;  second,  on  this  1£  inches  of  a 
mixture  of  mortar  and  gravel ;  and  third  and  last,  a  finish  of  mortar, 
i.  e.,  mixture  of  Portland  cement  and  sand  of  one-half  to  2  inches  thick- 
ness, which,  in  the  shape  of  flag  spotted  stones,  makes  the  pavement 
proper. 

This  pavement  costs  from  50  to  70  cents  per  square  metre  and  is  giv- 
ing excellent  results. 

The  maintenance,  however,  of  the  streets  is  very  much  neglected, 
although  great  sums  of  money  are  spent  thereon. 

HIGHWAYS. 

As  it  happens  that  the  principal  highways  are  constructed  and  main- 
tained  by  the  Government  and  the  secondary  ones  by  the  provincial 
deputations,  the  municipalities  therefore  only  lakes  care  of  the  country 
roads,  which,  as  a  rule,  are  nearly  neglected  to  the  extent  that  transit 
is  almOst  impossible  in  many  of  then),  especially  in  winter.  Most  <>i  the 
country  roads  are  made  only  of  natural  trampling,  whilst  in  others,  near 
the  towns,  the  rubbish  is  \}^{],  and  in  some  small  stones  (if  they  are 
found  near  the  place)  are  thrown  over  the  surface  in  both  cases. 


216  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

■\Yitli  regard  to  the  highways  constructed  by  the  Government,  the 
substratum  is  composed  of,  first,  4  to  G  inches  of  lime  or  silicious  stones, 
although  sometimes  all  stones  of  sufficient  hardness,  broken  over  the 
very  spots  on  which  they  have  to  be  laid,  to  a  depth  of  not  over  2f 
inches ;  second,  another  layer  of  stone  of  2  to  4  inches  in  thickness  on  the 
sides  by  4  to  6  inches  thickness  on  the  center  of  the  roads.  These  are 
broken  outside  until  the  largest  of  the  stones  reaches  a  dimension  not 
exceeding  about  If  to  2  iuches,  and  afterwards  laid  on  the  first  layer  ; 
third,  land  mixed  with  very  small  gravel  to  level  the  roads  and  fill  up 
hollows  is  laid  overall.  The  whole  is  then  compressed  by  rollers.  This 
operation  is  aided  also,  when  practicable,  by  water. 

The  cost  is  very  variable,  accordiug  to  the  quality  of  the  stone  and 
tTie  distances  at  which  they  are  found ;  but  the  average  price  can  be 
calculated  thus:  Collecting  1  cubic  metre  of  stone  found  loose  on  the 
"ramblas"  (dry  riverbeds)  or  about  the  fields,  from  10  to  15  cents  ; 
stones  cut  from  quarries,  25  to  30  cents  per  cubic  metre;  cartage,  1 
cubic  metre  of  stone  about  3  miles,  8  to  10  cents;  breaking  1  cubic 
metre  of  stone  for  the  first  layer,  20  cents ;  breaking  1  cubic  metre  of 
stone  for  the  second  layer,  from  25  to  35  cents. 

Cirilo  Molina  y  Ciro, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Carthagena,  January  10,  1891. 


DENIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  MAL2IROS. 

V 
STREETS. 

The  streets  of  Denia  and  other  towns  in  this  consular  district  are 
common  mud  streets,  unprovided  with  pavements,  gutters,  drainage 
canals  or  substructures  of  any  kind,  except  such  as  unassisted  nature 
has  furnished.  The  only  attempt  made  to  improve  the  streets  consists 
in  occasionally  dumping  into  them  some  cartloads  of  rocks  of  all  sizes, 
from  that  of  a  human  head  to  that  of  a  walnut.  The  condition  of  the 
streets  consequent  upon  this  treatment  is  such  that  this  kind  of  im- 
provement, if  such  it  may  be  called,  can  not  be  recommended  as  an 
example  to  be  followed  elsewhere. 

IMPROVED  COUNTRY  ROADS. 

A  macadamized  road  leads  from  Denia  to  the  town  of  Ondara,  whence 
it  branches  off  into  three  different  directions.  This  road  is  5  metres 
wide,  with  a  sidewalk  on  each  side  of  1  metre  wide,  flanked  by  ditches 
of  0.90  metre  in  width. 


EUROPE SPAIN. 


217 


Tbe  following  plan  of  a  cross  section  of  the  road  shows  its  construc- 
tion and  the  dimensions  of  its  several  parts.  It  is  taken  from  a  portion 
of  the  road  1  kilometre  in  length,  of  almost  perfectly  level  surface  and 
possessing  no  features  entailing  extra  expenses,  as,  for  example,  for 
bridges. 


Plan  of  a  cross-section  of  the  road  from  Denia  to  Onrtara. 

After  the  excavation  for  the  road  has  been  made,  as  above  indicated, 
and  the  ground  been  firmly  beaten  down,  the  first  layer  Of  stones  is 
put  on  consisting  of  irregularly  brokenup  stones  of  from  about  5  to  7 
centimetres  on  the  longest  side.  The  second  layer  consists  of  the  same 
kind  of  stones,  but  of  smaller  size,  being  from  3  to  5  centimetres  long  on 
the  side  of  their  greatest  dimensions.  These  two  layers  are  each  5  metres 
wide,  while  the  third  or  top  layer,  extending  as  it  does  over  the  sidewalks, 
as  well  as  over  the  road  proper,  is  7  metres  wide.  This  last  layer  is  com- 
posed of,  as  nearly  as  may  be,  equal  parts  of  coarse,  sandy  gravel  and 
of  clayey  soil.  The  quantity  of  stone  and  gravel  required  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  above-mentioned  1  kilometre  of  road  is,  from  the 
dimensions  given  in  the  "  plan,"  a  matter  of  easy  calculation  for  those 
interested  in  the  subject.  The  stones  and  gravel  of  which  this  portion 
of  the  road  is  constructed  had  to  be  brought  from  an  average  distance 
of  3  kilometres.  The  cost  of  transportation  of  these  stones  and  of  the 
gravel  has  amounted  to  1.25  pesetas  per  cubic  metre,  for  each  kilometre 
of  carriage.  The  cost  of  the  stone,  unbroken,  has  likewise  been  1.25 
pesetas  per  cubic  metre.  The  expense  of  breaking  the  stones  is  men- 
tioned below  in  the  list  of  wages  paid.  The  cost  of  the  gravel  has 
been  .37i  pesetas  per  cubic  metre.  The  number  of  labprers  employed  in 
the  building  of  said  1  kilometre  of  road  has  been  different  at  different 
times,  but  the  expense  on  account  of  the  aggregate  days'  wages  paid  to 
each  class  of  workmen  has  been  as  follows  : 

Pesetas. 

1,927  days'  wages  to  common  laborers,  at  1.75  pesetas 3,372.25 

(575  days'  wages  to  boys,  at  1  peseta 675.  00 

1,399  days'  wages  to  stone-breakers,  at  2.25  pesetas 

135  days'  wages  to  beads  of  gangs  of  10  or  12  laborers,  at  2  peset° 
214  days'  wages  to  beads  of  gangs  of  1<>  or  12  laborers,  more 

at  2.50  pesetas • 

117  days'  wages  to  ehainliearers  and  llaginen,  ;it  3.50  pese 

25  days'  hire  of  roller,  at  12.50  pesetas 

484  days'  carts'  (2  horses)  hire,  at  -  pesetas 


218  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  12.50  pesetas  for  hire  of  roller  above  mentioned  is,  more  prop- 
erly speaking',  paid  for  the  3  or  4  horses  and  for  the  men  working  the 
roller,  for  the  latter  belongs  to  the  Government  and  has  been  lent  free 
of  charge. 

All  of  the  above-named  different  classes  of  laborers  work,  according 
to  the  custom  of  the  country,  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  having  an  hour's 
rest  in  the  morning  for  breakfast,  and  during  the  long  days,  i.  e.,  from 
May  3  to  September  15,2  hours'  rest  for  dinner;  also,  in  the  afternoon 
one-half  hour  for  luncheon.  During  the  remaining  part  of  the  year 
there  is  only  1  hour's  rest  for  breakfast  and  1  hour's  rest  for  dinner, 
and  noue  in  the  afternoon  for  luncheon. 

Experience  in  this  and  adjoining  provinces  has  shown  that  one 
laborer  for  each  2  kilometers  of  macadamized  road  is  sufficient  to  keep 
it  in  perfect  repair.  This  laborer  receives  a  small  cottage  on  the  road 
in  which  to  live,  free  of  charges  of  every  description,  and  a  common 
laborer's  wages  during  the  days  he  works  on  the  road.  He  has  to  work 
on  all  days  not  legal  holidays  whenever  the  weather  permits  work  to 
be  done  in  the  open  air.  The  7  kilometers  of  road  between  Denia  and 
Ondara,  however,  have  to  be  kept  in  repair  by  a  single  laborer,  and  the 
consequence  is  that  this  road  is  in  a  by  far  worse  condition  than  any 
macadamized  road  I  have  ever  come  across,  and  I  have  seen  such  roads 
in  every  European  country  except  Portugal. 

One  cubic  meter  of  broken  stone  is  here  considered  all  that  is  re- 
quired to  keep  in  good  repair  during  the  year  a  decametre  of  a  road  on 
which  an  average  traffic  is  carried  on.  On  roads  of  unusually  heavy 
traffic  1£  cubic  metres  of  stone  might  be  required.  The  stone  used  here 
for  macadamized  roads  is  a  fairly  hard  limestone.  If  hard  granite  or 
some  other  rock  harder  than  limestone  were  employed  the  quantity 
necessary  for  repairs  would  of  course  be  less.  As  bearing  upon  the 
question  of  repairs,  I  may  mention  that  the  wheels  of  the  carts  in  which 
freight  is  transported  are  here  considerable  broader  than  the  wheels  of 
wagons  used  for  such  purposes  in  the  United  States,  and  therefore  do 
not  cut  up  the  ground  to  the  same  extent. 

The  construction' of  macadamized  roads  in  this  part  of  Spain  has 
greatly  benefited  commerce,  but  its  principal  effect  has  no  doubt  been 
the  increased  value  of  land  in  the  farming  districts  through  which  the 
roads  run.  1  have  been  assured  by  persons  of  undoubted  competency 
that  farms  adjoining  such  roads  have  in  consequence  of  their  construc- 
io»n  from  20  to  45  per  cent,  in  market  value. 

OSCAR  MALMROS, 

Consul. 

NSULATE, 

',  June  23, 1891. 


EUROPE — SPAIN.  219 

GRAO  OF  VALENCIA. 
CITY  STREETS. 

The  streets  are  paved  with  hewn  .stones  (psamita  inicacea)  34  centi- 
metres long,  17  centimetres  broad,  and  15  centimetres  high,  which  are 
brought  from  the  mountains  about  15  kilometres  distant  from  this  city; 
the  cost  of  these  stones  to  hew,  bring  and  locate  them  results  at  pesetas 
9  (about  $1.50)  per  square  metre. 

The  soil  of  this  city  is  mostly  soft  earth  ;  in  building  the  street,  the 
soil  is  simply  excavated  to  20  centimetres  depth  and  the  stones  placed 
directly  on  this  ground,  allowing  1  per  cent,  curve  on  the  width  of 
its  superficies  for  the  water  to  run  off;  the  result  of  this  system 
with  a  considerable  traffic  of  carts  and  carriages  on  them  is  pronounced 
satisfactory  and  the  cost  of  maintaining  is  10  centimos  (about  2  cents) 
per  square  metre. 

COUNTRY  ROADS   OR  HIGHWAYS. 

These  are  generally  built  in  this  proviuce  after  the  Macadam  method. 
There  are  roads  of  first  and  second  order  connecting  large  cities  of 
the  country  and  constructed  by  the  government ;  roads  of  second  and 
third  order  connecting  the  villages  with  the  capital  at  the  expense  of 
the  province,  and  lastly  suburban  roads  of  the  fourth  order  built  by  the 
municipality. 

The  stones  used  for  the  two  latter  kinds  of  roads  here  are  mostly  lime- 
stones brought  from  a  distance  of  about  4  kilometres,  and  cost  for 
bringing,  cutting,  and  locating  1.50  pesetas  (about  30  cents)  per  square 
metre. 

These  broken  up  stoues  are  placed  25  centimetres  high  on  the  road 
and  pressed  down  by  steam  rollers. 

The  cost  of  maintaining  varies  according  to  the  distance  or  proxim- 
ity of  tbe  road  to  the  city  and  the  greater  or  lesser  traffic  in  these  dif- 
ferent places  ;  but,  in  general,  the  soft  character  of  the  limestone  and 
the  soft  subsoil  on  the  one  side  as  well  as  the  enormous  traffic  on  the 
other  side,  this  method  has  given  little  satisfaction,  and  new  systems 
are  constantly  studied. 

STEEL  RAIL  ROADWAY. 

Mention  might  be  made  of  a  trial  of  laying  a  kind  of  flat  rails,  which, 
after  a  practice  of  1£  years  on  a  short  distance  of  the  road  leading  from 
the  city  to  the  port,  have  given  excellent  results,  and  the  city  has  now 
decided  to  build  a  double  track  on  the  entire  road  of  3.50  kilometres, 
considering  the  uninterrupted  traffic  of  heavily  laden  freight  carts  be- 
tween the  port  and  the  city.  /p^A 

This  track  is  made  of  ordinary  steel  Hat-top  rails  of  this  If  \\  shape, 
and  placed  without  further  foundation,  always  two  together,  in  the 
Soil,  united  with  screws.  <  •■■•Q---'---  ^ 

T 


220  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

They  have  22  centimetres  superficie  on  a  level  with  the  road,  but  an 
indent  of  about  3  millimetres  is  allowed  where  the  two  rails  join,  for 
keeping  the  cart  wheels  easier  on  the  track.  The  distance  between  the 
two  iron  tracks  is  1.24  metres,  roadway  between  which  can  be  paved 
with  flint  stone  at  regular  intervals.  A  plain  steel  used  as  cross-bar 
keeps  the  rails  in  their  proper  distance  from  each  other.  The  road  is 
3.50  kilometres  long  and  12  metres  wide ;  it  will  have  on  one  side  an  up 
and  on  the  other  side  a  down  track. 

The  cost  of  this  track  of  imported  steel  rails  is  calculated  at  50 
pesetas  (about  $  1 0)  per  running  metre  located  and  finished  for  use.  So 
far  the  trial  piece  has  been  in  use  for  1£  years  without  any  further  ex- 
pense for  maintenance. 

TlJEODOR   MERTENS, 

Consular  Agent. 
United  States  Consular  Agency, 
Grao  of  Valencia,  December  22,  1890. 


MALAGA. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  NEWSON. 

In  this  section  of  Spain  but  little  attention  is  paid  to  streets.  Some 
in  this  city  are  macadamized,  some  are  paved  with  syenitic  blocks,  a 
species  of  granite,  and  one  street  has  the  Nicholson  pavement.  The 
roads  in  the  country  are  generally  narrow,  traveled  mostly  by  donkeys, 
and  but  little  cared  for.  The  most  popular  mode  is  macadamiziug. 
Some  of  these  roads  are  very  good,  especially  that  leading  to  the  light- 
house. 

T.  M.  Newson, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Malaga,  Spain,  February  G,  1891. 


GIBRALTAR. 

REPORT  BT  CONSUL  SPRAGUE. 

There  are  no  country  roads  in  .Gibraltar;  the  Rock  is  only  3  miles  in 
length,  its  greatest  breadth  three-quarters  of  a  mile,  and  its  circumfer- 
ence about  7  miles. 

Its  acreage  (including  the  north  front,  which  is  chiefly  used  for  a 
parade  ground)  is  about  1,266  acres,  of  which  about  22  acres  (public 
property)  are  reserved  as  garden  ground. 

By  this  it  will  be  clearly  seen  that  very  little  information  can  be 
obtained  here  likely  to  prove  of  any  utility  for  the  purposes  required 
by  the  circular  in  question. 


EUROPE SWITZERLAND.  221 

The  streets,  public  thoroughfares,  and  walks  iu  this  British  fortress, 
and  what  relates  to  their  repairs,  besides  keeping  them  in  order  for 
general  traffic,  are  entirely  governed  by  the  local  government,  who 
from  time  to  time  appoint  sanitary  commissioners  to  act  as  such,  being 
composed  of  a  few  British  officers  and  several  members  of  the  civil 
community  of  Gibraltar. 

But  few  public  buildings  exist  in  Gibraltar,  except  military  quar- 
ters and  barracks,  whicb  are  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the 
royal  engineer  department. 

The  streets  and  roads  are  somewhat  inconveniently  narrow  and  are 
chiefly  made  from  limestone,  which  is  obtained  from  the  quarries  on  the 
north  side  of  the  rock,  where  the  stones  are  broken  and  prepared  for 
use  as  shingle  before  being  brought  into  the  town  for  macadamizing 
most  of  the  roads  and  some  of  the  streets,  by  being  mixed  with 
cement,  gravel,  and  sand  previous  to  being  laid  down,  adding  on  some 
occasions,  as  required,  granite  shingle  imported  directly  from  Scot- 
land, thereby  forming  with  water  a  species  of  very  solid  concrete. 

They  prove  to  be  the  most  handy,  economical,  and  durable  kinds  of 
pavement  for  this  climate,  though  requiring  constant  irrigation  to  lay 
the  dust  during  dry  weather. 

Three  of  the  principal  streets,  however,  are  paved  with  wooden 
blocks  and  cement,  greatly  facilitating  general  traffic,  but  its  excessive 
cost  prevents  its  more  extensive  adoption. 

Heavy  traffic  is  conducted  by  wagons  and  truck  carts  drawn  by 
mules,  and  the  light  traffic  by  cabs  and  by  means  of  small  hand  carts. 

The  cost  of  building  road  and  street  pavements  is  as  follows  : 

For  heavy  traffic. — Wood  blocks  on  a  base  of  cement  concrete,  $5  per 
superficial  yard ;  cement  concrete  in  granite  shingle,  6  inches  thick 
on  a  bed  of  lime  concrete  and  limestone  shingle  9  inches  thick,  $2  per 
superficial  yard;  metaling  in  granite  shingle  (upper  portion),  $1  per 
superficial  yard. 

For  light  traffic. — Metaling  iu  limestone  shingle,  GO  cents  per  super- 
ficial yard  ;  pathways  in  cement  concrete  with  fine  limestone  shingle, 
$1  per  superficial  yard. 

Horatio  1.  Sprague, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Gibraltar,  December  11,  18S9. 


SWITZERLAND. 

BEPOKT  BY  CONSUL  UATL1N,  OF  ZURICH. 

It  may  with  safety  be  stated  that  in  no  country  in  the  world  is  the 
construction  of  roadways  carried  out  with  more  scientific;  skill  and 
thoroughness  than  in  Switzerland.    The   mountainous  nature  of  *he 


222  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

couutry,  the  consequent  difficulty  of  providing  means  of  easy  communi- 
cation between  points  located  in  comparative  proximity  to  each  other, 
and  the  severe  tests  to  which  roads,  even  when  once  constructed,  are 
subjected  by  the  violence  of  storms  and  the  sudden  swelling  of  water 
courses,  have  from  the  earliest  period  rendered  the  subject  of  road  build- 
ing one  of  primary  importance  to  the  dwellers  in  the  Alps.  It  is  a  cu- 
rious tribute  to  the  skill  and  intelligence  of  the  Romans  that,  in  locating 
their  Alpine  roads,  they  followed  precisely  the  methods  recognized  as 
best  by  road  builders  of  the  present  time.  They  seldom,  and  then  only 
ill  case  of  need,  built  a  road  far  down  on  a  mouutain  side;  they  fol- 
lowed the  sunny  side  of  the  mountains,  accommodated  themselves  to  the 
lay  of  the  laud,  and  avoided  great  valley  crossings,  thus  greatly  dimin- 
ishing the  cost  of  the  roads,  and,  what  was  to  them  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance, remarkably  facilitating  their  maintenance.  Upon  this  plan 
they  constructed  the  St.  Beruhard,  Simplon,  Luckmanier,  Bernardin, 
Spluegen,  Septimer,  and  Julier  roads,  all  of  them  well-known  routes  at 
the  present  day. 

Nor  were  the  Boman  valley  roads  through  Switzerland  less  judici- 
ously laid  out  or  less  thoroughly  constructed,  for  they  coiucide  in  the 
main  with  the  leading  railway  or  post  routes  of  the  present  time.  The 
principal  ones  were  (1)  Vevey  to  Solothurn  to  Basel ;  (2)  Vevey  to 
Geneva;  (Gex  to  Payerne  to  Avenches,  with  six  branches;  (4)  Basel  to 
WindisCh  (Vindonissa)  to  Baden  to  Wiuterthur  to  Arbon  (Lake  of  Cou- 
stanz)  to  Bregeuz ;  (5)  Wiudisch  to  Zurzach ;  (0)  Windisch  to  Solo- 
thurn, (7)  Chur  to  Maienfeld  to  Vaduz  to  Feldkirck  to  Bregenz;  (8) 
Bagaz  to  St.  Margretheu ;  (9)  Zurich  (along  the  Lake  of  Zurich  and 
the  Wellenses)  to  Bagaz  and  over  the  Kunkel  Pass  to  Beicheuau. 

For  nearly  2,000  years  these  roads  served  as  the  means  of  interna- 
tional communication  between  France  and  Germany  ou  the  one  hand  and 
Italy  on  the  other,  inasmuch  as  up  to  the  eighteenth  century,  no  great 
changes  in  or  additions  to  them  had  been  made.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  the  Graubuenden  passes,  and  preferably  among  them  the  road  over 
the  Septimer,  were  used.  The  St.  Gotthard  Pass  is  first  mentioned  in 
the  fourteenth  century.  Up  to  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  not 
one  of  the  roads  leading  over  the  Swiss  Alps  was  in  condition  to  be 
ridden  over  in  an  unbroken  journey  for  its  entire  length.  In  1696  an 
important  era  in  Swiss  road  building  was  ushered  in  by  the  first  use  of 
blasting  powder  on  the  roadway  over  the  Albula  Pass,  but  it  was  not 
until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  a  systematic  effort  was 
begun  to  put  the  Alpine  roads  once  more  in  an  adequate  state  of  repair. 
The  rivalry  of  the  newly  developed  roadway  over  the  Mont  Cenis  con- 
duced somewhat  to  its  activity.  Toward  the  end  of  the  same  century 
France  turned  its  attention  more  closely  to  the  Simplon  route  as  well. 
The  latter  roadway  was  a  great  saving  of  time  and  distance,  for  it  had 
already  happened  that  merchandise  from  St.  Gallon,  destined  for  Turin, 
had  to  be  sent  by  the  long  roundabout  way  of  Geneva  and  Mont  Cenis. 


EUROPE SWITZERLAND.  223 

From  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  on  there  is  also  noticeable 
a  revived  interest  in  road  building  in  the  interior  of  Switzerland.  In  1740 
Berne  inaugurated  a  series  of  fine  roadways,  varying  from  10  to  12  me- 
tres in  breadth,  viz  :  (1)  Berne  to  Zurich  ;  (2)  the  Kystenstrasse  via 
Burgdorf;  (3)  Berne  to  Solo th urn;  (1)  Berne  to  Basel;  (5)  Berue  to 
Thuu;  (6)  the  Aargauerstalden,  and  (7)  the  Muristalden.  Up  to  the 
end  of  the  last  century  Zurich  could  only  point  to  four  turnpikes  worthy 
of  the  name,  viz:  Those  leading  to  Schaffbausen,  to  Baden,  to  St.  Gal- 
len  (via  Wiuterthur),  and  to  Frauenfeld.  Between  1774  and  1778,  Can- 
ton St.  Gallen  constructed  her  first  great  roadway,  leading  from  Staad 
on  Lake  Constance,  through  the  town  of  St.  Gallen,  to  Wyl;  this  she 
followed  up  somewhat  later  by  constructing  the  Toggenburger  pike. 
Canton  Thurgau  constructed  between  177G  and  1781  the  first  roadway 
from  Frauenfeld  (its  capital)  to  Mazzingen,  from  Mazzingen  to  Wyl  and 
Elgg,  and  from  Islikon,  through  Frauenfeld,  to  Constance.  Canton 
Basel,  to  which  broad  pikes  from  Germany  and  France  gave  access, 
con tinMed  the  same  onward  into  the  interior  of  Switzerland  in  four  lines, 
viz:  (1)  Along  the  Birs  to  Neufchatel ;  (2)  over  the  Boetzburg  to  Bragg; 
(3)  by  way  of  Olteu  to  Lucerne,  and  (4)  to  Solothurn  and  Berne.  These 
thoroughfares  were  practically  the  only  means  of  intercommunication 
in  Switzerland  during  the  better  part  of  the  last  century.  If  they  seem 
sparse  and  inadequate,  it  may  on  the  other  hand  be  stated  that  Switzer- 
land was  in  tbis  respect  no  worse  off  than  the  other  European  countries 
of  that  day,  England  not  even  excepted.  The  slowness  of  Europe's 
reawakening  from  the  long  night  of  the  Dark  Ages  is  perhaps  nowhere 
more  noticeable  than  in  this  regard. 

But  from  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  Switzerland  has 
been  making  up  for  lost  time.  According  to  the  estimate  of  Mr.  S. 
Bavier,  Swiss  minister  to  Italy,  who.  in  1878,  published  a  most  inter- 
esting work  entitled  "  Die  Strassen  der  Schweiz,"  and  from  which  the 
historical  facts  herewith  given  are  derived,  there  were  at  that  time 
13,500  kilometers  (8,388  miles)  of  turnpike  roads  in  the  country,  or 
about  3  miles  of  road  to  every  thousand  of  population.  With  justice, 
Mr.  Bavier  observes  that  Switzerland's  network  of  highroads  extend- 
ing even  to  her  remotest  valleys,  constitutes  the  pride  and  glory  of  the 
laud. 

The  canton  of  Zurich  is  no  exception  to  this  rule.  Her  public  high- 
ways are  models  in  every  respect,  as  every  stranger,  who  has  ever  passed 
over  them,  whether  on  foot,  on  bicycle,  or  in  vehicle,  will  readily  testify. 
The  cantonal  law  pertaining  to  the  construction  and  maintenance  of 
these  highways  gives  such  a  clear  insight  into  the  subject  that  I  have 
deemed  it  best  to  translate  the  greater  part  of  it  and  to  incorporate  it 
herewith,  viz : 


224  STREETS   AND   HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Law  op  January  1,  1871,  Concerning  Highroads, 
i.— classification  of  roads. 

(1)  The  public  roads  of  the  canton  of  Zurich  shall  be  divided  into  three  classes  : 
To  the  first  class  (turnpikes)  belong  those  roads  which  serve  as  means  of  commu- 
nication between  the  larger  sections  of  the  canton,  embracing  several  townships,  or 
connecting  with  similar  roads  in  adjoining  cantons. 

To  the  second  class  (connecting  roads)  belong  those  roads  which  serve  to  connect 
the  chief  sections  of  a  single  township  with  each  other,  or  with  first-class  roads,  or 
with  railway  and  steamboat  stations. 

To  the  third  class  (side  roads)  belong  all  those  roads  not  embraced  in  the  first  and 
second  classes,  as  well  as  all  public  footpaths. 

(2)  The  following  authorities  are  competent  to  take  action  with  regard  to  classifi- 
cation, construction,  and  repairs  of  roads  (with  reserve  as  to  Sections  5  and  6  of  Art. 
31  of  the  constitution  (viz:  For  first  class  roads,  the  cantonal  council;  for  second 
class  roads,  the  district  council,  subject  to  the  cantonal  council's  approval;  for  third 
class  roads,  the  township. 

Where  several  townships  are  concerned  in  the  case  of  a  third-class  road,  and  no 
understanding  can  be  reached,  or  when  the  minority  in  any  township  feels  that  its 
rights  are  infringed  upon,  the  decision  of  the  poiut  in  dispute  rests,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, with  the  district  council. 

No  decision  shall  be  made  except  after  a  technical  examination  of  the  project,  and, 
in  the  case  of  first  and  second-class  roads,  the  wishes  and  views  of  the  interested 
townships  shall  be  heard. 

(3)  The  classification  of  roads  shall  be  subject  to  revision  every  10  years. 

II.— OBLIGATIONS    CONCERNING    THE   CONSTRUCTION    AND    MAINTENANCE   OP  ROADS. 

(4)  The  construction  and  maintenance  of  first-class  roads  pertain  to  the  canton, 
excepting  the  transportation  of  the  materials  (earth  not  included)  necessary  thereto, 
the  removal  of  rubbish,  the  clearing  away  of  snow,  the  employment  of  assistant 
workmen,  and  the  putting  up  of  guide-posts  and  snow-marks,  all  of  which  services 
pertain  to  the  townships. 

(5)  The  construction  and  maintenance  of  second  and  third  class  roads  pertain  to 
the  townships  through  whose  jurisdiction  they  pass. 

(6)  The  canton,  however,  in  the  case  of  second-class  roads,  undertakes,  at  its  own 
expense,  the  preliminary  technical  work  and  superintendence  of  construction,  and 
pays,  in  addition,  a  contribution  to  the  cost  of  the  same.  This  contribution  (with 
reserve  as  to  the  exception  mentioned  in  paragraph  8)  may  vary  from  one-sixth  ti> 
one-third  of  the  cost,  aud  shall  be  fixed  by  the  government  council  according  to  th.i 
importance  of  the  road  and  the  financial  capacity  of  the  townships  concerned. 

The  canton  shares  in  the  cost  of  maintaining  second-class  roads  by  paying  for  tb* 
requisite  road-keepers. 

Where  a  township  is  either  not  traversed  at  all  by  a  contemplated  second-clas» 
road,  or  is  only  traversed  by  it  to  a  slight  extent,  aud  yet  it  is  to  derive  an  actual 
beuefit  from  the  said  road,  it  may  be  held  responsible  by  the  district  council  for  a 
proportional  share  of  the  cost  of  its  establishment  in  a  neighboring  township,  witU 
the  right  to  appeal  to  the  government  council. 

(7)  The  canton  shall  pay  proportional  damages  to  the  townships  in  which  second 
and  third  class  roads  are  to  any  extent  injured  by  the  hauling  of  wood  from  the  can- 
tonel  forests,  or  by  the  working  of  cantonel  mines. 

(8)  In  the  case  of  first  and  second  class  roads  laid  out  with  sidewalks,  pavements, 
gutters,  etc.,  the  excess  of  cost  for  construction  and  maintenance  falls  to  the  expense 
of  the  townships  concerned. 

(9)  When  the  legal  requirements  upon  any  township  prove,  in  consequence  of 
special  conditions,  exceedingly  burdensome,  they  are  to  be  proportionally  lightened 
by  the  canton. 


EUROPE SWITZERLAND.  225 

(10)  Private  obligations  hitherto  in  force  with  regard  to  the  construction  and  main- 
tenance of  roads  and.  bridges  shall  remain  so,  but  may  be  commuted  on  demand  of 
the  parties  concerned. 

III.— DIRECTIONS   FOR  THE   CONSTRUCTION   AI^D   MAINTENANCE   OF   ROADS. 

(11)  The  "width  of  driveway,  with  footway,  shall  be,  for  first-class  roads,  not  less 
than  18  feet  (5.4  metres) ;  for  second-class  roads,  not  less  than  15  feet  (4.5  metres) ; 
for  third-class  roads,  not  less  than  12  feet  (3.6  metres).  In  each  individual  instance 
the  width  of  a  road  shall  be  fixed  accordingly  to  the  requirements  of  the  case  by  the 
competent  authorities. 

The  area  of  the  roadway  shall,  in  addition  to  the  road  itself,  include  a  width  for 
slope,  ditch,  or  border  on  each  side  as  follows:  For  first-class  roads,  not  less  than  3 
feet  (0.9  metre) ;  for  second-class  roads,  not  less  than  2.5  feet  (0.75  metre)  ;  for  third- 
class  roads,  not  less  than  2  feet  (0.6  metres).  Exceptions  to  these  rules  may  be  made 
i  n  the  case  of  first  and  second  class  roads  by  the  government  council,  and  in  the  case  of 
third-class  roads  by  the  district  council. 

(12)  On  straight  or  slightly-curved  stretches  of  road  the  surface  is  rounded;  on 
heavy  curves  there  is  an  Inward  slope  of  at  least  one  one-hundredth  of  the.  width. 

(13)  The  actual  roadway  must,  for  first-class  roads,  be  at  least  15  feet  (4.5  meters), 
and  for  second-class  roads  at  least  12  feet  (3.6  meters)  wide,  and  must  consist  of  a 
thick  layer  of  stone  at  least  1  foot  in  depth.  The  upper  stratum  of  this  layer  must 
be  at  least  3  inches  (0.09  meters)  deep,  and  shall  contain  no  stones  of  over  an  inch 
and  a  half  (0.045  meters)  in  diameter.  Fine  gravel  shall  be  used  for  the  footpaths 
on  each  side  of  the  roadway. 

(14)  When  the  adjoining  land  does  not  lie  at  least  1  foot  (0.3  meter)  below  the 
level  of  the  border  of  the  road,  side  ditches  or  paved  borders  are  to  be  placed. 

(15)  Earthen  slopes,  at  embankments,  or  cuts  must  be  at  least  1  foot  in  measure- 
ment (with  an  inclination  of  not  over  45  degrees). 

(16)  At  dangerous  points  the  roads  must  be  provided  with  fences. 

(17)  The  boundary  of  the  roadway  must  be  marked  out.  Each  two  opposite  stones 
determine  its  width,  inclusive  of  ditch  or  border.  The  boundary  marks  are  to  be 
placed  along  the  roads  at  regular  distances  of  not  over  200  feet  (60  meters). 

(18)  Guideposts  shall  be  erected  where  two  or  more  roads  unite,  and  when  a  neces- 
sity therefor  exists. 

(19)  In  order  that  roads  may  be  kept  in  a  normal  condition,  they  shall  be,  whenever 
necessary,  covered  with  properly  prepared  gravel,  a  sufficient  supply  of  which  shall 
always  be  kept  on  hand.  When  tracks  or  ruts  of  any  kind  occur  they  shall  at  once 
be  properly  leveled  off.  For  this  purpose  the  necessary  number  of  gravel-boxes  shall 
be  placed  along  all  first  and  second  class  roads,  but,  as  far  as  is  possible,  not  in  the 
interior  of  towns. 

(20)  Dust  and  mud  are  to  be  collected  into  heaps  as  it  becomes  necessary,  especi- 
ally before  gravel  is  laid  on,  and  are  to  be  removed  within  eight  days. 

(21)  With  a  view  to  the  proper  drainage  of  water,  the  sideditches  and  culverts 
shall  always  be  kept  open  and  clean. 

(22)  For  the  insurance  and  maintenance  of  traffic  the  roads  shall  be  provided  with 
timely  snow-marks,  and,  after  a  heavy  snowfall,  at  once  cleared. 

(23)  Paragraphs  11  to  14,  17,  20,  21,  and  22  do  not  apply  to  public  footpaths. 

POLICE  DIRECTIONS. 

(a)  Relative  to  territory  bordering  upon  roads. 

(24)  No  permanent  stream  of  water  shall,  without  previous  permission,  be  conducted 
to  a  roadway  from  any  adjoining  land,  building,  spring,  etc.  The  drainage,  or  flow 
of  suds  into  road  ditches  or  borders,  or  the  drainage  of  water  upon  the  road  itself, 
aa  well  as  any  pollution  of  the  same  by  rubbish,  stones,  and  sweepage  from  houeeB  or 
Stables,  etc.,  is  prohibited. 

33a 15 


226  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

(25)  Live  hedges  shall  not  be  planted  nearer  to  the  street  boundary  than  one-half 
their  height,  and  in  no  case  nearer  than  two  feet  (0.6  metre),  and  shall  not  be  allowed 
to  overgrow  said  boundway.  Other  (so-called  *'dead")  fencings  may  be  placed 
directly  outside  the  road  boundway.  In  case,  however,  they  are  closed,  as  for  in- 
stance board  fences,  walls,  etc.,  and  are  over  4  feet  (1.2  meters)  higher  than  the  road- 
way, they  are  to  be  set  back  from  the  boundary  line  the  distance  by  which  their 
height  exceeds  such  measurement. 

(26)  Forest  trees  shall  be  placed  not  nearer  than  12  feet  (3.6  metres)  nor  fruit  trees 
nearer  than  8  feet  (2.4  metres)  to  first  or  second  class  roads,  and  no  tree  whatever 
shall  be  placed  nearer  than  5  feet  (1.5  metres)  to  a  third  class  road.  Along  all  roads 
the  trunks  of  trees  are  to  be  kept  free  from  overhanging  branches  to  the  height  of 
15  feet  (4.5  metres).  The  regulation  relative  to  live  hedges  applies  to  bushes  and 
ornamental  shrubbery,  to  which  latter  class  also  belong  clipped  dwarf  fruit-trees. 

(27)  New  buildings  and  fountains  must  be  placed  at  least  8  feet  (2.4  metres)  back 
from  first  class,  and  at  least  5  feet  (1.5  metres)  back  from  second  and  third  class  roads, 
and  no  portion  of  any  building  shall  project  over  the  road.  The  law  relative  to  the 
cession  of  private  rights  may  be  applied  for  removing  existing  buildings  and  foun- 
tains to  the  distance  stated. 

(28)  Open  water-conduits,  reservoirs,  and  manure  heaps  in  the  vicinity  of  road- 
ways shall  be  properly  covered  or  inclosed,  and  must  not  be  placed  nearer  than  4 
feet  (1.2  metres)  to  the  road;  likewise  the  unloading  of  manure,  straw,  wood,  etc., 
within  a  less  distance  than  2  feet  (0.6  metre)  of  the  roadway  is  prohibited. 

(29)  In  special  cases,  and  particularly  in  those  concerning  the  erection  of  rows  of 
buildings,  placing  fountains,  planting  trees,  etc.,  exceptions  may  be  made  by  the 
direction  of  public  works  as  for  first-class  roads,  by  the  sheriff's  office  as  for  second 
class,  and  by  the  town  council  as  for  third  class  roads. 

(b)  Relative  to  road  limits,  and  their  use. 

(30)  A  permit  is  required  for  any  alteration  in  road  limits,  for  filling  in  or  covering 
of  ditches  for  crossings,  for  placing  culverts,  borders,  and  conduit-pipes,  and  for  the 
construction  of  the  same.  Such  permits  shall  be  granted  by  the  direction  of  public 
works  for  first  class,  and  by  the  town  council  for  second  and  third  class  roads.  A  fee, 
to  be  fixed  by  resolution  of  the  government  council,  may  be  charged  for  conducting 
water  from  private  property  across  a  road,  said  fee  being  payable  to  the  cantonal 
treasury  in  the  case  of  first  class,  and  to  the  town  treasury  in  the  case  of  second  and 
third  class  roads. 

(31)  The  storing  of,  materials  of  any  kind  on  the  public  roads  is  forbidden.  When 
the  unloading  of  wood,  stone,  etc.,  on  the  road  is  unavoidable  it  must  be  done  so  as 
not  to  interfere  with  traffic,  and  the  articles  themselves,  as  well  as  the  wagon,  must 
be  removed  before  nightfall.  In  extraordinary  cases  the  unloading  of  building  ma- 
terials may  be  allowed  by  the  town  council  for  a  period  not  to  exceed  fourteen  days, 
subject  to  the  regulations  pertaining  to  the  protection  of  traffic. 

(32)  Any  act  or  contrivance  jeopardizing  road  traffic  is  prohibited.  The  holding 
of  markets  within  the  road  limits  is  only  allowed  in  so  far  as  it  does  not  interfere 
with  other  traffic. 

The  local  police  is  charged  with  the  proper  cleaning  of  the  road,  and  with  the 
repair  of  any  damages  thereto  immediately  after  the  close  of  the  market. 

(33)  Riding  and  driving  on  the  sidewalks  adjoining  the  roadway  (unless  so  ordered 
by  requisite  instructions  to  turn  out),  the  driving  of  untied  large  cattle,  the  pastur- 
ing of  stock  along  the  borders  of  the  road,  the  driving  with  fixed  wheels  without 
any  wheel-shoe,  the  dragging  of  wood  or  stone,  the  use  of  plows  too  near  to  the 
side  ditches  or  slopes,  the  damaging  of  boundary  marks,  railings,  guide-posts,  orna- 
mental trees,  etc.,  are  prohibited.  Furthermore,  the  leading  or  cleaning  of  plows 
pn  first  or  second  class  roads  can  not  be  permitted, 


EUROPE SWITZERLAND.  227 

(34)  No  driver  shall  leave  his  draft  animals  untied,  and  none  shall  sit  upon  the 
wagon  without  having  a  sure  rein  upon  them.  On  roads  of  less  than  18  feet  (5.4 
metres)  in  width  not  more  than  two  draft  animals  shall  be  harnessed  abreast;  in  no 
case  is  it  permissible  to  harness  more  than  three  abreast,  or  to  attach  two  wagons 
together,  excepting  such  as  serve  for  agricultural  work. 

(35)  Every  vehicle  shall  turn  out  to  the  right  for  any  other  vehicle  either  approach- 
ing it  from  the  opposite  direction  or  driving  up  to  it  at  a  more  rapid  rate  from  be- 
hind. The  driviug  of  two  vehicles  abreast  for  any  longer  time  than  is  required  for 
one  to  pass  is  not  admissible.     Hand  wagons  are  also  subject  to  this  regulation. 

(36)  At  night  every  vehicle  must  be  provided  with  a  bell  on  the  harness,  or  with  a 
light;  in  the  case  of  sleighs  the  former  must  also  not  be  omitted  in  the  daytime. 

(37)  Any  vehicle  or  stock  temporarily  halted  along  the  road  shall  be  kept  on  one 
6ide  so  as  to  leave  sufficient  room  for  driving  by. 

(38)  The  width  of  empty  wagons  shall  not  exceed  7  feet  (2.1  metres),  and  loads  ex- 
ceeding 9  feet  (2.7  metres)  in  width  can  only  be  allowed  in  the  case  of  materials  the 
loading  of  which  within  a  less  breadth  of  space  would  be  attended  with  unusual  dif- 
ficulty. 

(39)  Rapid  riding  or  driving  over  bridges  through  narrow  passages,  at  curves,  and 
through  inhabited  towns,  as  well  as  the  marching  in  step  of  a  great  number  of  per- 
sons over  bridges,  are  prohibited. 

(40)  Wagons  must  be  provided  with  wheels  having  tires  of  a  width  proportional 
to  the  largest  loads  admissible;  two  (or  more;  horse  wagons  shall  not  be  loaded  with 
more  than  30  centners  (1,500  kilograms)  to  each  draft  animal,  and  shall  not  have  a 
less  width  of  tire  than  1  inch  (0.03  metre)  to  each  draft  animal.  The  following  are 
exceptions  to  the  above  rule,  viz : 

(a)  Farm  wagons  used  for  carrying  of  goods  or  for  harvesting  crops. 

(b)  Vehicles  for  personal  transportation  or  military  purposes. 

(o)  Vehicles  for  the  transportation  of  heavy  objects  which  can  not  be  taken  apart, 
such  as  tree- trunks,  stone  blocks,  pieces  of  iron,  machinery,  etc.  Such  vehicles  must 
nevertheless  have  a  width  of  tire  of  not  less  than  6  inches  (0.18  metres). 

(c)  •  Concerning  public  foot-paths. 

(41)  The  provisions  of  sections  24,  28,  30,  31,  and  32  apply  also  to  public  foot-paths ; 
on  the  other  hand,  sections  25,  26,  and  27  may  only  be  applied  to  the  latter  by  special 
resolution  of  the  competent  authorities. 

(42)  Riding  and  driving  on  public  foot-paths,  as  well  as  the  driving  of  cattle  on 
the  same,  in  so  far  as  it  is  not  rendered  necessary  by  unusual  circumstances,  are  pro- 
hibited. 

(d)  Penalties. 

(43)  Disregard  of  the  instructions  contained  in  section  iv  will  bo  regarded  as  tres- 
pass, and  subject  to  a  penalty  of  from  2  to  50  francs. 

(44)  Any  one  damaging  a  road  is  obliged  to  repair  the  damage  or  make  compensa- 
tion therefor. 

(45)  Owners  of  vehicles  or  driver  of  cattle  are  responsible  for  trespasses  or  damages 
caused  by  persons  iu  their  employ. 

V.— SUPERINTENDENCE  AND  ENFORCEMENT. 

(46)  The  chief  superintendence  of  all  matters  pertaining  to  roads  is  vested  in  the 
government  council,  and  under  it,  in  the  direction  of  public  works  to  whom,  outside 
of  the  district  and  the  township  authorities,  the  cantonal  surveyor,  the  circuit  sur- 
veyors, the  overseer,  and  the  road  keepers  are  subject  fur  the  carrying  out  of  the  law. 

Tin-  government  council  shall,  by  promulgating  the  proper  instructions, define  i o 

clearly  the  functions  of  the  aforesaid  officials  and  employes. 

(47)  The  sheriffs  offices  have  a  general  superintendence  over  all  matters  pertaining 
to  roads,  they  watch  over  the  fulfillment  of  obligations  by  the  townships  in  regard 
thereto,  and  are  in  general  charged  with  the  enforcement  of  the  law, 


228  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

(48)  Town  councils  are  charged  with  the  duty  of  looking  after  all  matters  pertain- 
ing to  roads  in  their  respective  townships,  as  well  as  with  the  maintenance  of  the 
provisions  for  the  policing  of  roads,  and  with  the  oversight  of  road-keepers  on  third- 
class  roads.  In  cases  where  the  town  council  does  not  possess  adequate  jurisdiction, 
it  shall  apply  to  the  sheriff's  office. 

(49)  When  townships  or  private  individuals  fail  to  comply  with  any  demand  made 
upon  them  under  the  provisions  of  the  present  law,  execution  may  be  decreed  at  cost 
of  the  delinquent. 

(50)  Road  keepers  for  first-class  roads  should  be  chosen  by  the  direction  of  publio 
works;  those  for  second-class  roads  by  the  sheriffs  offices,  subject  to  approval  by 
the  direction  of  public  works,  and  those  for  third-class  roads  by  the  town  councils. 
The  number  and  compensation  of  the  same  for  first  and  second  class  roads  shall  do 
determined  by  the  government  council,  and  for  third-class  roads  by  the  town 
councils. 

(51)  Town  councils  shall  keep  lists  of  all  the  public  roads  and  footpaths  within 
their  respective  townships. 

VI.— IN  RELATION  TO  CITIES. 

(52)  The  cities  of  Zurich  and  Winterthur  are  charged  with  the  laying  out,  repair* 
and  maintenance  of  all  streets  within  their  respective  limits.  The  canton  contrib- 
utes an  amount  not  to  exceed  one-third  toward  the  original  construction  or  repair  of 
such  streets  as  are  intended  for  through  traffic,  such  amount  to  be  proportioned 
according  to  the  general  importance  of  the  street.  But  in  estimating  such  cost  of 
original  construction,  except  in  unusual  cases,  neither  the  expenses  of  expropriation 
or  buildings,  nor  those  outlays  necessitated  especially  for  city  purposes,  such  as 
street  pavements,  sidewalks,  drainage-sewers,  etc.,  are  to  be  taken  into  account. 

(57)  This  law  shall  take  effect  May  1,  1871. 

(58)  The  government  council  is  charged  with  the  execution  of  this  law. 
Zurich,  Dec.  21,  1870. 

In  the  name  of  the  cantonal  council. 

R.  Zangger, 

President. 
Bosshard, 
Second  Secretary. 

Under  the  provisions  of  the  foregoing  law,  a  careful  study  of  which 
in  all  its  various  details  is  commended  to  those  interested  in  road  build- 
ing, the  canton  of  Zurich  last  year  operated  622.36  kilometres  (386 
miles)  of  first-class,  and  744.21  kilometres  (462  miles)  of  second-class 
roads,  employing  for  the  former  173,  and  for  the  latter  180  road  keepers* 

COST  PER  MILE  PER  ANNUM. 

Now,  taking  for  instance  the  first-class  roads,  it  is  of  interest  to  as- 
certain what  their  maintenance  cost  per  mile  in  dollars  and  cents  for 
one  year. 


EUROPE SWITZERLAND.  229 

The  outlays  were : 

Francs. 

Purchase  of  gravel  bed 3, 133.  55 

Uncovering  and  cleaning  gravel 23, 205. 74 

Bridges,  sewers,  and  walls IB,  137.  48 

Marks,  signals,  superintendence 9,803.55 

Compensation  paid  to  townships 18,633.20 

Salaries  and  awards  to  road-keepers 79, 378.  80 

Gross  outlay 152,282.32 

From  which  deduct  for  receipts 7, 670.  40 

Leaving  a  net  outlay  of 144,611.92 

For  maintenance  of  622.3G  kilometres,  i.  e.,  an  outlay  of  232.30  francs 
per  kilometre,  which  is  equivalent  to  373.99  fraucs,  or  $72.18.  This,  of 
course,  would  be  somewhat  higher,  however,  than  the  average,  as  it 
includes  the  purchase  of  a  gravel  bed,  the  cost  of  which  should,  instead 
of  being  reckoned  in  any  single  year,  be  distributed  over  a  number  of 
years. 

STREETS  OF  ZURICH. 

It  may  be  safely  stated  that  in  no  city  of  the  world  are  the  streets 
more  substantially  constructed,  more  thoroughly  and  at  the  same  time 
economically  maintained,  or  more  cleauly  kept  than  in  Zurich.  Their 
neatness  and  cleanliness  invariably  excite  the  remark  and  elicit  the 
admiration  of  the  observant  stranger.  In  order  to  give  a  general  idea 
of  the  method  of  construction,  materials  used,  etc.,  in  the  different 
kinds  of  streets,  I  have  obtained  from  the  city  surveyor's  office,  and 
forward  with  this  report,  profiles  of  (1)  an  ordinary  street  in  Zurich, 
(2)  the  Limmat  Quay,  and  (3)  the  principal  boulevard,  the  Bahnhof- 
strasse,  universally  admitted  to  be  the  finest  street  in  any  Swiss  city. 
These  profiles  give  in  themselves  a  full  and  detailed  description  as  to 
grades,  measurements,  materials,  etc.,  and  will  be  found  of  especial 
value  to  those  technically  interested  in  this  subject.  With  a  view  to 
ascertaining  further  particulars  relative  to  the  cost  of  constructing  and 
maintaining  the  streets  of  Zurich,  I  addressed  a  series  of  questions  to 
the  city  surveyor  covering  the  points  stated  in  the  Department's  circu- 
lar of  inquiry,  arid  have  received  very  full  replies  thereto,  which,  with 
the  questions,  I  append  herewith. 

According  to  article  53  of  the  cantonal  law,  said  law,  so  far  as  con- 
cerns sections  I  to  V,  has  no  application  to  the  cities  of  Zurich  and 
Winterthur.  The  limit  of  public  ground  occupied  by  the  streets  coin- 
cides with  the  street  borders,  that  is  to  say  the  street  lines;  embank- 
ments, in  case  there  are  such,  lie  on  private  ground.  The  building 
lines  coincide,  as  a  rule,  with  the  street  lines.  In  individual  cases  they 
lie  further  back,  so  that  gardens  may  be  placed  before  the  houses.  In 
the  older  quarters  of  the  city  the  width  of  the  streets  has  been  handed 
down  from  former  times.     Newly  laid  out  streets  have  a  minimum 


230 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


width  of  12  metres,  and,  according  to  their  importance,  a  width  of 
15  metres  and  upward.  All  streets  have  raised  sidewalks  with  granite 
curbs.  The  center  of  the  driveway  is  of  the  height  of  the  curb,  and 
slopes  off,  so  that  the  surface  lies  10  or  12  centimetres  lower  than  the 
latter.  The  sidewalks  have  an  inward  slope  (toward  the  street)  of  5 
per  cent.  The  street  is  graded  according  to  the  land  and  to  its  own  im- 
portance as  a  highway. 

The  street  driveways  are  either  (1)  laid  in  concrete,  (2)  paved  with 
stone,  (3)  or  provided  with  pressed  asphalt  or  (4)  with  wooden  blocks. 
The  sidewalks  are  of  concrete,  with  either  stone  pavement,  or  with 
melted  or  pressed  asphalt  covering. 

The  cost  of  first  construction  is  as  follows : 


Description. 

Driveway 

(per  square 

yard). 

Sidewalk 

(per  square 

yard). 

Francs. 
3.34 
7.52 

Francs. 
2.09 

7.52 

9.20 

12.87 
12.29 

9.36 

The  cost  of  annual  maintenance  is  as  follows:  Concrete,  0.92  to  0.42 
francs;  stone  pavement,  0.50  to  0.17  francs;  melted  asphalt,  0.42  francs. 

It  is  to  be  assumed  that  the  stone  pavements  of  driveways  must  be 
renewed  every  17  years,  and  the  melted  asphalt  on  the  sidewalks  every 
10  years. 

The  street  commission  has  thus  far  had  no  experience  as  regards  the 
maintenance  of  pressed  asphalt  or  wooden  blocks,  inasmuch  as  these 
latter  have  only  been  introduced  of  late  years. 

Formerly  this  work  was  charged  to  a  special  account,  redeemable  in 
30  years,  but  now  it  is  paid  from  the  direct  revenues  of  the  city,  con- 
sisting in  the  funds  derived  from  real  estate,  capital,  fees,  and  taxes. 

Formerly  all  the  streets  in  the  interior  of  the  city  were  provided 
with  pavements  of  an  inferior  quality,  which,  however,  about  the  year 
1865,  were  replaced  by  new  stone  pavements,  which  still  p  artially  exist 
The  newly  constructed  streets  of  the  last  thirty  yeaue  or  so,  especially 
those  in  quarters  of  the  city  not  so  closely  built  up,  are  all  provided 
with  concrete  driveways,  and  with  paved  crossings  for  pedestrians  at 
the  most  frequented  points.  Pressed  asphalt  and  wood  blocks  are  put 
down  in  streets  in  which  it  is  important  to  prevent  noise  and  dust. 

All  sidewalks  in  the  interior  of  the  city  are  either  paved  or  laid  with 
melted  asphalt;  in  the  outer  quarters  they  are  mostly  of  concrete 
only.  Pressed  asphalt  is  only  used  on  the  sidewalks  of  the  two  prin- 
cipal streets  of  the  inner  city,  namely,  the  Bahnhofstrasse  and  the 
I.immat  Quay. 


EUROPE — SWITZERLAND.  231 

In  tbe  choice  of  either  one  or  the  other  kind  of  construction  for  a  street, 
reference  is  had  more  particularly  to  the  amount  of  disposable  funds 
rather  than  to  the  question  of  heavy  or  light  traffic  thereon. 

Unquestionably  the  condition  of  a  street  affects  -the  adjacent  prop- 
erty, and  a  good  pavement  certaiidy  contributes  more  to  values  than 
where  the  street  is  merely  laid  in  concrete.  To  what  extent  this  exists 
it  would,  however,  be  difficult  to  give  in  figures;  nothing  has  as  yet 
been  done  here  in  such  direction.  It  may  only  be  mentioned  that  in 
laying  down  a  raised  sidewalk  half  the  expense  as  well  as  half  the  cost 
of  repairs  must  be  paid  by  the  owners  of  the  property  fronting  thereon. 
This  ordinance  is  embraced  in  the  law  of  June  30,  18G3,  relative  to  the 
cities  of  Zurich  and  Winterthur.  In  the  laying  down  of  the  newly 
widened  Limmat  Quay  the  property  owners  fronting  thereon  pay  the 
difference  between  the  wooden  block  pavement  actually  used  and  the 
stone  pavement  previously  contemplated. 

George  L.  Catlin, 

United  States  Consulate,  Consul. 

Zurich,  January  20,  1891. 


232  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


CROSS    PROFILE,     1:100. 
Street  and  Sidewalk  Causewayed. 


SLWER. 


CROSS    PROFILE    OF    THE    LIMMAT    QUAY,    1:100. 
Street,   Wooden    Pavement. 


CROSS    PROFILE    OF    BRAHNHOF    STREET,    1:100. 
Street   Paved. 


_,--ss= setre/f. 


EUROPE SWITZERLAND.  233 


SWITZERLAND. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  ADAMS,  OF  MORQEN. 
ROADWAYS  OF  SWITZERLAND. 

In  any  country  the  oldest  artificial  roadways  are  more  recent  than 
the  original  routes  of  migration,  travel,  and  commerce.  There  is  evi- 
dence of  active  intercourse  along  such  natural  routes  between  the 
primitive  communities  of  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  France  for  many  cen- 
turies before  the  Christian  era.  What  is  now  Lombardy  was  connected 
with  eastern  Switzerland  by  the  Julier,  Septimer,  Spliigen,  and  Ber- 
nadino  passes,  Piedmont  with  western  Switzerland  by  the  Grand  St. 
Bernard,  and  the  lake  of  Geneva  with  the  Phoenician  colony  of  Mar- 
seilles by  a  route  following  the  Rhone  Valley.  This  last  line  and  the 
Grand  St.  Bernard  were  joined  by  another  running  from  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Lyons  over  the  Little  St.  Bernard  to  Aosta.  All  these  routes 
differed  from  the  local  pathways  leading  from  one  camping  ground  or 
hamlet  to  another  only  as  they  were  more  frequented  and  therefore 
better  trodden.  The  modern  roadways  of  Switzerland,  and  of  Europe 
generally,  originated  with  the  Roman  engineers  in  the  last  century  be- 
fore Christ.  Constructed  in  the  first  instance  for  the  march  of  armies 
and  the  postal  service  of  the  empire,  they  were  promptly  occupied  by 
the  tributary  commerce  which  poured  into  Italy  with  augmented  vol- 
ume as  the  dimensions  of  the  empire  increased.  When  the  northern 
frontier  was  finally  established  along  the  line  of  the  Danube  and  the 
Rhine,  the  Swiss  roads  acquired  at  once  the  character  of  transcon- 
tinental and  international  routes  which  they  have  retained  ever  since. 
Before  the  end  of  the  third  century  two  great  systems  of  elaborately 
constructed  highways  connected  northern  Italy,  across  Swiss  territory, 
with  Gaul  and  Germany.  In  the  west  the  Grand  St.  Bernard  led  from 
Aosta  to  Martigny,  on  the  upper  Rhdne,  where  it  was  joined  by  the 
Sim plon  coming  from  Lago  Maggiore ;  from  Martigny  the  route  was 
prolonged  to  Vevey,  Soleure,  and  Augst,  near  Bale,  whence  it  descended 
the  Rhine  northwards  into  Germany.  This  great  line  sent  off  two  lateral 
spurs  into  Gaul,  one  by  Geneva  and  the  lower  Rhone  Valley,  the  other 
by  Poutarlier  to  Besacnon.  In  the  east  parallel  routes  led  from  the 
Italian  lakes  and  Milan  over  the  Spliigen,  Septimer,  and  Julier  to  Chur 
and  the  lake  of  Constance.  The  two  systems  were  connected  in  the 
north  by  running  from  the  upper  Rhine  and  Lake  Constance  to  Soleure 
and  Bale.  These  main  lines  threw  out  local  branches  to  all  the  impor- 
tant towns  and  military  stations  of  the  country. 

In  the  breaking  up  of  society  which  followed  the  invasion  of  the 
barbarians  and  the  fall  of  the  Empire,  the  Roman  roads,  although  in 
continued  use,  fell  out  of  repair  and  finally  into  ruin  ;  nor  was  any  seri- 
ous attempt  made  to  restore  or  replace  them  until  the  modern  communi- 
ties of  Europe  were  definitely  constituted  and  brought  into  sustained 


234  STREETS   AND   HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

intercourse  with  one  another.  As  the  geographical  center  of  the  con- 
tinent, Switzerland  was  one  of  the  first  countries  to  profit  by  the  revival 
of  the  European  movement.  A  new  route  was  "carried  over  the  St. 
Gotthard  in  the  twelfth  century  ;  the  other  passes  into  Italy,  especially 
those  diverging  from  Ohur,  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Rhine,  recovered 
something  of  their  ancient  importance;  and  the  Julier  in  particular 
was  improved  to  accommodate  the  oriental  traffic  which  flowed  through 
Venice  until  the  discovery  of  the  ocean  passage  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope;  much,  too,  was  done  to  facilitate  local  communications  between 
different  parts  of  the  country.  But  with  all  this  activity  and  improve- 
ment the  Swiss  roadways  remained  everywhere  in  bad  condition  down 
to  the  end  of  the  last  century.  Partly  from  faults  of  construction, 
partly  from  subsequent  neglect,  most  of  them  were  footpaths  for  pedes- 
trians and  pack-horses,  and  the  best  only  admitted  the  passage  of  small 
vehicles  solidly  built  and  lightly  loaded.  To  this  are  to  be  added  the 
burdensome  tolls  and  taxes  in  great  variety  exacted  by  the  local  com- 
munities, the  last  of  which  were  suppressed  by  the  federal  government 
in  1848.  In  singular  contrast  with  the  immense  development  of  archi- 
tectural engineering  throughout  Europe  during  and  since  the  Middle 
Ages,  the  Swiss  roads  are  practically  the  creation  of  the  nineteenth  cen. 
tury. 

The  first  great  construction  of  the  new  era  was  the  Simplon,  begun  in 
1800  by  the  Emperor  Napoleon  and  finished  in  1804.  The  Simplon  was 
followed  by  the  Bernadino  (1818-1821),  the  Splugen  (1818-1823),  the 
Julier  (1820-1826),  the  Maloja  (1827-1828),  the  St.  Gotthard  (1820-1830), 
the  Furka,  Oberalp,  Albula,  Fltiela,  Bernina,  Offenberg,  Lukmauier 
(finished  1876),  and  the  Briinig.  These  great  mountain  roads,  with  the 
highways  following  the  water-courses  or  traversing  the  lowlands,  form 
the  skeltou  of  the  system  to  which  all  the  lesser  local  roads  are  attached. 
The  system  reached  its  full  development  between  1870  and  1880  ;  for 
the  last  20  years  the  energies  of  the  country  have  gone  mostly  to  the 
extension  of  railways.  I  subjoin  a  table  giving  the  general  statistics  of 
the  principal  roadways  for  1877,  since  when  no  important  additions 
have  been  made  to  the  literature  of  the  subject.    (Annex  I.) 

The  Swiss  roadways  are  almost  entirely  in  the  control  of  the  several 
canton,  and,  uuder  the  cantion,  of  the  several  districts  and  townships. 
The  federal  government  has  declared  all  roads  free  for  public  use.  It 
exercises  a  general  supervision  over  post-roads,  and,  I  believe,  grants 
subsidies  for  the  maintenance  of  such  roads  as  have  the  character  of 
international  routes.  But  the  building,  the  repair,  and  the  police  regu- 
lation of  roads  are  in  general  left  exclusively  to  the  cantonal  and  local 
authorities.  Yet  the  system  is  practically  uniform  throughout  Switzer- 
land, notwithstanding  extraordinary  differences  in  race,  language, 
character,  and  usages  between  different  parts  of  the  population.  This 
concordant  action  where  great  variety  might  be  looked  for,  and  long 
existed,  is  due  to  a  fact  without  which  this  historical  recapitulation 


EUROPE — SWITZERLAND.  235 

would  lose  much  of  its  pertinence.  The  Swiss  roadways  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  are  really  a  revival  of  Roman  engineering;  after  cen- 
turies of  mistaken  experiments,  a  return  by  common  consent  to  the 
Roman  method  of  construction  and  the  Roman  selection  of  routes. 

The  Roman  roadway,  wherever  necessary,  had  a  carefully  laid  foun- 
dation of  undressed  stones,  which  was  slightly  convex  or  vaulted,  and 
held  by  longitudinal  borders  of  square  stones,  the  whole  forming  a 
coherent  and  solid  structure.  The  size  of  the  stones  so  employed  varied 
greatly  in  different  localities  according  to  the  material  available.  In 
the  great  roadway  of  the  western  system  traversing  the  lowlands  be- 
tween Avenches  and  Solothern,  the  foundation  consisted  of  rolled  and 
rounded  stones,  averaging  10.15  centimetres  in  diameter  (see  Annex  n). 
On  the  south  slope  of  the  Septimer  in  the  high  Alps,  the  foundation 
was  a  compact  masonry  of  angular  stones  from  0.60  to  1.50  metres  in 
longitudinal  diameter,  carefully  fitted  together  and  held  firmly  by  the 
pressure  of  the  border  blocks  (see  profile  and  ground-plan  Annex  in). 
On  the  stone  foundation  was  spread  a  layer  of  gravel,  usually  mixed 
with  argillacious  sand  as  a  binding  material,  and  thoroughly  stamped 
down  as  in  our  macadamized  roads.  This  furnished  a  firm  and  smooth 
surface  which  shed  the  water  and  kept  the  whole  structure  dry  (see 
profile  Annex  n).  In  lighter  roads  the  gravel  sometimes  lay  between 
two  layers  of  common  earth  (profile  Annex  iv).  In  the  Swiss  roadways 
the  depth  of  the  structure  varied  from  0.70  to  1.30  metres;  the  surface 
width  from  2  to  3.50  metres.  The  surface  was  sufficiently  elevated  to 
shed  water,  and  even  along  mountain  slopes  the  road-bed  was  let  into 
the  soil  only  on  the  upper  side  and  only  to  the  depth  required  by  the 
conformation  of  the  ground.  The  route  kept,  when  possible,  to  the 
sunny  sides  of  mountains,  adapted  itself  closely  to  the  natural  curves 
of  the  surface,  and  avoided  all  avoidable  cuttings,  causeways,  and 
bridging  of  gorges.  It  is  upon  these  principles  that  routes,  both  of 
roads  and  railways,  are  laid  out  to  day. 

The  identity  of  structure  in  the  Roman  and  the  modern  Swiss  road- 
ways may  be  seen  at  a  glauce  by  comparing  the  Roman  profiles  with 
two  others  subjoined,  taken  from  roads  of  the  second  and  third  classes  in 
the  canton  of  Bern  (Annexes  v,  vi).  The  modern  roadway  is  less  solidly 
built,  has  a  greater  breadth  (varying  from  7.50  metres  or  more  in  roads 
of  the  first  class  to  4  metres  or  less  in  roads  of  the  third  class,  and  pays 
more  attention  to  the  lateral  accessories  for  consolidating  the  adjacent 
soil  and  carrying  off  water.  But  the  internal  system  of  construction  is 
the  same  in  both. 

Now  the  characteristic  and  essential  feature  of  this  system  is  the  sub- 
structure of  stone.  It  is  never  omitted  in  either  the  ancient  or  the 
modern  roads,  except  where  the  natural  foundation  of  the  bed  oilers  a 
sufficient  substitute,  as  when  the  roadway  is  excavated  in  solid  rock. 
Ohnc  unterbau  keine  strasse  (without  an  adequate  foundation  there  is  DO 
durable  road).    No  matter  on  what  system  or  with  what  care  and  ex- 


236  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS   IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

pense  the  surface  is  treated,  the  result  will  be  swift  ruin  unless  the 
superstructure  is  properly  supported  from  beneath.  On  the  other 
hand,  given  the  foundation,  the  surface  may  be  treated  effectively 
almost  anywhere  and  adapted  to  any  use ;  it  may  be  formed  of  com- 
mon soil  if  nothing  better  is  available,  or  of  gravel,  or  of  both;  it 
may  be  macademized  or  covered  with  any  variety  of  pavement.  The 
worst  surface  with  a  good  foundation  affords  a  better  road  than  the 
costliest  surface  without  a  foundation.  This  is  probably  the  most  im- 
portant lesson  to  be  got  from  European  experience  in  road-building. 

It  follows  that  in  all  mountain  regions  and  in  all  lowlands  which 
have  been  supplied  by  glacial  action  or  the  flow  of  water  courses,  with 
stones  in  abundance,  good  roadways  are  merely  a  question  of  time, 
money,  and  intelligence;  any  community  may  have  them  to  the  extent 
required  if  willing  to  pay  for  them.  But  for  alluvial  or  deluvial  soils, 
destitute  of  stones  and  gravel,  as  on  the  western  prairies  and  in  the 
valley  of  the  Mississippi,  the  case  is  different,  and  little  is  to  be  learned 
from  European  methods  of  road  building.  The  problem  is  surrounded 
by  local  difficulties  which  can  only  be  solved  on  the  spot,  if  at  all. 

To  cover  the  inquiry  submitted  by  the  Department's  circular  of  No- 
vember 8,  I  will  add,  in  conclusion,  that  in  Switzerland  city  and  subur- 
ban streets  are  only  local  adaptations  of  the  ordinary  roadway.  Pro- 
vision is  made  beneath  the  roadbed  for  drainage  and  the  distribution 
of  water  and  gas,  and  the  surface,  including  the  trottoir,  is  macadamized 
or  paved  in  a  variety  of  ways ;  but  these  are  all  external  to  the  central 
structure,  which  is  unchanged.  For  further  details  I  refer  to  the  re- 
port of  the  agent  at  Lucerne,  with  accompanying  sections  of  streets 
and  quays  of  the  city. 

Lyell  T.  Adams, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Horgen,  January  27,  1891. 


Length  and  cost  of  the  principal  roadways  of  Switzerland  in  1877. 

Superficial  area  of  Switzerland sq.  kilometres..  41,  390 

Population  in  1370 ". 2,669,147 

Length  of  roads : 

Class  1 6,548 

Classes  ii  and  ill 6,806 

13, 354 

Length  of  roads  of  all  classes  per  sq.  kilometre  of  area. .  sq.  kilometres . .  323 

Length  of  roads  of  all  classes  per  1,000  inhabitants do 5,003 

Cost  of  construction  of  roads,  Class  I francs . .  173, 498, 400 

Cost  of  construction  of  roads,  Class  I,  per  sq.  kilometre do 4, 190 

Cost  of  construction  of  roads,  Class  I,  per  1,000  inhabitants do 65,  000 

Average  cost  of  roads,  Class  I,  per  kilometre do....  26,480 


EUROPE SWITZERLAND. 


237 


This  tables  includes  only  roads  whose  widths  is  not  less  than  4.20  metres.  The  in- 
crease of  roadways  since  1877  has  probably  kept  pace  with  the  increase  in  population 
(estimated  in  1888  at  2.934,000),  so  that  the  proportions  remain  about  the  same. 
Statistics  of  the  cost  of  roads  of  Classes  n  and  in  for  the  most  part  built  by  the 
townships,  are  incomplete. 


Roman  road  below  Kallnarli,  between  (trenches  and  Soloure. 
< 2-70 


Early  gravel  ted 
Later  gravel  bed. 


Roman  road  on  the  Septimer. 


Cross    Section. 


Ground     Plarv . 


Roman  road  above  Mitt  in  the  Jura. 
2.70 


*.«      y 


238  STREETS   AND   HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


EUROPE — SWITZERLAND.  239 

CANTON  OF  BASLE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSVL  GIFFORD. 
CITY  STREETS. 

The  streets  of  the  canton  of  Basle  City  were  for  the  most  part  built 
in  "the  last  century,  but  have  been  several  times  improved  in  recent 
years.  There  is  no  division  of  these  streets  into  classes,  and  the  city, 
which  embraces  substantially  the  whole  canton,  builds  and  maintains 
the  same  at  its  own  cost,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  field  roads.  The 
length  of  the  streets  is  102  kilometres  and  the  steepest  grade  admitted 
is  5.40  degrees. 

The  following  information  relates  to  streets  built  in  late  years  : 

Material  and  cost.— For  the  paved  streets  three  different  materials 
are  used,  viz,  stone  from  the  Ehine — so-called  Ehine  pebbles — quarry 
stone  from  Alsace,  and  wood.  The  cost  of  the  Ehine  pebbles  is  from 
$2  to  $2.30  per  cubic  yards,  that  of  the  quarry  stone,  3  cents  for 
each  block  ;  the  dimensions  of  which  are  5  by  7  by  6£  inches.  The  wood 
for  pavement  of  that  material  costs  from  $7  to  $8  per  cubic  yard. 

The  stone  pavement  is  from  4£  to  5£  inches  thick,  laid  on  a  sand 
foundation  2£  inches  deep.  When  constructed  of  Ehine  pebbles  it  costs 
65  cents  per  square  yard ;  when  of  quarry  stone,  $1.60  per  square  yard 

The  wood  pavement  is  4  inches  thick  on  a  beton  foundation  from  6 
to  8  inches  in  depth.    The  cost  is  $2.50  per  square  yard. 

Macadamized  streets  are  laid  on  a  limestone  foundation  6  inches 
deep  over  which  is  a  layer  of  broken  stone  rolled  down  with  cement. 
A  square  yard  of  finished  street  costs  from  45  to  50  cents.  Along  the 
sidewalks  is  constructed  a  paved  gutter  3  feet  wide,  at  an  expense  of 
65  cents  per  square  yard. 

Sidewalks  have  a  border,  composed  of  strips  of  granite,  10  by  12 
inches  in  size,  costing  $1.50  per  linear  yard.  In  the  interior  of  the  city 
these  sidewalks  are  of  Travers  asphalt,  four-fifths  of  an  inch  deep,  laid 
on  4  inches  of  beton.  In  the  suburbs  the  material  used  is  gravel  and 
sand.  The  cost  of  the  former  is  $1.25 ;  of  the  latter,  6  J  cents  per  square 
yard. 

The  breadth  of  the  streets  is  10, 13,  16,  and  20  yards,  the  sidewalks 
constituting  one-fifth  of  the  width  in  each  case. 

Maintenance. — The  maintenance  of  the  paved  steeets  is  reduced  to 
raising  the  sunken  portions  as  required  and  the  renewal  of  the  pave- 
ment after  the  lapse  of  15  or  20  years. 

Each  year  the  macadamized  steeets  are  ballasted  according  to  the 
wear  to  which  they  have  been  subjected.  The  material  used  for  this 
purpose  is  for  the  most  part  broken  stone  ;  less  frequently,  round  peb- 
bles  of  the  proper  size.  In  both  cages  the  stone  i«  damped  in  the  street 
and  left  to  be  crushed  by  the  passing  teams. 

The  yearly  expense  of  keeping  a  macadamized  street  in  repair  U 
$310  a  mile. 


240  STREETS   AND   HIGHWAYS   IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

The  details  of  this  very  considerable  expenditure  are  for  the  102  kilo- 
metres of  macadamized  street  in  this  canton  as  follows  : 

Franca. 

19  street  surveyors 25,100.40 

61  workingmen - 32,732.30 

7,017  cubic  metres  material 16,543.83 

Cartage 17,483.40 

Labor  at  gravel  pits 2,337.80 

Watering,  etc 9,253.09 

Total 103,650.82 

Street  Department. — The  building  and  maintenance  of  the  streets  is 
intrusted  to  the  building  department  of  the  cantonal  government,  the 
chief  of  which  is  a  member  of  the  executive  council.  The  other  officers 
of  the  department  are  the  secretary,  treasurer,  a  cantonal  engineer,  as- 
sistant engineer,  and  a  road  surveyor.  The  city  is  divided  into  nineteen 
districts,  each  of  which  is  cared  for  by  an  assistant  surveyor  and  2  or 
3  laborers.  The  cost  of  this  department  is  $5,900  a  year,  exclusive  of 
the  salary  of  the  chief  and  the  wages  of  laborers. 

George  Gifford, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Basle,  January  20,  1891. 


GENEVA. 


The  roads  in  my  consular  district  having  been  laid  out  by  the  ancient 
Helvetians  many  hundred  years  ago,  are  kept  in  order  now  simply  by 
the  addition  of  broken  stone  occasionally.  Great  age  with  the  assist- 
ance of  the  broken  stone  have  made  the  roads  about  as  perfect  as  can 
be  desired.  The  streets  recently  put  down  in  the  city  of  Geneva,  were 
given  out  by  contract  to  Americans  who  put  down  the  modern  block 
so  well  known  at  home. 

EOLAND  J.  HEMMICK, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Geneva,  December  23,  1890. 


LUCERNE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  WILLIAMS. 

CITY  STREETS. 

The  city  of  Lucerne  being  very  ancient,  the  streets  are,  as  a  rule, 
very  narrow,  but  if  they  can  not  be  improved  so  far  as  width  is  eon* 


EUROPE SWITZERLAND. 


241 


eerned,  they  are  kept  in  very  good  order.  In  the  old  part  of  the  city 
the  streets  are  paved  with  squared  river  stones  of  about  6  inches  on 
each  side.  These  are  laid  in  regular  courses,  running  across  the  road- 
way, and  breaking  joint  with  each  other.  The  carriage  way  has  a 
slight  rise  or  convexity  in  the  middle  in  order  that  water  may  run  off  it 
towards  the  sides.  This  convexity  is  from  2h  to  3  per  cent.  The  foot- 
ways are  nearly  level  with  the  highest  part  or  crown  of  the  carriage  way, 
and  have  a  slope  of  2  per  cent,  towards  the  carriage  way.  The  curb- 
stones are  of  granite,  and  now  all  the  footways  in  Lucerne  are  finished 
with  asphalt.  The  way  of  constructing  these  asphalt  footways  is  as 
follows : 

The  ground  is  excavated  to  a  sufficient  depth,  and  then  a  foundation 
of  stones,  6  inches  high,  is  carefully  laid  by  hand,  and  then  covered 
with  a  layer  2  inches  thick  of  concrete  composed  of  cement,  hydraulic 
lime,  gravel,  and  sand.  The  concrete  is  properly  smoothed  and  leveled 
and  left  some  time  to  harden,  after  which  it  is  covered  with  a  layer 
of  asphalt  averaging  three-fourth  inch  in  thickness.  Under  the  center  of 
the  carriage  way,  and  at  a  depth  of  from  6  to  8  feet,  runs  the  sewer  or 
drainpipe,  into  which  the  water  runs  through  the  "gully  holes,"  which 
are  situated  on  each  side  of  the  roadway  at  distances  of  from  100  to 
200  feet  from  each  other,  according  to  the  gradient  of  the  street.  In 
order  to  prevent  the  escape  of  foul  air  through  them,  they  are  provided 
with  siphon  traps.  The  following  section  of  a  street  shows  the  mode 
of  construction. 


Formerly  the  footways  were  paved  with  small  square  paving  stones, 
and  there  are  still  a  few  in  the  city,  constructed  in  that  way,  but  this 
system  is  now  abandoned,  as  asphalt  is  found  better  in  every  way.  A 
paved  footway  lasts  about  15  years  but  it  often  requires  to  be  relev- 
eled.  An  asphalt  footway  lasts  about  20  years  and  if  well  made  in 
the  first  instance  requires  little  or  no  repairs. 

I    OP    PAVED  STREETS. 


(1)   Cost  of  paving  with    well-cut  river  stones,  including  labor,  per 
pquare  metre,  $1.16. 
3:ja 10 


242  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS   IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

(2)  During  the  last  20  years  the  streets  of  Lucerne  have  so  often 
been  cut  up  for  the  purpose  of  laying  drains,  water  pipes,  gas  pipes, 
electric-light  wires,  etc.,  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  the  cost  of  repairs. 

(3)  Granite    curbstones    for 
footways :  Straight  per  metre, 
l__j— - L —   $1.06 ;  curved,  per  metre,  $1.26 ; 
I      \X~^%       S       4%k  laying  curbstones,  per  metre,  20 

(4)  Paving  footways  with  small  squared  stones  laid  in  sand,  per 
metre,  $1.16. 

ASl'HALT  FOOTWAYS. 

Stone  foundation,  15  centimetres  high,  covered  with  concrete,  made 
of  cement  and  hydraulic  lime,  5  centimetres  thick,  per  square  metre, 
48  cents.    Asphalt,  2  centimetres  thick,  per  square  metre,  97  cents. 

HIGHWAYS. 

In  the  old  diligence  days  the  postal  roads  of  Switzerland  were  cele- 
brated, and  although,  since  the  introduction  of  railroads  the  same 
amount  of  care  has  not  been  given  to  the  maintenance  of  highways,  still  I 
think  that  the  Swiss  postal  roads  would  compare  favorably  with  the  roads 
of  almost  any  other  nation.  I  do  not  know  if  the  system  of  construction 
is  the  same  all  over  Switzerland,  bat  probably  it  is  so.  In  the  canton 
of  Lucerne  highways  are  constructed  in  the  following  manner: 

(1)  If  the  road  is  in  level  ground,  or  nearly  so,  ditches  are  cut  on 
each  side,  for  draining.  The  carriage  way,  which  is  9  metres,  or 
thereabout,  say  30  feet,  wide,  is  not  excavated,  but  leveled,  some  of  the 
earth  taken  from  the  ditches  being  used  to  fill  up  the  hollows.  On  this 
bed  a  foundation  of  stones  8  or  9  inches  high  is  built,  and  on  this  a  layer 
of  large  gravel,  generally  river  gravel,  is  laid  to  fill  up  the  interstices 
between  the  foundation  stones ;  the  size  of  the  gravel  used  is  about  2 
inches.  On  this  a  little  earth  or  sand  is  spread,  and  above  it  a  thick 
layer  of  coarse  gravel  is  laid.  After  this  has  become  consolidated  by 
the  traffic,  the  road  is  kept  in  order  by  successive  layers  of  gravel  as 
required.  In  places  where  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  river  gravel,  hard 
broken  stones  are  used  instead,  something  after  the  system  of  Mr.  Mac- 
adam, except  that  a  stone  foundation  is  always  used,  which  Mr.  Mac- 
adam never  made  use  of.  When  broken  stones  are  employed  it  is 
necessary  to  loosen  the  surface  of  the  road  with  a  pick  before  the  addi- 
tion of  each  layer  of  material. 

(2)  When  the  road  is  made  on  a  slope,  a  shallow  ditch  is  cut  on  the 
upper  side.  The  water  runs  in  gully  holes,  and  is  carried  under  the 
road  to  the  lower  side  by  cement  pipes,  with  an  internal  diameter  of 
from  8  inches  to  24  inches,  according  to  the  volume  of  water  to  be  car- 
ried away.  When  the  roads  are  made  on  mountain  sides,  where  streams 
of  water  or  small  torrents  come  down  from  the  heights,  instead  of  pipes 


EUROPE SWITZERLAND.  243 

a  culvert  is  built  of  a  size  suitable  to  the  requirement.  Iu  that  case, 
the  lower  side  of  the  road,  instead  of  being  an  earthen  embankment, 
generally  consists  of  a  retaining  wall,  well  pierced  with  draining  holes. 

(3)  All  the  roads  have  a  convexity  of  about  4A  or  5  per  cent,  to  enable 
the  rain  water  to  run  off  to  the  sides. 

These  high  roads  are  very  hard,  and  are  soon  dry  after  rain. 

I  inclose  herewith  four  tracings  of  sections  of  roads  in  or  near  Lu- 
cerne, kindly  supplied  to  me  by  the  director  of  constructions  of  the  city 
of  Lucerne,  which  show  clearly  the  method  of  road  building. 

COST  OF  HIGHWAYS. 

(1)  Stone  foundation  of  rubble  or  river  stones,  not  less  than  8  inches 
high,  per  square  metre,  39  cents ;  river  gravel,  from  2  to  2£  inches,  per 
square  metre,  5  cents;  broken  stone,  6  to  7  cents. 

The  price  of  maintenance  varies,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  figures: 
1875  (great  activity  in  construction)  cost,  per  square  metre,  4  to  5 
cents;  1881  (works  suspended)  cost,  per  square  metre,  2  to  3  cents; 
1890  (great  activity)  cost,  per  square  metre,  3  to  4  cents ;  broken  stones 
delivered  on  road  cost,  per  cubic  metre,  $1,31.  River  gravel  delivered 
on  road  cost,  per  cubic  metre,  $1.04. 

EFFECTS   OF   IMPROVED  HIGHWAYS. 

With  regard  to  the  effect  of  improved  public  roads  upon  land  values 
in  the  country,  I  am  unable  to  speak,  but  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
city  it  is  estimated  that  an  improved  carriage  way  augments  the  value 
of  lands  through  or  near  which  it  passes  from  6  to  12  per  cent.  When 
an  improved  road  near  the  city  is  required  it  is  customary  for  the  pro- 
prietors, through  or  near  whose  land  the  road  is  to  pass,  to  petition  the 
city  council.  If  it  is  decided  that  the  road  be  made,  the  municipality 
undertakes  to  get  the  plans  made  by  its  own  engineers,  and  to  have 
the  road  constructed.  It  also  pays  one-third  of  the  cost  of  construction. 
The  remaining  two-thirds  are  paid  by  the  proprietors,  in  proportion  to 
the  extent  of  their  land  and  its  nearness  to  the  road.  The  proprietors 
have  also  to  pay  to  the  municipality  a  yearly  tax  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  road,  but  they  have  the  option  of  redeeming  it  by  one  payment. 
The  roads  being  maintained  by  the  municipality  are  always  kept  in  good 
order. 

Ernest  Williams, 

Consular  Agent, 
United  States  Consular  Agency, 

Lucerne,  January  5,  1891. 


244  STREETS    AND   HIGHWAYS   IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


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Consular  Report  on  Streets  and  Highways. 


24 


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EUROPE SWITZERLAND. 


245 


240  STREETS   AND   HIGHWAYS   IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

CANTON  OF  ST.  GALL. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  ROBERTSON. 
STREETS. 

The  streets  of  the  city  of  St.  Gall  are  surprisingly  bad,  when  it  is 
considered  how  constantly  they  are  being  worked  upon,  cleaned,  re- 
paired, etc.  With  this,  however,  the  large  falls  of  snow  and  rain  and 
the  general  climate  here  have  much  to  do. 

The  laws  governing  the  building  inspection  and  repair  of  the  streets 
are  strict  and  strictly  enforced. 

The  making  of  the  streets  is  given  out  by  the  municipality  either  to 
regular  employes,  and  under  municipal  direction  and  supervision  or  to 
outsiders  under  contract  according  to  regular  specification,  general 
rules,  and  estimates.  The  latter  plan  is  generally  preferred*  The  streets 
are  either  macadamized  or  paved,  and  the  sidewalks  macadamized, 
paved,  asphalted,  cemented,  or  tiled. 

One  kilometer  of  macadamized  street,  12  metres  wide,  with  two  gut- 
ters, and  sewers  underneath  these  gutters,  will  cost  22,000  to  55,000 
francs,  and  the  sidewalks  per  square  metre  as  follows : 

Francs. 

(a)  Macadamized  with  stone  bed  and  covered  with  gravel 3  to  5 

(i)  Smooth  paved 10  to  25 

(c)  Asphalted 20  to  30 

(d)  Cemented 18  to  32 

(e)  Tiled  (plates  of  Sinzihger  material) 18  to  32 

The  building  of  streets  with  sidewalks,  gutters,  sewers,  etc.,  raises 
the  values  of  the  adjoining  properties  from  3  to  10  times  over  original 
ones,  and  in  somes  places  even  as  much  as  30  times. 

Streets  of  the  so-called  first  class  which  are  used  by  heavy  teams  re- 
ceive a  quarry  stone  bed  from  15  to  30  centimetres  thick,  and  a  covering 
of  river  gravel  from  10  to  15  centimetres  thick.  Those  of  the  so-called 
second  and  third  classes  which  are  used  for  light  teaming  receive  a 
stone  bed  of  quarry  stone  from  10  to  18  centimetres  thick,  and  a  cover- 
ing of  river  gravel  from  G  to  10  centimetres  thick.  For  the  stone  bed 
is  used  only  very  hard  sandstone  (gray-blue  sandstone).  Gravel  is 
sometimes  used  as  a  concrete.  For  covering  streets  there  is  generally 
used  river  gravel  mixed  with  some  sand.  Sometimes,  to  save  expense, 
quarry  gravel  is  used. 

The  sidewalks  are  built  in  the  same  way  as  the  streets,  only  that  the 
concrete  will  be  but  from  0  to  8  centimetres  thick,  and  the  covering 
of  very  fine  gravel,  from  3  to  4  centimetres  thick. 

A  square  metre  of  street  stone  bed,  30  centimetres  thick,  purchase, 
hauling,  and  laying  included,  will  cost,  according  to  the  country  from 
which  the  material  is  brought,  from  2.80  to  3.20  francs,  and  the  same 
for  sidewalks  from  0.80  to  1.10  francs.  For  covering  the  building  de- 
partment pays  per  metre  from  5.80  to  7  francs. 


EUROPE — SWITZERLAND.  247 

The  paving  of  streets  is  made  as  follows : 

(a)  Streets  of  first  class.— The  stones  are  cut  out  of  souud  quarry  stones, 
the  upper  part  being  made  very  smooth,  and  the  dimensions  are  either 
15  by  15  centimetres  or  12  by  15  centimetres.  The  height  is  from  16  to 
18  centimetres,  and  the  stones  ought  to  be  cut  as  sharp  as  possible. 
Under  the  pavestones  is  laid  a  sand  bed  18  centimetres  thick.  The 
joints  of  the  stones  when  laid  should  not  be  more  than  1  centimetre 
apart. 

(b)  Streets  of  the  second  and  third  classes. — The  pavestones  are  cut 
from  the  same  material  as  in  the  case  of  streets  of  the  first  class,  only 
they  are  smaller  at  the  top.  The  height  is  the  same,  as  well  as  the 
bed. 

(c)  Sidewalks.— For  these,  small  pavestones  are  used,  and  they  may  be 
of  different  colors.  Underneath  is  a  sand-bed  from  12  to  15  centimetres 
thick. 

The  cost  of  building  streets  in  the  city  of  St.  Gallen  varies  according 
as  to  whether  the  latter  are  made  on  level  ground  or  on  hillsides. 

For  instance,  taking  six  of  the  town  streets  here,  7  metres  wide,  mac- 
adamized, the  cost  of  a  running  metre,  with  sidewalk,  gutters,  sewers, 
expropriation  of  the  land,  etc,  is  respectively: 

Francs 

Dufour  street,  with  roadway  of  5  metres  and  sidewalk  of  2  metres 98. 80 

Fwingli  street,  with  roadway  of  5  metres  and  sidewalk  of  2  metres 85.50 

WinkeMed  street,  with  roadway  of  5  metres  and  sidewalk  of  2  metres 114.00 

Vambiibl  street,  with  roadway  of  4.5  metres  and  sidewalk  of  2.5  metres 111.  00 

Wildegg  street,  with  roadway  of  5  metres  and  sidewalk  of  2  metres 101. 50 

Treuacker  street,  with  roadw  ay  of  5  metres  and  sidewalk  of  2  metres 86. 70 

A  square  metre  of  a  paved  street  costs  from  100  to  130  francs.  The 
cost  of  building  the  streets  and  of  expropriation  of  the  necessary  land 
are  paid  by  the  city,  but  the  adjoining  property-holders  having  houses 
built  along  the  streets  pay  upon  the  total  cost  sometimes  as  high  as 
60  per  cent. 

The  cost  of  repairing  the  streets  is  paid  by  the  city,  and  amounts,  per 
year  per  square  metre,  for  macadamized  street,  to  from  0.80  to  1.10 
francs ;  for  paved  street,  to  from  0.50  to  10  francs.  In  the  case  of  paved 
streets,  the  cost  of  repair  for  the  first  few  years  is  very  small,  but  when 
the  stones  begin  to  settle  or  to  wear  out  the  cost  of  repair  increases 
very  much. 

Experience  has  shown  that  it  costs  much  less  for  the  repair  of  streets 
paved  with  small  stones  as  compared  with  that  of  those  in  which  large 
stones  are  used. 

HIGHWAYS. 

The  country  roads  of  this  portion  of  Switzerland  are  especially  good, 
and  receive  constant  attention. 

The  expenses  of  building  and  repairing  the  post  or  state  roads  are 
paid  by  the  national  government.  Those  for  the  cantonal  roads  are 
paid  by  the  canton. 


248  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS   IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

In  building  a  country  road,  a  stone  bed  from  2*0  to  25  centimetres 
thick  is  made  with  a  covering  of  gravel  from  10  to  15  centimetres 
thick. 

The  cost  of  1  kilometre  of  road,  purchase  of  ground  included,  is,  at 
the  minimum,  15,000  francs,  and  in  some  localities  as  high  as  100,000 
francs. 

The  use  of  material  depends  largely  on  the  location  or  nature  of  the 
country  through  which  the  road  is  to  run.  For  the  stone  bed,  river 
stones  are  generally  preferred,  and  for  the  covering  river  gravel,  but 
where  these  can  not  be  had  quarry  stone  and  quarry  gravel  are  substi- 
tuted. 

The  cost  of  keeping  the  road  in  good  order  will  'be,  per  year,  from 
300  to  2,500  francs  per  kilometre,  according  to  the  use  of  the  road  and 
the  price  and  quality  of  the  material  used  for  repairing  it. 

I  received  last  year  a  letter  from  A.  L.  Bancroft,  dated  San  Francisco, 
June  25,  1890,  which,  with  my  reply  to  the  same,  will  prove  interesting 
in  this  connection.    Our  correspondence  was  as  below  given : 

San  Francisco,  June  25,  1890. 
Dear  Sir:  A  movement  is  inaugurated  in  one  of  our  counties  to  name  and  measure 
the  roads,  number  the  country  houses,  and  place  guideboards  at  the  crossings  and 
junctions.  As  interest  is  already  manifest  in  other  directions,  and  the  movement  is 
likely  to  spread,  I  would  be  thankful  to  know  something  of  these  features  in  the 
country  where  you  represent  our  Government. 

Are  the  country  roads  named f    Are  the  country  houses  numbered?    If  they  are 
numbered,  is  it  done  upon  any  such  plan  as  the  "  ten-block  system  "f    Are  there  any 
celebrated  roads,  ancient  or  modern,  like  Via  Appia  and   Strada  della  Cornice,  of 
Italy,  Watling  Street,  of  England,  and  the  National  Road  from  Washington  to  Cincin- 
nati in  the  United  States  ?    Will  you  kindly  give  the  names  and  descriptions  of  some 
of  ttie  noted  roads  in  your  country  ? 
I  will  probably  make  use  of  the  information  asked  for  in  a  paper  for  publication. 
By  complying  with  this  request  I  will  esteem  it  a  particular  favor. 
Very  truly, 

A.  L.  Bancroft. 
Mr.  W.  Henry  Robertson, 

United  States  Consul,  St.  Gall,  Switzerland. 

To  Mr.  Bancroft's  letter  I  replied  as  follows : 

United  States  Consulate, 
St.  Gall,  Sivitzerland,  July  19,  1890. 
Sir:  As  an  answer  to  your  letter  of  the  25th  ult.,  I  do  not  think  I  can  do  better 
than  to  send  you  the  enclosed  copy  of  a  reply  from  the  honorable  secretary  of  the 
interior,  of  the  canton  of  St.  Gallen,  to  an  inquiry  of  my  own  based  upon  the  subject 
of  your  communication,  above  referred  to.    The  honorable  secretary  has  very  courte- 
ously, promptly,  and,  I  think ,  very  clearly,  covered  the  points  to  which  you  referred. 
I  take  pleasure  in  serving  you  in  this  matter. 
Respectfully, 

W.  Henry  Robertson, 

Consul. 
A.  L.  Bancroft,  Esq., 

132  Post  Street,  San  Francisco. 


EUROPE — SWITZERLAND.  249 

[Inclosure.] 

St.  Gall,  July  18.  1490. 
To  the  Honorable  W.  Henry  Robertson, 

United  States  Consul,  St.  Gall  : 
I  hasten  to  answer  your  very  esteemed  letter  of  to-day  with  the  following  notes : 

(1)  Are  the  country  roads  named  ?— Answer.  They  generally  bear  the  names  Of  the 
principal  places  they  connect.  So  have  we,  for  instance,  the  St.  Gallen,  the  Zurich 
road,  tbe  Rorschach  road,  the  Thurgan  road,  etc. 

(2)  Are  the  country  houses  numbered?— Answer.  Yes;  but  the  houses  bear  only  a 
number  indicating  the  fire  insurance,  and  are  of  no  use  in  guiding  the  public.  The 
numbers  do  not  follow  each  other  regularly.  A  new-built  house  often  gets  the  next 
highest  running  number.  But  every  isolated  farm  has  its  own  name.  The  same  is 
the  case  with  every  little  hamlet.  The  country  people  are  well  acquainted  with  these 
names,  which  very  often  date  hundreds  of  years  ago.  If  a  letter  to  a  countryman 
must  be  addressed,  it  will  bear  the  name  of  the  house  or  hamlet,  never  the  number  of 
the  house. 

(3)  Are  there  any  celebrated  roads  like  the  Via  Appia  or  the  National  Road  from 
Washington  to  Cincinnati  ?— Answer.  Yes.  The  Alpine  passes,  for  instance,  the 
Gotthard  road,  the  Simplon  road,  the  passes  of  Furca,  Oberalp,  Albula,  Tulier,  Splii- 
gen,  Bernina.  In  the  level  country  there  are  no  roads  with  well-known  historical 
names.  The  country  roads  are  divided  by  kilometre  stones.  At  every  distance  of  1 
kilometre  there  is  a  small  stone,  and  every  5  kilometres  is  put  a  large  one.  At  junc- 
tions and  crossings  are  high  iron  or  wooden  posts,  which  guide  the  public  and  note 
the  distances  to  the  nearest  villages  and  cities.  The  system  of  dividing  the  streets 
(roads)  in  imaginary  blocks  could  in  our  mountainous  and  hilly  country  scarcely  be 
adopted.  In  our  cities  this  system  is  in  use  also,  but  in  the  country,  where  very  few 
new  houses  are  built,  it  would  not  apply.  There  in  the  United  States  most  houses 
are  situated  alongside  public  roads,  while  in  many  parts  of  Switzerland  the  houses 
are  scattered  and  sown  all  over  the  hills  and  valleys,  and  only  by  narrdw  footpaths 
connected  with  the  main  roads. 

I  shall  be  very  glad,  Mr.  Consul,  if  I  can  serve  in  this  matter  or  in  any  other  way, 
and  I  only  beg  to  excuse  my  English. 

With  highest  esteem,  I  am,  sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

W.   KtJNZLE, 

Secretary. 

In  thus  concluding,  I  beg  to  acknowledge  the  very  valuable  assistance 
rendered  ine  by  the  building  department  of  the  canton  of  St.  Gall  in  the 
preparation  of  this  report. 

W.  Henry  Kobertson, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

St.  Gall,  March  7,  1891. 


250  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

UNITED  KINGDOM. 
ENGLAND. 

BRITISH  HIGHWAYS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  JARItETI,  OF  BIRMINGHAM. 

It  is  impossible  in  a  report  like  this  to  present  a  survey  of  the  high- 
ways of  Great  Britain,  or  to  give  a  detailed  statement  of  the  method  of 
their  construction. 

Construction.— Many  of  them  were  designed  and  built  by  the  Komans, 
and  as  far  as  I  can  discover,  nearly  all  of  the  existing  national  roads 
were  designed  and  constructed  before  the  commencement  of  the  present 
centary. 

The  systems  on  which  these  roads  were  constructed  all  involved  the 
preparation  of  the  ground,  according  to  the  character  of  the  soil  on 
which  the  road  was  built.  Pounding  the  soil  to  make  it  firm,  driving 
in  piles,  or  laying  on  planks  or  logs  crosswise  if  the  soil  was  boggy,  or 
sometimes  placing  large  rocks,  were  the  usual  way  of  preparing  the 
substratum.  This  being  done,  a  bed  of  concrete  from  6  to  10  inches 
thick,  or  large  blocks  of  stone  were  carefully  and  compactly  laid  to 
form  what  was  called  the  subroad,  over  which  was  placed  the  road 
proper,  which  was  composed  of  either  prepared  slabs  or  blocks  of  stone, 
broken  stone,  or  gravel  and  sand. 

About  a  century  ago  John  Loudan  Macadam  inaugurated  a  new 
system  of  road  making  and  repairing,  to  explain  which  I  can  do  no 
better  here  than  insert  an  article  clipped  from  the  Southern  Planter, 
of  November  last,  which  I  find  is  taken  from  the  evidence  of  Macadam 
taken  before  a  Parliamentary  committee  in  1889: 

Macadam's  plan  of  road  making  differed  as  much  from  the  old  way  which  he  found 
in  operatiou  as  a  bridge  does  from  a  ford.  Instead  of  going  deep  for  a  "bottoming," 
he  worked  solely  on  the  top.  Instead  of  producing  a  peaked,  roof-like  mass  of 
rouo-h  soft  rubbisb,  he  got  a  flat,  smooth,  and  solid  surface.  In  lieu  of  a  road  4^ 
feet  through,  he  made  one  of  at  most  10  inches  in  thickness;  and  for  rocks  and 
bowlders  he  substituted  stone  broken  small.  His  leading  principle  was  that  a  road 
ought  to  be  considered  as  an  artificial  flooring,  so  strong  and  even  as  to  let  the 
heaviest  vehicle  pass  over  it  without  impediment.  Then  people  began  to  hear  with 
wonder  of  roads  30  and  40  feet  wide  rising  only  3  inches  in  the  center,  and  he 
propounded  the  extraordinary  heresy  that  a  better  and  more  lasting  road  could 
be  made  over  the  naked  surface  of  a  morass  than  over  solid  rock.  Another  of  his 
easy  first  principles  was  that  the  native  soil  was  more  resistant  when  dry  than  when 
wet,  and  that,  as  in  reality  it  had  to  carry  not  alone  the  traffic  but  the  road  also,  it 
ou^ht  to  be  kept  in  a  condition  of  the  greatest  resistance ;  that  the  best  way  of  keep- 
ing it  dry  was  to  put  over  it  a  covering  impervious  to  rain — the  road,  in  fact;  and 
that  the  thickness  of  this  covering  was  to  be  regulated  solely  in  its  relation  to  its 
imperviousness,  and  not  at  all  as  to  its  bearing  of  weights,  to  which  the  native  soil 
was  quite  equal.  Instead  of  digging  a  trench,  therefore,  to  do  away  with  the  sur- 
face of  the  native  soil,  he  carefully  respected  it,  and  raised  the  road  sufficiently  above 
it  to  let  the  water  run  off.    Impermeability  he  obtained  by  the  practical  discovery 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  251 

that  stones  broken  small  and  shaken  and  pressed  together;  as  by  the  traffic  on  a 
road,  rapidly  settled  down  face  to  face  and  angle  with  angle,  and  made  as  close  a 
mass  as  a  wall.  Mankind  now  believe  that  this  last  is  all  that  Macadam  invented  ; 
the  rest  is  forgotten.  That  important  fraction  of  his  discoveries  is  what  has  given 
to  us  the  verb  to  macadamize  ("  to  pave  a  road  with  small  broken  stones." — Skeat). 
Surprise  followed  surprise.  Roads  which  were  mere  layers  of  broken  stone,  6,  4, 
and  even  as  little  as  3  inches  in  thickness,  passed  through  the  worst  winters  without 
breaking  up,  while,  as  the  coachman  used  to  say,  they  "  ran  true ;  the  wheel  ran  hard 
upon  them;  it  ran  upon  the  nail."  Commissioners  could  not  believe  their  eyes  when 
they  saw  new  roads  made  for  much  less  than  it  had  cost  them  yearly  to  repair  the  old 
ones.  When  an  old  road  was  given  into  Macadam's  charge,  he  often  made  a  new  one 
of  it  for  £88  ($440)  a  mile,  while  around  London  the  cost  of  annual  repairs  had  been 
£470  ($2,350)  a  mile.  For  he  knew  that  the  roads— such  had  been  the  ignorant 
waste— generally  contained  materials  enough  for  their  use  for  several  years  if  properly 
applied.  Unless  the  road  was  hopeless,  he  went  to  work  in  a  practical,  cheap  way  ; 
first  cutting  off  the  "gridiron"  of  ruts  in  the  center  "to  a  level  with  the  bottom  of 
the  '  furrows,'  "  then  "  picking"  the  road  up  to  a  depth  of  4  inches,  removing  all  the 
chalk,  clay,  or  mud,  breaking  the  largest  stones  small,  and  simply  putting  them  back 
again,  and  one  of  his  directions  to  his  workmen  was  that  "  nothing  is  to  be  laid  on 
the  clean  stone  on  pretense  of  binding."  But  too  often  the  road  was  so  bad,  as  at 
Egham,  that  it  had  to  be  removed  to  its  foundations. 

For  the  repairs  of  his  roads,  when  ouce  made,  he  always  chose  wet  weather,  and 
"loosened  the  hardened  surface  with  a  pick"  before  putting  on  the  first  broken 
stone ;  things  familiar  enough  to  us  now,  but  paradoxes  then  to  all  the  confraterni- 
ties of  the  roads.  In  this  way  he  had  the  greatest  success  with  the  freestone  near 
Bath,  and  on  a  road  out  of  Bristol  toward  Old  Down,  where  everybody  had  always 
said  a  good  road  never  would  be  made  with  the  material  available.  This  impossible 
road  of  11  miles,  which  the  postmaster-general,  as  a  last  resource,  was  about  to  in- 
dict, he  perfected  in  2  months,  in  1816,  for  £55  ($275)  a  mile.  Indeed,  as  to  materi- 
als, they  were  to  some  extent  a  matter  of  indifference  to  him,  provided  they  were 
stones  and  stones  only. 

Even  in  the  breaking  of  the  stones  Macadam  made  a  revolution.  He  saw  that 
able-bodied  men  standing  up  with  hammers  wasted  the  greater  portion  of  their 
strength.  He  made  his  stonebreakers  sit,  so  that  all  the  force  of  the  blows  took 
direct  effect  on  the  stone ;  and  the  result  was  that  he  found  small  hammers  did  the 
work  perfectly  well,  and  thus  was  able  to  confine  it  to  old  men  past  hard  labor,  wo- 
men and  boys,  which  reduced  the  cost  of  the  broken  stone  by  one-half.  The  size  to 
which  the  stone  should  be  broken  he  determined  in  a  practical  way  by  the  area  of 
contact  of  an  ordinary  wheel  with  a  smooth  road.  This  he  found  to  be  about  an  inch 
lengthwise,  and  therefore  he  laid  it  down  that  "  a  stone  which  exceeds  an  inch  in 
any  of  its  dimensions  is  mischievous,"  that  is  to  say,  that  the  wheel  in  pressing  on 
one  end  of  it  tends  to  lift  the  other  end  out  of  the  road.  In  practice  he  found  it  sim- 
plest to  fix  a  weight  of  6  ounces,  and  his  surveyors  carried  about  scales  to  test  the 
largest  stones  in  each  heap.  He  would  allow  no  large  stones  even  for  the  founda- 
tion of  his  roads,  for  he  found  that  they  constantly  worked  upward  by  the  pressure 
and  vibration  of  th6  traffic.  The  whole  road  was  small  broken  stone,  even  over 
swampy  ground. — St.  James  Gazette. 

From  practical  experience  extending  over  many  years  as  a  member  of  a  highway 
board  having  charge  of  about  25  miles  of  heavily  trafficked  road,  we  are  able  to  say 
that  the  application  of  the  principles  of  road  making  and  repairing  laid  down  in  the 
above  article  will  secure  a  perfect  highway.  We  worked  upon  the  system  invented 
by  Mr.  Macadam,  using  both  hand  broken  and  machine-broken  stones,  and  either  a 
heavy  horse  roller  or  a  steam  roller,  and  made  and  maintained  roads  over  which  upon 
steep  grades  one  horse  could  haul  a  ton  in  a  cart  weighing  from  1,200  to  1,500  pounds 
with  ease.    The  state  of  the  roads  made  in  the  manner  advised,  may  be  judged  from 


252  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

the  fact  recorded  a  few  days  ago  in  England,  that  at  the  recent  coutest  for  the  cham- 
pionship of  the  world  on  a  bicycle  on  the  highway,  the  winner  rode  in  a  direct  lino 
336  miles  in  24  consecutive  hours.— Ed. 

In  constructing  a  new  road,  Macadam  usually  did  it  in  what  he  termed 
"  three  times."  He  first  placed  a  layer  of  broken  stone  4  inches  thick, 
which  was  worked  until  it  was  set,  when  another  layer  of  about  4  inches 
of  broken  stone  was  added,  which  in  turn  was  worked  until  it  was  set, 
when  the  last  layer  of  broken  stone  was  added. 

As  to  the  kind  of  stone  used,  the  whinstone  seems  to  have  been  Mac- 
adams' favorite,  followed  by  flint,  limestone,  and  pebbles.  Burgoyne, 
in  his  M  Construction  of  roads,"  published  in  1860,  says  : 

The  most  important  quality  in  stone  for  road  making  is  toughness ;  mere  hard- 
ness without  toughness  is  of  no  use,  as  such  stone  becomes  rapidly  reduced  to  powder 
by  the  action  of  the  wheels.  Those  stones  which  have  been  found  to  answer  this 
purpose  best  are  the  whinstones,  basalts,  granites,  and  beach  pebbles.  The  softer 
descriptions  of  stone,  such  as  the  sandstones,  are  not  fitted  for  this  purpose,  being  far 
too  weak  to  resist  the  crushing  action  of  the  wheels.  The  harder  and  more  compact 
limestones  may  be  employed ;  but  generally  speaking,  the  limestones  are  to  be  avoided 
in  consequence  of  their  great  affinity  for  water,  which  causes  them,  in  frosty  weather, 
which  has  been  preceded  by  wet,  to  split  up  into  a  pulverulent  state,  and  destroys 
the  solidity  of  the  road. 

It  is  extremely  difficult  to  arrive  at  the  first  cost  of  construction  or 
that  of  repairing  and  keeping  in  good  order  the  roads  of  this  country, 
as  I  fail  to  discover  any  reliable  data  on  the  subject.  The  labor  em- 
ployed at  this  class  of  work  is,  and  has  been  of  the  cheapest  kind. 
Criminals  have  also  been  largely  employed  for  this  purpose.  At  stone 
breaking,  women  and  children  are  still  employed.  During  times  of 
depression,  workmen  out  of  work  are  often  employed  for  as  low  as  36 
cents  and  61  cents  per  day,  at  stone  breaking  and  road  repairing.  The 
men  employed  at  this  work  regularly  are  paid  from  61  cents  to  73  cents 
per  day. 

An  approximate  estimate  of  the  cost  of  keeping  in  repair  country 
roads  would  be  from  3  cents  to  5  cents  per  superficial  yard.  The  prob- 
able cost  of  construction  of  new  roads,  irrespective  of  the  value  of  the 
land,  would  be  from  49  cents  to  73  cents  per  superficial  yard. 

Tollgates. — The  roads  in  England  were  until  recently  under  the  con- 
trol and  management  of  certain  bodies  called  turnpike  trusts  or  trus- 
tees, who  were  usually  appointed  by  acts  of  Parliament  applying  to 
separate  and  distinct  districts.  Under  these  acts  the  turnpike  trustees 
were  authorized  to  collect  from  the  drivers  of  all  vehicles  or  from  per- 
sons traveling  on  horseback,  small  sums  which  were  called  tolls. 
These  tolls  were  collected  in  the  highroads  at  various  points  at  a  toll- 
house, being  a  small  two-roomed  cottage  erected  close  up  to  the  road, 
where  a  tollgate  was  fixed.  This  gate  was  a  five-barred  gate  which 
was  kept  locked,  and  opened  for  each  passenger  on  payment  of  the 
toll. 

These  tollhouses  would  in  some  districts  be  from  4  to  5  miles  apart, 
and  in  others  would  be  within  much  shorter  distances,  as  the  traveler 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  253 

happened  to  get  on  theroads  governed  by  different  trustees.  These  tolls 
were  for  a  two- wheeled  vehicle  generally  about  6  cents  each,  and  for  a 
horseman  2  cents  or  3  ceuts.  Each  person  paying  the  toll  received  a 
small  ticket  marking  the  toll,  and  the  toll  paid  in  some  instauces  free- 
ing the  passenger  for  a  gate  further  on  the  road.  In  some  districts 
tolls  were  very  much  higher  than  in  others. 

A  friend  tells  me  that  he  remembers  once  driving  through  Wales  in 
a  two-wheeled  vehicle,  perhaps  about  25  years  ago,  when  he  was  sur- 
prised to  find  all  the  roads  in  splendid  condition,  but  thetollgates  were 
very  numerous,  being  met  with  in  every  mile  or  so,  and  rates  ranging 
from  14  cents  to  30  cents  each  toll. 

These  tollhouses  had  their  bright  side.  They  were  usually  pleasant 
breaks  on  a  long  journey,  and  many  has  been  the  agreeable  chat  with 
the  old  toll-keeper,  who  could  usually  spin  a  good  yarn,  and  the  fact  of 
the  tollhouse  being  there  was  often  a  protection  to  travelers  on  a  long 
journey. 

In  Dick  Turpin's  (a  famous  highwayman)  historical  ride  from  London 
to  York,  about  200  miles,  he  may  be  remembered  as  having  cleared  a 
good  many  of  the  tollgates  without  stopping  to  pay  the  toll.  As  to 
these  tolls  there  were  certain  persons  who  were  exempt  from  payment 
of  them,  viz :  Horses  or  carriages  attending  or  going  to  attend  queen  or 
sovereign  ;  horses  employed  in  husbandry;  vehicles  conveying  materials 
for  mending  the  road ;  persons  going  to  or  returning  from  church  or  a 
funeral  within  the  parish  j  ministers  attending  service ;  officers  with 
prisoners.-  Also  no  toll  to  be  taken  for  simply  crossing  the  road  or 
going  100  yards  upon  it.  Also  cattle,  etc.,  going  or  returning  from 
pasture. 

These  turnpike  trusts  were  done  away  with  by  act  of  Parliament 
passed  in  1878,  known  as  the  highways  amendment  act  (41  and  42  Vict., 
c.  77)  after  which  in  the  course  of  a  very  short  space  of  time  the  old 
tollhouses  gradually  disappeared. 

Under  the  act  of  1878  and  subsequent  acts  of  Parliament  it  is  pro- 
vided : 

First,  the  duty,  maintenance,  etc.,  of  the  highways  is  cast  upon  the 
ratepayers  of  the  parish  and  managed  by  their  highway  surveyor. 

Second,  parishes  are  united  into  districts  for  the  common  object,  un- 
der the  supervision  of  the  highway  boards. 

Third,  municipal  boroughs  and  towns  have  powers  conferred  upon 
them  to  perform  the  duties  of  highway  surveyors  within  their  bounda- 
ries. 

Lastly,  the  central  authority,  the  local  government  board,  London,  is 
intrusted  with  a  general  superintendence  of  the  several  systems  for  the 
benefit  of  the  nation  at  large. 

In  order  to  raise  the  necessary  funds  for  the  maintenance  of  the  high- 
ways the  rateable  property  value  in  each  parish  is  ascertained,  accord- 
big  to  the  valuation  list  in  such  parish,  or  if  no  valuation  list  be  in  force, 


254  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

by  the  justices  of  the  peace,  subject  to  appeal  at  the  quarter  sessions. 

The  surveyor  is  empowered  to  inspect  any  of  the  rates  towards  the 
relief  of  the  poor,  or  the  books  of  the  assessment,  and  is  allowed  to  make 
copies  and  extracts.  The  surveyor  is  to  levy  a  rate  upon  all  property 
rated,  to  the  relief  of  the  poor,  and  he  has  the  same  powers  us  tne  over- 
seers of  the  poor  for  the  recovery  of  the  rate,  and  if  it  is  not  paid  he  can 
issue  a  summons  for  its  recovery  before  the  magistrates  of  the  district. 

No  highway  rate  by  any  parish  at  any  one  time  is  to  exceed  lOd.  (20 
cents)  in  the  £1  ($4.86),  and  the  highway  rates  required  to  be  paid  in 
anyone  year  are  not  to  exceed  2s.  6d  (61  cents) in  the  £1  ($4.86),  except 
with  the  consent  of  four-fifths  of  the  ratepayers  of  the  district,  procured 
at  a  meeting  specially  called.  Property  is  assessed  in  England  accord- 
ing to  the  rental  value,  and  not  on  its  full  value,  as  in  the  United  States. 

RIGHTS  OF  BICYCLISTS. 

(Suggested  by  the  by-laws  of  the  highways  act,  1878,  41  and  42,  Vict. 
C.  77,  for  the  use  of  county  commissioners  of  highways.) 

In  these  by-laws  tbe  expression  "bicyclist"  means  a  person  riding 
or  otherwise  using  a  bicycle  on  any  highway. 

A  bicyclist  shall  not  ride  his  bicycle  upon  any  footway,  pavement,  or 
causeway  set  apart  for  the  use  of  foot  passengers. 

Every  bicylist  who  rides  a  bicycle  during  the  time  between  one  hour 
after  sunset  and  one  hour  before  sunrise  shall  have  attached  to  his 
bicycle  a  lamp,  so  placed  as  to  afford  adequate  means  of  indicating  the 
approach  of  such  bicycle. 

Every  bicyclist  who  overtakes  any  wagon,  cart,  or  other  carriage,  or 
any  horse,  or  any  foot  passenger  proceeding  along  the  carriage  way, 
shall,  when  within  a  reasonable  distance  before  passing  such,  by  sound- 
ing a  horn,  bell,  or  whistle,  give  audible  warning  of  the  approach  of 
his  bicycle. 

Every  bicyclist  who  overtakes  and  passes  any  wagon,  cart,  or  other 
carriage,  or  any  horse,  shall  keep  his  bicycle  to  the  right  or  off-side  of 
the  road. 

In  every  case  where  a  bicyclist  meets  or  overtakes  any  horse  which 
may  become  restive,  such  bicyclist  shall  take  every  reasonable  precau- 
tion, to  the  best  of  his  judgment,  by  dismounting  or  otherwise,  so  as 
to  avoid  danger. 

Any  person  who  breaks  any  of  the  foregoing  by-laws  shall  be  liable 
for  any  one  offense  to  a  fine  of  not  exceeding  two  pounds  ($9.73). 

VALUE   OF  HIGHWAYS. 

I  have  been  unable  to  obtain  any  data  showing  "the  effect  of  im- 
proved public  highways  upon  land  values  and  other  economic  condi- 
tions," for  Great  Britain.  It  is  however  safe  to  say  that  land  values  are 
improved,  and  that  every  branch  of  agriculture,  commercial,  and  man- 
ufacturing industries  is  materially  benefited  through  the  operations  of 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  255 

good  public  roads  in  this  country.  There  can  be  no  question  but  that 
the  great  industries  owe  much  of  their  development  and  prosperity  to 
the  excellent  public  roads.  Horse  power  is  vastly  utilized  by  them,  and 
the  general  comfort  of  the  individual  is  increased.  In  short  the  public 
and  private  advantages  resulting  from  the  good  roads  are  incalculable. 
Much  may  be  said  in  favor  of  the  old  mode  of  maintaining  the  roads  by 
means  of  the  tolls,  as  the  expense  fell  upon  the  persons  using  the  roads, 
but  it  will  be  clearly  seen  that  as  this  country  (England)  is  small  and 
thickly  populated  with  large  towns  in  close  proximity  to  each  other  that 
the  system  now  in  force  of  having  the  rate  payers  of  each  parish  bear 
this  expense,  is  by  far  the  most  expedient  and  preferable.  This  system, 
however,  in  my  opinion  would  have  to  be  very  much  modified  in  its 
application  to  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  public  roads  in  the 
United  States. 

John  Jarrett, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Birmingham,  Feb.  13,  1891. 


ENGLISH  STREETS  AND  HIGHWAYS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WIG  FALL  OF  LEEDS. 

MISCELLANEOUS  STATISTICS. 

An  abstract  of  returns  of  turnpike  trusts  round  about  London  for  the 
year  1818  shows  a  length  of  road  210  miles  489  yards,  under  twelve  dis- 
tinct organizations,  under  acts  of  Parliament  of  various  dates  from  the 
seventh  to  the  fifty-eighth  years  of  the  reign  of  George  III.    The  amount 
)f  tolls  during  the  year  named  was  £97,482.18.9  ($474,400.72) ;  the 
imount  of  expenses,  £98,856.0.6  ($481,082.85) ;    and  the  outstanding 
lebt,  £62,658.7.0  ($304,926.86) ;  or,  per  mile,  tolls,  £464.4.0  ($2,259.03) ; 
:penses,  £470.14.0  ($2,290.66);  debt,  £298.7.0  ($1,451.92). 
Such  a  statement  is  perhaps  its  own  sufficient  comment. 
From  a  condition  like  that  presented  by  these  figures  it  is  not  far  or 
lifficult  to  conclude  a  course  of  administration  the  reverse  of  satisfactory. 
.nd  that  indeed  was  the  fact.     Too  minute  a  subdivision  of  interest 
rith  its  accompanying  irresponsibility  of  control  had  wrought  some- 
ling  closely  approaching  to  ruin  in  the  English  system  of  public 
>ads. 

The  elder  McAdam,  in  his  remarks  (edition  of  1822),  refers  to  the 
miciidmoiitof  a  large  proportion  of  the  turnpike  roads  and  some- im- 
provement of  the  parish  roads  as  having  occurred  since  the  publication 
>f  the  early  editions  of  his  essay.  The  fact  that  the  reformation  had 
lot  been  more  extensive  and  successful  was,  in  his  opinion,  attributable 


256  STREETS   AND   HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

to  the  error  still  persisted  in  by  trustees  of  continuing  the  services  of 
persons  as  road  surveyors  who,  he  says,  are  not  only  altogether  ignorant 
of  the  business  they  profess,  but  full  of  prejudices  in  favor  of  their  own 
erroneous  practice. 

Six  years'  experience  the  author  says  has  served  to  confirm  his  be- 
lief that  the  supervision  of  commissioners  over  survey ers  is  altogether 
ineffectual;  whether  for  direction  in  their  active  duties  or  for  protect- 
ing the  funds  of  trusts  (as  the  turnpike  organizations  were  designated) 
from  waste  and  peculation.  The  commissioners  were  unpaid  and  irre- 
sponsible, and  the  work  done  under  their  nominal  authority  and  direc- 
tion was  correspondingly  defective.  England  alone  was  parceled  out 
"into  955  little  trusts,"  which  by  dint  of  their  numerous  smallness  had 
sunk  into  very  low  credit.  The  debt  was  at  that  writing  seven  millions 
sterling  and  promising  to  increase. 

The  modes  of  making  and  repairing  roads  were  various  in  the  different 
portions  of  the  kingdom,  being  to  a  certain  degree  affected  by  the  vary- 
ing supply  of  materials.  Gravel  in  the  London  neighborhood;  flint  in 
Essex  and  Sussex ;  in  the  west,  limestone ;  in  the  north  and  in  Scotland, 
whinstone,  and  in  Shropshire  and  Staffordshire,  pebbles  mixed  with 
sand.  Excellent  roads,  Mr.  McAdam  states,  may  be  made  of  any  of 
these  materials. 

The  London  gravel  mixed  with  clay  and  lacking  angular  points  of 
contact  whereby  broken  stone  unites  and  forms  a  solid  body,  was  found 
the  least  desirable.  With  proper  treatment,  however,  even  this  would 
make  good  roads.  Flint  is  called  an  excellent  medium  if  due  attention 
is  given  to  the  size.  Limestone  makes  a  smooth  and  solid  road,  con- 
solidating sooner  than  any  other  material,  but  is  not  the  most  lasting. 
Whinstone  is  the  most  durable  of  all,  and  makes  roads  comparatively 
good  and  cheap.  The  pebbles  of  Shropshire  are  hard  and  do  well  for 
roads.  The  Scottish  ro  ads,  though  made  of  the  best  materials,  were 
termed  the  most  loose,  rough,  and  expensive  roads  in  the  United  King- 
dom. 

The  form  of  road  is  objected  to  by  the  author,  particularly  the  roads 
about  London,  high  in  the  center  of  the  way  and  making  a  dangerous 
slope  except  just  in  the  middle  of  the  road.  Loose  gravel  was  deposited 
in  the  center  and  left  to  work  its  way  outward. 

A  road  well  made,  it  is  said,  will  be  easily  repaired.  Hence  the  ne- 
cessity of  intelligent  supervision  in  the  outset.  Mr.  McAdam  con- 
tinues : 

Will  it  be  deemed  presumptuous  to  propose  that  some  regulations  may  be  adopted 
for  encouraging  and  promoting  a  better  system  of  making  roads,  by  eliciting  the  ex- 
cretion and  by  creating  a  set  of  officers  of  skill  and  reputation  to  superintend  this 
most  essential  branch  of  domestic  economy  ? 

The  duties  of  an  active  executive  officer  are  reckoned  to  include  di- 
rection of  repairs  and  alterations,  control  of  contracts,  and  general 
superin tendance  of  employes,  and  supervision  of  the  accounts.     A  stint 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  257 

of,  say,  150  miles,  it  was  thought,  would  give  such  an  officer  full  occupa- 
tion.    He  adds: 

Skill  and  executive  labor  must  be  adequately  paid  for,  if  expected  to  be  constantly 
and  usefully  exerted  ;  and  if  so  exerted  tbe  price  is  no  consideration  when  compared 
with  the  advantage  to  the  public. 

He  is  explicit  in  condemnation  of  statute  labor  for  the  maintenance  of 
roads.  He  says  it  was  decreed  when  no  better  means  could  be  devised, 
at  a  time  when  a  circulating  medium  was  deficient  and  labor  in  many- 
parts  was  hard  to  get  for  money.  "  Personal  labor  for  a  public  service 
can  never  be  made  profitable  or  fairly  productive."  A  commutation  of 
statute  labor  for  a  moderate  assessment  in  money  was  accordingly  com- 
mended, and  had  then  been  effected  in  Scotland  in  most  if  not  all  of 
the  turnpike  acts  by  the  local  powers. 

The  insufficiency  or  improvident  expenditure  of  the  funds  provided 
for  by  Parliament  was  proven  by  the  numerous  applications  for  exten- 
sion of  powers  and  increase  of  tolls.  In  the  session  of  1815  thirty-four 
such  petitious,  and  in  18 IC  thirty-two,  were  presented  and  passed  as  a 
matter  of  course. 

Mr.  Macadam  goes  on  to  say : 

The  defective  state  of  the  roads,  independent  of  the  unnecessary  expense,  is  oppres- 
sive on  aggriculture,  commerce,  and  manufactures  by  the  increase  of  the  price  of 
transport  by  waste  of  the  labor  of  cattle  and  wear  of  carriages,  as  well  as  by  causiug 
much  delay  of  time. 

The  author  says  he  has  abstained  from  any  notice  of  the  parish  roads, 
although  their  condition  and  the  state  of  their  funds  are  more  deplor- 
able than  that  of  the  turnpike  roads.  He  adds  that  the  legislation  on 
their  behalf  is  so  inadequate  that  they  may  be  considered  as  being 
placed  almost  out  of  the  protection  of  the  law.  They  should  be  aggre- 
gated with  the  turnpikes  and  placed  altogether  under  proper  scientific 
and  expert  management. 

An  interesting  extract  from  a  Parliamentary  report  in  1811  contains 
the  following  statement . 

The  many  important  advantages  to  be  derived  from  amending  the  highways  and 
turnpike  roads  of  the  Kingdom  need  hardly  be  dwelt  upon.  Every  individual  in  it 
would  thereby  hud  his  comfo  its  materially  increased  and  his  interest  greatly  pro- 
moted. By  the  improvement  of  our  roads  every  branch  of  our  agricultaral,  com- 
mercial, and  manufacturing  in  dustry  would  be  materially  benefited. 

Mr.  Thomas  Telford,  before  a  committee  of  Parliament  in  1819,  said 
that  the  roads  in  England  and  Wales  were  in  general  very  defective, 
both  as  to  their  directions  and  inclinations,  being  often  carried  over 
hills  which  might  be  avoided  by  passing  along  the  adjacent  valleys; 
that  the  inclinations  were  inconveniently  steep  and  long  continued,  and 
specifies  some  previously  existiug  conditions  of  grade  as  one  in  six, 
seven,  eight,  nine,  and  ten,  with  a  width  of  12  feet,  without  protection 
on  the  lower  side,  and  the  roadway  itselt  improperly  constructed. 
These  had  beeu  corrected,  and  at  the  time  the  sharpest  grade  on  the 
33A 17 


258  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

road  referred  to  was  1  in  17  for  about  200  yards  ;  another  was  1  in  22 
for  a  considerable  distance,  unavoidable  from  the  lay  of  the  ground; 
but  the  general  grades  on  this  road  after  the  improvement  were  less 
than  1  in  30,  with  32  feet  breadth  of  roadway  on  level  ground,  28  where 
side  cutting  did  not  exceed  3  feet,  and  along  steep  and  precipitous 
parts  22  feet,  all  within  the  fences. 

Between  Shrewsbury  and  Loudon  this  road  still  made  its  way  over 
many  hills.  Another  instance  cited  was  between  Shrewsbury  and 
Worcester,  which  consisted  of  nearly  a  succession  of  very  high  and  in- 
conveniently steep  hills,  although  very  easy  inclinations  might  be  ob- 
tained by  passing  along  the  side  of  the  river  Severn. 

These  roads  were  cited  by  Mr.  Telford  as  typical  of  many  other  roads 
in  the  Kingdom,  not  having  been  selected  as  more  particularly  defect- 
ive than  others.  He  adds  that  the  shape  or  cross-section  and  drain- 
age are  quite  as  defective  as  the  general  direction  and  inclinations.  No 
attention  to  constructing  the  foundations ;  materials  seldom  sufficiently 
selected  and  arranged;  promiscously  scattered  on  the  road,  impeding 
the  travel  and  lending  aid  to  destruction  ;  the  roadway  hollow  in  the 
middle;  the  sides  incumbered  with  mud  in  banks  6  and  8  feet  high. 
Such  are  the  attributes  of  the  British  highways  at  the  time.  Since 
then  but  fifty  years  have  passed,  and  mighty  has  been  the  change. 
The  description  which  we  have  just  been  traversing  has  many  features 
which  might  suit  an  essay  on  the  facilities  existing  at  the  present  mo 
ment  in  a  large  number  of  the  United  States.  The  heedless  manner  in 
which  so  frequently  the  routes  are  selected  ;  the  utter  disregard  of 
grade ;  the  boundary  of  a  cornfield  given  preference  for  location  of  the 
line  of  road  ro  the  plainest  topographical  necessity;  the  wretched  pre- 
tense of  drainage  which  only  works  the  ruin  of  the  roadbed.  These, 
and  a  multitude  of  similar  reflections,  may  find  analogy  in  the  spirited 
complaint  put  forth  fifty  years  ago  in  England. 

The  most  important  element  in  the  problem  seems  to  be  the  one 
which  in  the  discussions  of  that  and  later  periods  has  been  so  urgently 
insisted  on  in  England,  viz,  the  employment  qf  competent  expert 
capacity  to  personally  and  immediately  supervise  the  designing,  locat- 
ing, constructing,  and  maintaining  of  the  highways  of  the  various 
country-sides.  In  even  the  remotest  districts,  destitute  of  facilities  fur 
exterior  supply  of  road -making  material,  and  where  the  natural  re- 
sources of  the  country  do  not  furnish  it,  there  is  still,  and  here  even 
more  perhaps  than  iu  more  favored  regions,  the  necesssity  for  skill  and 
trained  capacity  in  road  building.  A  well-planned,  scientifically  exe- 
cuted line  of  highway,  judiciously  graded,  sufficiently  drained,  properly 
protected  from  rain  and  flood,  and  systematically  supervised  and  kept 
in  repair,  might  welloffer  facilities,  even  with  a  roadbed  of  the  native 
soil  un metaled,  superior  for  traffic  to  the  heaviest  accretion  of  stone, 
unskillfuily  disposed  and  left  by  neglect  to  decay.  It  is  prominently 
apparent  in  any  fair  consideration  of  the  subject  that  competent  special 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  259 

ability  in  the  selection  of  the  route,  in  the  management  of  levels,  in  the 
application  of  material,  and  in  the  unintcrmitting  care  of  the  roadway 
after  it  is  built,  is  the  essential  and  indispensable  requirement  for  the 
proper  development  of  our  road  system.  No  natural  advantages  can 
take  the  place  of  intelligent  use  of  the  means  actually  in  hand. 

The  same  irresponsibility,  the  same  lack  of  individual  personal  in- 
terest and  trained  capacity  on  the  part  of  those  charged  with  the  man- 
agement of  the  Euglish  road  systems  in  former  times  is  now  working 
its  evil  effects  in  our  own  States.  Organization,  liberal  and  coincident!? 
judicious  outlay  of  money,  and  expert  supervision  are  vital  needs  in  this 
connection. 

Mr.  Thomas  Oodriugton,  general  superintendent  of  county  roads  for 
South  Wales,  a  recognized  authority,  iu  his  "  Maintenance  of  Macada- 
mized Roads,"  edition  1879,  begins  his  preface  by  a  statement  that  his 
subject  is  one  upon  which  the  published  information  in  England  is  re- 
markably scanty.  He  speaks  of  the  engineers  of  the  Ponts  et  Chaus- 
sees  in  France  as  having  been  foremost  in  inquiries  of  this  sort,  and 
adds  that  the  results  of  their  labors  are  fortunately  for  the  most  part 
as  applicable  in  England  as  iu  their  own  country.  The  lack  of  knowl- 
edge iu  England  as  to  systematic  road  maintenance  he  considers  will 
become  more  apparent  iu  consequence  of  the  then  recent  legislation  by 
which  half  the  cost  of  repairing  the  main  roads  had  been  made  to  fall 
upon  the  county  rate,  with  the  inferable  consequence  of  supervision  by 
the  county  authorities. 

Application  of  new  materials,  prevention  of  avoidable  wear  by  keep- 
ing the  surface  and  the  body  of  the  road  in  good  conditiou,  removal  of 
detritus  as  it  forms,  care  of  the  surface  and  attention  to  drainage,  are 
the  points  suggested  as  important.  Four  horses  doing  the  work  of  five 
or  three  the  work  of  four  are  results  to  be  attained  by  proper  manage- 
ment of  the  roadways,  accompauied  by  saviug  of  wear  and  tear  of 
harness  and  vehicles.  But  actual  economy  in  cost  of  maintenance  gen- 
erally he  thinks  follows  as  well.  A  good  road  is  cheaper  as  well  as  better 
than  a  bad  one.  He  speaks  of  upwards  of  £1,000,000  ($19,466,0(10) 
being  spent  annually  on  the  ro  ids  of  England  and  Wales,  this  expend- 
iture being  nearly  all  on  macadamized  ways.  It  is  also  exclusive  of  the 
London  district,  where  macadamized  roads  are  debited  with  £280,000 
(#1,362,620)  annual  outlay.  A  large  saving  is  reckoned  possible  on 
this,  given  more  system  and  skill  iu  administration;  while  the  indirect 
economy  iu  cost  of  drought  and  wear  aud  tear  is  reckoned  would 
probably  far  exceed  the  direct,  considerable  as  the  latter  might  be ; 
so  essential  does  this  judicious  writer  deem  the  employment  of  expert 
superintendence.  And  the  same  text  which  Telford  and  Macadam  ex- 
pounded sixty  years  before  has  kept  its  vitality  to  this  later  day. 

Telford  and  Macadam,  while  coincident  in  their  aims,  seem  somewhat 
divergent  as  to  method.  The  prominent  point  of  difference  in  their 
theories  would  seem  to  have  consisted  in  their  requirements  as  to  the 


260  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

shape  and  size  of  the  metal  constituents  used  in  the  roadbed.  The 
one  held  favorably  the  use  of  a  bottoming  of  more  or  less  symmetric- 
ally shaped  stones  of  appreciable  size  set  in  careful  order  and  forming 
a  substantial  foundation  wherever  was-  to  be  arranged  the  mass  of 
smaller  stones  to  make  the  surface  of  the  way.  The  other  assumed  an 
antipodal  position,  and  held  that  no  foundation  was  so  good  as  the  na- 
tive soil,  handled,  and  shaped,  and  drained,  where  possible,  but  pre- 
served from  any  sort  of  contact  with  stones  of  individual  importance, 
size,  and  weight.  These  he  deemed  to  be  absolutely  mischievous  to 
cause  injury  to  the  stability  of  the  working  stratum  of  the  road.  This 
plan  was  uniformity  of  size  (6  ounces  in  weight  was  his  standard), 
and  the  stone  distributed  without  mixture  of  earth,  clay,  chalk,  or  any 
matter  which  will  imbibe  water  and  be  affected  by  frost;  nothing  to  be 
applied  for  "  binding."  Broken  stone,  he  says,  will  combine  by  its 
own  angles  into  a  smooth  surface  beyond  the  attack  either  of  weather 
or  wheels.  Placing  stone  under  the  road  to  make  it  artificially  strong 
enough  to  bear  heavy  carriages,  though  the  subsoil  is  wet,  and  to  try 
thus  to  avoid  harm  of  water  penetrating  the  soil,  he  says,  has  led  to 
most  of  the  defects  of  British  roads.  Strata  of  stone  of  various  sizes 
will  cause  constant  working  up  of  the  largest  stones — uniform  size  from 
the  bottom  he  holds  to  be  the  only  remedy.  He  goes  so  far  as  to  say 
that  a  road  over  a  morass  lasts  much  longer  than  when  made  over  rock, 
citing  in  this  connection  the  road  between  Bristol  and  Bridgewater,  as 
showing  a  comparison  of  five  to  seven  in  favor  of  the  wearing  on  the 
morass  where  the  road  was  laid  upon  the  naked  soil  against  a  part  of 
the  same  road  made  over  rocky  ground.  The  thickness  of  the  road  he 
deems  immaterial  so  far  as  regards  its  strength  for  carrying  weight. 
The  subsoil,  which  is  kept  dry  by  the  road  acting  as  a  roof,  bears  the 
load  as  well  as  the  road.  He  insists  upon  dryness  to  facilitate  this- 
effect.  The  morass  of  his  illustration  would  seem,  therefore,  to  have 
been  a  sort  of  dry  morass. 

Mr.  Codrington  thinks  tha.t  this  difference  between  the  two  engineers 
has  been  more  dwelt  on  than  the  similarity  of  their  systems  on  many 
other  points  in  which  they  varied  so  widely  from  the  practice  of  their  pre- 
decessors. Both,  for  example,  insisted  on  the  necessity  for  the  thorough 
drainage  of  the  seat  of  the  road  (previously  quite  neglected)  and  both 
made  use  of  materials  broken  to  gauge  to  form  a  solid  hard  surface  of 
a  uniform  cross-section  and  of  curvature  just  sufficient  to  throw  the 
rain- water  freely  to  the  sides.    Telford's  description  is  quoted : 

This  foundation  is  a  regular  close  pavement  of  stones  carefully  set  by  hand,  and 
varying  in  height  from  8  to  6  inches,  to  suit  the  curvature  of  the  road.  These  stones 
are  all  set  on  edge,  but  with  the  flat  one  lowest,  so  that  each  shall  rest  perfectly  firm. 
The  interstices  are  then  pinned  with  small  stones,  and  care  is  taken  that  no  stone 
shall  be  broader  than  4  or  5  inches,  as  the  upper  stratum  does  not  bind  upon  them  so 
well  when  they  much  exceed  that  breadth.  The  pavement  thus  constructed  is  quite 
firm  and  immovable,  and  forms  a  complete  separation  between  the  top  stratum  of 
broken  stones  and  the  retentive  soil  below. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  2G1 

The  French  engiueer,  Tresaguet's,  mode  described  by  himself  in  17G1, 
and  adopted  generally  in  France  in  1775,  is  cited  for  comparison,  and 
shows  great  similarity. 

Mr.  Codrington,  in  this  connection,  distinguishes  between  "a  firm 
and  regular  bottoming"  to  separate  the  road  metaling  from  the  subsoil 
and  "a  pavement."  Iu  order  to  secure  a  dry  bottom,  and  to  avoid  suf- 
fering the  workable  materials  coming  into  contact  with  clay,  Telford 
was  willing  to  get  tbe  effect  by  almost  any  means  available ;  and  sug- 
gested gravel,  sand,  vegetable  soil,  or  chalk  as  alternatives  to  bottom- 
ing stones  ;  a  requisite,  whatever  the  medium,  was  that  "  this  bottoming 
should  be  made  perfectly  firm  and  regular,  so  as  to  receive  the  top 
workable  metal  of  equal  thickness."  Thus  it  is  said,  although  he 
always  advised  a  paved  bottom  when  it  could  be  laid,  many  pieces  of 
road  were  made  under  Telford's  direction  without  the  paved  bottom, 
with  which  his  name  has  been  associated. 

Mr.  Codringtou  is  of  opinion  that  where  the  bottom  is  soft  and  wet 
and  the  subsoil  can  not  be  laid  dry  by  drainage,  a  bottoming  of  some 
sort  is  very  desirable,  aud  that  stone  will  be  often  found  the  most  eco- 
nomical as  well  as  the  most  convenient  medium  if  considerable  strength 
is  required.  Three  or  4  inches  of  broken  stone  laid  on  6  iuches  of 
pitching  consolidates,  he  says,  much  more  quickly  under  ordinary  traffic 
than  the  9  or  10  iuches  of  broken  stone  alone.  Stone  for  bottoming 
may  be  of  a  quality  unfit  for  metaling  or  building.  Macadam's  objec- 
tion that  large  stones  would  work  up,  Mr.  Codrington  limits  to  those 
thrown  down  anyhow  on  to  an  undrained  subsoil,  as  per  the  older 
road  makers,  but  denies  that  it  applies  to  a  carfully  pitched  foundation, 
a  bottoming  of  stones  on  edge.  The  plea  that  the  metaling  is  "ground 
to  powder"  between  the  wheel  and  the  underlying  pavement  has  been 
made,  but  sufficient  thickness  of  metal  is  thought  to  obviate  this  danger. 
On  a  soft  subsoil,,  where  a  pitched  bottoming  is  most  useful,  experience 
is  said  to  prove  that  the  broken  stone  may  be  reduced  by  wear  to  1£  or 
2  inches  in  thickness  without  such  action. 

Mr.  Codrington  attributes  a  good  deal  of  exaggeration  to  many  of 
Macadam's  statements.  He  deems  it  quite  contrary  to  other  experience 
that  materials  should  last  longer  oil  a  soft  bottom,  and  says  the  morass 
road  may  have  worn  well  in  spite  of  its  foundation  and  not  because  of 
it;  and,  he  adds,  that  the  saving  in  wear  of  materials  on  what  he  terms 
"a  flexible  road  "could  only  have  been  obtained  at  the  expense  of 
increased  draft  of  vehicle,  lie  also  takes  exception  to  the  theory  of 
satisfaction  from  imperviousness  to  water  alone,  without  reference  to 
weight  carrying  power  advanced  by  Macadam.  He  goes  so  far  as  to 
say  that  while  a  water-tight  covering,  as  in  limestone  roads,  is  desir- 
able, roads  of  silicious  material,  though  always  more  or  less  permeable, 
may  be  also  very  good.  Mo  lorn  practice,  he  says,  varies  from  Mac- 
adam's precepts  in  other  points;  but  the  principle  of  broken  stone 
laid  directly  on  the  natural  soil  has  guided  the  construction  of,  by  far, 


262  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

the  largest  proportion  of  the  roads  of  the  present  day,  both  in  England 
and  abroad.  He  gives  Macadam  the  credit  of  first  calling  attention  to 
the  proper  preparation  of  materials  and  the  possibility  of  a  road  surface 
nearly  impenetrable  to  water,  though  flat  enough  for  vehicles  over  the 
whole  area.  To  him  also,  he  concedes,  is  largely  due  the  establishment 
of  a  regular  system  of  road  maintenance  under  properly  qualified  sur- 
veyors. This  alone  would  seem  to  entitle  Macadam's  name  to  high 
consideration  in  the  country  which  has  so  benefited  by  his  service. 

ROAD   CONSTRUCTION. 

Regarding  the  construction  of  roads  Mr.  Codrington  summarizes  the 
subject  under  the  following  heads : 

1.  Drainage. 

2.  Cross  section. 

3.  Road  with  a  pitched  foundation. 

4.  Concrete  foundations. 

5.  Broken-stone  road. 

6.  Breadth. 

7.  Water  tables  or  side  channels. 

8.  Outlets. 

9.  Foot  path. 

10.  Fences. 

11.  Stone  depots. 

12.  Rolling. 

13.  Use  of  a  binding  material. 

14.  Cost  of  macadamized  roads. 

15.  Reforming  an  old  road,  and 

16.  Lifting  a  road. 

(1)  Drainage. — This  is  essential  whether  a  paved  bottom  is  laid  or 
not.  Ditches  on  each  side  of  the  road  2  or  3  feet  deep  are  usually  suffi- 
cient. They  may  be  on  either  the  field  or  the  road  side  of  the  fence ; 
better  the  latter  if  other  things  agree.  They  are  easier  of  access  and 
being  nearer  give  more  complete  drainage.  Where  the  road  is  below  the 
level  of  the  land  the  drains  are  often  covered  in.  They  should  be  under 
the  side  channel,  1  foot  or  so  deep  below  the  formation  surface,  and  filled 
in  with  rubblestone  to  join  with  the  road  materials.  Surface  water 
should  be  otherwise  provided  for  by  open  drains.  If  side  ditches  and 
drains  are  not  enough  miter  drains  must  be  added.  These  are  drains 
meeting  in  a  V  in  the  center  of  the  road  and  running  to  the  side  drains 
in  the  direction  in  which  the  road  falls.  One  in  100  is  sufficient  incli- 
nation. They  are  cut  in  the  formation  surface  6  inches  deep  and  12 
inches  wide,  filled  in  with  broken  stone.  Drain  pipes  or  box  drains  with 
side  walls  of  dry  stone  and  flat  bottom  and  cover  stone  may  be  used. 
The  latter  have  the  advantage  that  they  can  be  opened  and  cleaned. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  tap  and  lead  away  springs  rising  under  the  road. 
Both  the  general  highway  and  the  turnpike  acts  give  power  to  make 
drains  through  lands  adjoining  a  road,  with  satisfaction  for  the  dam- 
age.   Draining  is  economy.    A  wet  road  is  always  troublesome.     Ex- 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  263 

pense  in  drainage  is  well  expended.  Culverts  are  required  for  surface 
water  passing  the  road.     Slight  fall  in  these  is  best. 

(2)  Cross  section.— Rain  must  be  shed.  A  moderate  inclination  from 
the  center  to  the  sides  will  be  enough,  and  best.  Too  great  convexity 
throws  traffic  to  the  middle  of  the  road.  A  flatter  section  distributes 
it.  Fair  surface  makes  water  flow  freely  better  than  steepness.  New 
roads  more  convex  since  the  middle  consolidates  more  by  traffic,  which 
'is  to  be  allowed  for.  Telford's  section  was  a  flat  elliptical  curve,  differ- 
ing slightly  from  an  arc  of  a  circle,  by  being  more  convex  in  the  mid- 
dle than  at  the  sides.  Walker  recommended  two  straight  lines  follow- 
ing about  1  in  24  toward  the  sides  and  joined  in  the  middle  of  the 
section  by  a  curve.  A  common  form  is  a  elliptical  curve,  flatter  in  the 
middle  than  at  the  sides,  which  is  apt  to  be  too  flat,  though  it  makes 
good  side  channels,  Either  a  flat  ellipse  like  Pelford's  or  an  arc  of  a  cir- 
cle is  perhaps  on  the  whole  preferable.  But  regularity  and  evenness 
are  more  important  than  these  slight  differences.  Six  inches'  fall  from 
center  to  sides  is  enough  for  a  30-foot  road  and  the  fall  should  never  go 
beyond  9  inches ;  for  18  or  20  feet  breadth  3  or  4  inches  is  called  enough. 
Ou  a  level  road  a  rather  rounder  section  is  called  for  than  on  one  with 
moderate  gradients.  On  hills  the  side  fall  should  lead  the  water  off 
and  prevent  its  following  the  surface  along  the  lengths  of  the  road. 
Water  carried  off  a  road  by  going  down  the  wheel  tracks  is  drainage 
misapplied.  The  side  channels  may  be  shaped  to  suit  the  bulk  of  water 
coming  on  them ;  but  their  tendency  in  being  cleaned  is  to  get  deeper 
unless  they  are  pitched. 

The  convexity  of  surface  may  be  made  either  in  the  foundation  or 
the  road  coating.  Telford's  practice  was  a  level  roadbed  and  convexity 
obtained  by  thinning  both  the  pitching  and  metaling  at  the  sides.  On 
some  parts  of  the  Holyhead  road  the  paved  bottom  on  a  level  bed  di- 
minished from  7  inches  at  the  center  to  3  inches  at  the  sides  of  a  30-foot 
road,  then  giving  4  inches  fall  in  15  feet  on  which  broken  stone  was  laid 
6  inches  in  thickness  for  a  breadth  of  18  feet  in  the  middle  and  thinning 
out  from  G  inches  to  4  inches  in  the  6  feet  of  width  remaining  on  each 
side  with  1£  inches  of  gravel  over  all,  so  that  the  finished  road  had  a  total 
convexity  of  6  inches.  On  other  parts  of  this  road  the  paved  bottom 
was  laid  over  only  18  feet  of  the  middle  of  a  30-foot  road,  diminishing 
from  7  to  5  inches  in  thickness  with  a  layer  of  broken  metal  6  inches 
thick  over.  On  the  portions  without  paved  bottom  the  convexity  was 
given  partly  in  the  gravel  bottoming,  7  inches  in  the  center  and  2  inches 
at  the  sides  of  a  30  foot  road,  and  partly  in  the  top  metaling  of  broken 
flint  and  large  gravel  which  varied  from  8  inches  in  depth  in  the  middle 
to  4  inches  at  the  sides  with  1£  inch  of  binding  gravel  over  all;  thus 
giving  9  inches  of  convexity  in  the  30-foot  width.  Making  the  sides 
weaker  than  the  middle  is  called,  however,  of  doubtful  utility  in  roads  of 
ordinary  dimensions.  The  sides  are  subject  to  heavy  strains  and  need 
to  be  strong.     An  ordinary  new  road  should  have  the  roadbed  shaped 


2G4  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

to  obtain  the  desired  surface  and  at  the  same  time  to  admit  a  uniform 
thickness  of  metaling,  or  only  slightly  thicker  in  the  middle  to  allow 
for  consolidation.  This  is  thought  advantageous  also  for  dryness.  The 
original  surface  should  he  undisturbed  as  far  as  possible,  hollows  being 
filled  up  from  the  adjacent  grouud  rather  than  the  elevations  cut  down. 
This  particularly  as  to  a  clay  subsoil.  After  getting  into  shape  roller 
should  be  applied.  Surface  for  metaling  should  be  set  out  and  shoul- 
dering to  confine  road  materials  be  formed  either  in  the  solid  or  by  sods 
backed  up  with  earth.  Outlets  through  the  shouldering  should  be  left 
for  water  from  the  road. 

(3)  Road  with  a  pitched  foundation.— Stones  must  be  set  by  hand  in 
close  order  broadest  edge  down  and  across  the  direction  of  the  road. 
Laying  flat  gives  a  tendency  to  unsteadiness  and  the  metaling  does  not 
bind  so  well.  Upper  edges  should  not  exceed  4  inches  in  breadth.  In- 
equalities should  be  hammered  off  and  small  stones  packed  in  the  inter- 
stices. Carts  should  keep  off  till  the  pavement  has  a  coating  of  broken 
stone.  This  should  be  3  or  4  inches  deep  for  the  first  coat,  and  raked 
in  the  ruts  while  consolidating  under  traffic;  and  the  remainder  should 
be  put  on  when  the  first  is  nearly  set.  With  ordinary  traffic  4  inches 
of  broken  stone  over  a  pitched  foundation  should  consolidate  in  about 
3  months.  Four  inches  of  pitching  and  4  of  metaling  are  inside  limits 
for  thickness  ;  7  inches  for  pitching,  and  6  for  metaling  mark  the  other 
extreme.  In  a  level  street  a  pitched  foundation  must  fall  near  the  gul- 
lies, or  else  the  metaling  will  have  to  be  too  thin  at  the  side, 

(4)  Concrete  foundations.— Ionian  concrete  6  inches  thick.  Broken 
stone  thereon  6  inches  more.  Upper  surface  of  concrete  indented  to 
hold  stone  and  drain  off  water.  Annual  wear  of  this  reported  \  inch. 
Conrmon  lime  concrete  also  used,  6  inches  thick  ;  two  layers  of  stone, 
3  and  3  inches;  the  first  laid  before  the  concrete  had  set,  which  took 
in  this  stone,  the  upper  layer  after  the  first  was  partly  consolidated 
by  the  traffic.  Liaslime  concrete  also  employed  on  Victoria  and  Chelsea 
embankments,  12  inches  thick  on  slightly  convex  formation  of  surface 
stretching  under  the  curbs  of  the  footways.  Six  inches  of  granite  in 
two  courses,  each  rolled,  was  added  after  the  concrete  had  thoroughly 
set ;  on  a  clay  subsoil  small  gravel  or  sand  2  or  3  inches  deep  before 
the  metaling  is  applied  will  cut  off  the  clay.  Chalk  has  also  been 
used,  but  is  called  dangerous  through  effects  of  frost. 

(5)  Broken-stone  road.— If  a  road  is  entirely  of  broken  stone  a  layer  3 
to  6  inches  should  be  laid  first  and  in  dry  weather.  After  consolidation 
begins  add  more,  and  so  on  till  completed.  Euts  require  raking  as 
soon  as  they  appear.  The  layers  after  the  first  want  wet  weather.  Too 
thick  at  first  makes  waste ;  but  heavy  traffic  requires,  especially  with  a 
soft  bottom,  a  good  thickness  in  the  first  layer.  A  new  road  needs 
rarely  less  than  6  inches  for  first  layer.  This  on  a  good  well  drained 
road  will  serve  a  considerable  country  traffic.  Macadam  considered  10 
inches  of  well  consolidated  material  enough  for  any  traffic  on  any  sub- 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  265 

stratum.  Experience  has  proved  this  true  in  well  drained  and  well  kept 
roads  even  in  London.  Eight  or  9  inches  is  usually  enough ;  and 
gradually  to  apply  by  successive  coats  is  better  than  putting  on  all  at 
once. 

(6)  Breadth.— This  should  be  enough  to  accommodate  the  traffic:  12 
to  15  feet  in  country  ;  30  to  50  feet  near  towns.  Fifteen  feet  permits 
two  vehicles  to  pass.  A  few  feet  extra  gives  much  relief.  Hills  render 
extra  breadth  desirable.  Uniform  breadth  and  well  defined  side  channels 
are  "  neat  and  useful." 

(7)  Water  tables  or  side  channels. — Where  the  road  abuts  against  banks 
or  walls  the  slope  near  the  meeting  makes  the  water  table  or  side  chan- 
nel. Usually,  however,  space  exists  on  either  side  the  metaled  surface, 
and  a  sod  or  curbing  should  define  the  road  and  form  the  water  table. 
Sods  about  12  inches  wide  and  4  or  5  thick,  2  high,  backed  with 
earth,  make  a  bank  for  a  footpath  or  place  for  road  scrapings,  and  is 
reckoned  to  cost  Id.  to  l%d.  (2  to  3  cents)  per  linear  yard.  Flat  stones 
may  be  used  for  the  water  table,  or  asphalt  made  of  gas  tar,  gravel,  and 
road  scrapings  or  other  methods  as  to  local  circumstances. 

Limestone  curbs  1  foot  deep  and  4  inches  wide  are  quoted  2*.  6d.  (61 
cents)  to  3s.  6<f.  (85  cents)  per  linear  yard.  Granite  curbs  12  inches  wide 
and  9  inches  deep,  suitable  for  towns,  cost  Qs.  6d.  ($1.58)  to  7s.  ($1.70) 
per  liuear  yard. 

In  villages  or  where  the  road  is  bordered  with  houses  a  shallow  gut- 
ter is  more  suitable;  a  slope  to  the  road  meeting  the  metaling  in  the 
line  of  the  water  table,  which  latter  may  be  pitched  or  channeled.  Afc 
junctions  the  channels  require  special  attention,  and  cross  drains  may 
be  used. 

(8)  Outlets. — Numerous  outlets  for  water  are  necessary.  It  should 
not  be  allowed  to  stand.     On  hills  outlets  are  specially  required. 

(9)  Footpath. — If  made  it  should  be  9  or  10  inches  above  the  water- 
table  and  have  a  slope  towards  the  road  of  about  1  in  30. 

(10)  Fences.— A  post  and  rail  fence  is  best  because  it  does  not  shade 
the  road.     A  bank  and  hedge  are  cheaper. 

(11)  Stone  depots. — These  are  recesses  to  contain  material  for  repairs. 
They  should  be  near  enough  together  to  allow  the  roadmen  to  wheel  out 
the  materials  to  any  part  of  the  road. 

(12)  Rolling.— A.  new  road  should  always  be  finished  by  rolling.  The 
metaling  is  thus  consolidated  without  the  grinding  and  crushing  by 
wheels  of  vehicles.  Horse  rollers  are  3  to  4£  feet  or  more  in  diameter 
and  4  to  5  feet  long,  or  of  two  or  more  cylinders  side,  by  side,  weight  (not 
loaded)  2  to  3  tons.  By  loading  a  box  or  filling  cylinder  with  water, 
weight  may  be  increased  for  subsequent  heavier  work  as  the  road  con- 
solidates. Pressure  is  desired  to  the  extent  of  a  ton  to  a  ton  and  a  half 
per  foot  width  of  roller,  a  4-foot  roller,  6  tons,  requiring  G  horses. 
Horses  feet  tear  the  road  if  materials  are  loose  and  draft  heavy.  For 
superior  work  and  economy  steam  rollers  are  preferred.     A  steam  roller 


266  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

weighing  15  tons,  7  feet  wide,  2  tons  per  foot,  compresses  far  more  rapidly 
than  a  horse  roller.  It  can  do  thoroughly  1,000  to  2,000  square  yards 
of  newly  laid  stones  per  day ;  4  to  5  inches  of  stone  may  be  rolled  at 
once;  thicker  is  better  twice  separately,  in  different  coats.  Any  large 
stones  or  surface  should  be  broken.  Horse  rollers  go  over  several  times 
unloaded,  and  hollows  are  filled  with  small  materials.  When  the  road 
begins  to  set  the  roller  is  partly  loaded,  and  finally  fully  and  until 
the  stones  are  quite  steady  in  place.  A  steam  roller  has  all  the  weight 
at  first.  Artificial  watering  is  necessary  unless  the  weather  is  wet ;  4 
or  5  inches  generally  consolidate  better  than  either  thicker  or  thinner. 
Commence  at  the  sides,  and  work  to  the  middle.  When  the  stones  are 
thoroughly  wedged  together,  but  not  before,  binding  must  be  added. 
This  may  be  fine  gravel,  road  scrapings,  or  sand.  Chalky  or  clayey 
binding  should  be  avoided.  Limestone  detritus  is  best  with  silicious 
materials  and  sand  may  be  used  with  limestone  road.  Binding  should  be 
spread  dry  with  a  shovel,  and  uniformly,  and  worked  in  gradually  with 
the  help  of  watering  and  sweeping  in  addition  to  the  rolling.  As  little 
as  possible  for  effecting  the  purpose  is  best  to  use.  The  object  is  to 
consolidate  the  road,  and  the  coalescing  of  the  material  of  which  its 
bulk  is  composed  is  to  be  sought  for.  The  binding  is  only  by  way  of 
supplement,  and  too  much  hurts  the  durability  of  the  road.  One  quar- 
ter the  bulk  of  the  stones  is  sometimes  used  in  France  and  one  sixth  is 
the  official  pfoportion  at  Mandover. 

(13)  Use  of  a  binding  material. — Macadam  and  others  have  discoun- 
tenanced the  use  of  binding,  but  Mr.  Codington  thinks  the  proper  use  of 
it  on  a  new  road  is  founded  on  reason.  It  should  be  applied  after  the 
stone  is  laid,  not  mixed  with  it. 

(14)  Cost  of  macadamized  roads. — This  varies  greatly.  With  materials 
close  at  hand  a  good  road  may  be  formed  and  coated  for  Is.  or  Is.  '6d. 
(24  to  30  cents)  per  square  yard,  and  a  London  street  constructed  in  the 
best  manner,  with  9  inches  of  Guernsey  granite,  may  cost  as  much  as  6s. 
or  7s.  ($1.44  or  $1.68)  per  square  yard. 

The  following  particulars  of  the  construction  of  roads  near  London 
are  given  from  Sir  James  Macadam ;  time  apparently  about  1850: 

For  a  road  of  the  first-class,  sufficient  for  a  street  with  the  heaviest  traffic,  4  inches 
of  gravel,  riddled  and  broken  so  that  no  piece  exceeded  3  ounces,  was  laid  on  a  well- 
drained  and  prepared  surface  having  a  fall  of  an  inch  in  a  yard  from  the  ceuter  towards 
the  sides.  When  partly  consolidated  by  traffic  or  by  a  roller,  2  or  3  inches  more  was 
laid,  and  over  this,  when  sufficiently  consolidated,  3  inches  of  granite  or  other  hard 
stone.  The  furrows  were  kept  raked,  and  the  cross  section  maintained  in  true  form 
until  the  whole  was  consolidated,  but  no  binding  was  used.  The  second-class  roads 
required  4  inches  of  gravel  and  3  inches  of  hard  stone  or  granite ;  and  the  third-class 
3  inches  of  gravel  and  2  inches  of  granite  or  hard  stone.  Taking  the  gravel  at  5s. 
($1.20)  per  cubic  yard,  the  drainage  and  preparation  of  the  surface  and  spreading  and 
raking,  each  at  2d.  (4  cents)  per  square  yard,  a  first-class  road  was  estimated  to  cost 
2s.  (id.  (60  cents)  per  square  yard.  Granite  is  now  (1879)  16s.  to  18s.  ($3.84  to  $4.32)  a 
cubic  yard,  and  other  prices  are  higher.  In  Londou  streets,  instead  of  the  gravel, 
hard  core,  clinker,  brick,  or  stone  rubbish  is  now  often  used  for  the  bottom  9  or  1? 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  267 

inches,  over  which  3  inches  of  Thames  ballast  is  laid,  and  then  the  granite  or  hard 
stone,  which  is  often  thicker  than  3  inches.  The  bottoming,  the  ballast,  and  the  top 
metalling  are  generally  now  rolled  separately,  and  the  cost  may  be,  as  above  stated, 
b«.  or  78.  ($1.44  or  $l.6S)  per  square  yard. 

(15)  Reforming  an  old  road. — The  general  objects  should  be  the  same 
as  iu  making  a  new  one.  Drainage  of  foundation  and  surface,  good 
and  regular  cross  section,  and  sufficient  strength,  are  the  leading 
ideas. 

Present  condition  is  tested  by  sounding  or  digging  small  holes  in 
the  surface.  Fresh  material  is  to  be  added  to  a  thin  road,  giving  proper 
form,  digging  out  and  putting  in,  breaking  unduly  large  stones,  and 
side  channels  regulated.  Mud  and  detritus  must  be  sufficiently  re- 
moved, and  hollows  filled  up.  Gradual  improvement  without  unneces- 
sary pulling  to  pieces  should  be  the  rule. 

(1G)  Lifting  a  road. — A  road  sometimes  contains  enough  or  nearly 
enough  material  for  its  own  reconstruction.  The  whole  body  is  looseued 
with  the  pick.  All  stones  over  6  ounces  in  weight,  or  which  will  not 
.pass  through  a  2^-inch  ring,  are  raked  aside  and  broken  to  that  gauge. 
After  removing  the  large  stones  what  are  left  are  put  in  shape  and  the 
large  ones  broken  up  aud  spread  on  the  surface.  The  surface  may 
properly  be  lifted  to  4  inches  depth  rather  than  altogether,  as  the 
bottom  may  be  poor.  Quarry  rubbish  or  other  dry  material  may  be 
spread  on  the  foundation  before  the  stone  taken  out  is  replaced  and 
fresh  materials  may  be  added.  Two  or  three  yards  at  one  time  is'enough 
to  lift.  Macadam  estimated  lifting  a  rough  road  4  inches,  breaking 
stones,  reforming  surface,  and  cleaning  water  courses  to  cost  from  Ad. 
to  2<£.  (2  to  4  cents)  per  square  yard  lifted.  A  condition  of  road  where 
there  is  plenty  of  stone,  imperfectly  brokeu,  badly  arranged  aud  mixed 
with  the  soil,  is  one  where  lifting  may  be  desirable.  In  many  cases  it 
would  be  uu advisable. 


STREETS  OF  LEEDS. 

The  new  streets  in  the  town  of  Leeds  are  understood  to  be  normally 
12  yards  wide.  This  is  subject  to  numerous  exceptions  in  the  older 
parts  of  the  borough,  where  width  and  directions  are  very  irregular. 
The  cost  of  paving  is  borne  by  the  owners  of  property  binding  on  the 
area  paved.  The  average  cost  price  of  paving  per  lineal  yard  of  boun- 
dary line,  by  which  the  assessment  is  laid,  is  reckoned  to  be  something 
like  about  25*.  4d.  (see  annexed  schedules)  ($6.08).  The  liability  of  the 
owner  extends  over  half  the  area  of  his  front,  which  is  a  street  of  nor- 
mal width  as  above  of  12  yards,  would  cover  0  yards  to  the  front,  mak- 
ing the  lineal  yard  represent  6  superficial  yards,  and  the  corresponding 
cost  per  superficial  yard  on  that  average  4,9.  Id.  ($1.01). 

As  preliminary  to  making  a  new  street,  notice  is  posted  of  intended 
paving.     This  stands  three  weeks.     This  is  understood  to  be  warning 


268  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

to  the  owner  to  begin  and  pave  the  street  at  his  own  cost  and  charges. 
The  owner,  however,  sedulously  omits  compliance,  and  allows  time  to 
lapse.  When  five  months  have  passed  the  corporation  comes  upon  the 
field,  and,  having  let  a  contract,  proceeds  to  have  the  work  completed; 
and  having  done  so,  and  the  job  having  undergone  the  necessary  proof 
of  fulfillment  of  the  terms  of  the  contract,  the  owner  is  amerced  iu  the 
amount  of  the  cost,  each  one  proportionally  to  the  length  of  his  front 
boundary  line.  Details  of  contract  are  annexed  in  printed  form,  as  also 
two  pro  form  a  tenders,  giving  approximate  prices  for  the  various  items 
thereon  set  forth.  One  of  these  is  for  ordinary  paving  in  accordance 
with  the  printed  specification  therefor  above  referred  to,  and  the  other 
is  for  macadamizing  with  specification  pertaining  thereto,  also  attached 
in  writing. 

There  is  another  statement  annexed  to  which  special  attention  is  in- 
vited, the  estimate  of  251  ($6.08),  per  lineal  yard  of  a  12-yard  street  is 
a  very  general  sort  of  average,  and  more  accuracy  can  perhaps  be  ob- 
tained by  collocation  of  the  figures  given  on  the  pro  forma  tenders  and 
Mr.  Prince's  statement,  which  is  here  referred  to. 

My  hearty  thanks  are  due  to  Mr.  Prince,  who  is  the  highways  sur- 
veyor of  the  borough  of  Leeds,  for  his  interesting  information. 

LEEDS  IMPROVEMENT  ACTS. 

Tender  for  paving,  flagging,  and  leveling. 

To  the  Mayor,  Aldermen,  and  Burgesses  of  the  Borough  of  Leeds: 

the  undersigned residing  at do  hereby  offer  to  execute 

the  various  works  required  to  be  done  in  paving,  flagging,  and  leveling ,  in 

the  borough  of  Leeds,  at  the  prices  affixed  to  each  item  in  the  schedule  hereunto  writ 
ten;  to  find  and  provide  all  materials  necessary  thereto,  and  all  labor  requisite  tor 
completing  and  finishing  the  same  in  the  most  perfect  manner,  to  the  entire  satisfac- 
tion of  Mr.  Thomas  Hewson,  the  engineer  and  surveyor  appointed  by  the  council  of 
the  said  borough  of  Leeds,  on  or  before  the  time  mentioned  in  the  specification,  aud 
according  to  the  forms  and  dimensions,  and  upon  the  terms  and  conditions  detailed 
and  set  forth  in  the  drawing  and  specification  deposited  at  the  office  of  the  said  Mr. 
T.  Hewson. 

In  case  this  tender  shall  be  accepted do  hereby  agree  to  abide  by  and  fulfill 

all  the  terms  and  conditions  above  mentioned,  and  to  execute  a  contract  in  accord- 
ance therewith,  and  hereby  propose  Mr. of as  surety  for  the  due 

performance  thereof. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM. 


269 


Schedule  above  referred  to. 

The  following  prices  include  all  materials,  labor,  all  excavation  or  filling,  and 
everything  connected  with  and  required  for  the  completion  of  the  various  works 
hereinafter  mentioned: 


Description. 


New  flagging,  3  inches  thick,  of  the  best  Riven  Bradford  or  Idle  stone, 
knotted  on  lace,  well  squared  through,  and  laid  down  iu  mortar,  ou  a  bed 
of  ashes  4  inches  in  thickness,  properly  rammed  and  prepared  for  the 
same,  including  rising  in  brickwork  set  in  mortar,  window  areas,  coal 
places,  and  all  other  openings  where  the  height  is  less  than  6  inches,  per 
superficial  yard 

Old  flagging:  Taking  up,  removing,  resquaring,  and  relaying  in  mortar,  on  a 
bed  of  ashes  4  inches  in  thickness,  including  rising  in  brickwork  set  in 
mortar,  window  areas,  coal  places,  aud  all  other  openings  where  the 
height  is  less  than  6  inches,  per  superficial  yard  

New  straight  curbs,  12  inches  deep,  7  inches  wide,  in  length  of  not  less  than 

3  feet,  of  the  best  Bradford  or  Idle  stone,  including  chamfered  edge,  per 
lineal  vard 

New  circular  curbs,  12  inches  deep  and  7  inches  wide,  in  lengths  of  not  less 
than  2  feet,  of  the  best  Bradford  or  Idle  stone,  including  chamfered  edge, 
per  lineal  yard 

Old  curbs  taking  up,  rejointing,  and  refitting,  including  chamfered  edge, 
pev  lineal  vard  

New  sets,  from  Bradford  or  Bingley  quairies,  W;  inches  deep,  well  squared 
through  and  laid  in  asphalt,  on  abed  properly  rammed  and  prepared  for 
the  same,  per  superficial  yard 

Old  sets,  taking  up,  redressing,  removing,  and  relaying  in  asphalt,  on  a 
proper  bed,  per  superficial  yard 

New  paving  stones  in  cubes  not  less  than  6  inches  each  way,  from  Bradford, 
Bolton  Wood,  or  Bingley,  laid  in  asphalt,  on  a  bod  oi  ashes  4  inches  in 
thickness,  including  road  forming,  excavating,  and  leveling,  per  super- 
ficial yard 

Old  paving:  Taking  up,  redressing,  and  relaying  in  asphalt,  on  a  bed  of  ashes 

4  inches  iu  thickness,  including  road  forming  aud  leveling,  per  super- 
ficial yard 

Brickwork,  set  in  mortar,  to  area  grates,  coal  places,  and  all  other  open- 
ings, where  the  height  is  above  6  inches  aud  10  inches  thick,  per  square 
yard 

Cutting  hole  in  landing  and  rebating  to  receive  coal  plate,  each 

Rebat  iug  and  fixing  flap  door  and  ash-pit  plates,  each 

Rebating  in  window  grates,  witli  lead  run  in,  complete,  each 

Fixing  area  grates  (new  pattern),  each 

Reworking  old  landings,  per  superficial  foot 

Reworking  old  steps,  per  foot  run  of  step , 

Fixing  steps,  each 

New  thresholds,  steps,  or  trapdoor  frames,  wrought,  per  cubic  foot 

Six-inch  landings  for  cellar  tops,  etc.,  complete,  per  superficial  foot 

Fixing  old  landings  and  making  water-tight  with  cement,  per  superficial 
toot 


English 
currency. 


1  0 

1  10 

6  6 

0  5 

6  6 

2  0 


Equivalent 

in  United 

State*  nir- 

reucy. 


.24 

.43 

1.5S 
.10 

1.58 
.40 


7 

0 

1.70 

'.'. 

3 

.  ft") 

3 

0 

.  1-i 

2 

fi 

.01 

1 

0 

.24 

0 

3 

.0:! 

0 

3 

.00 

1 

0 

.■H 

4 

0 

.:i7 

2 

6 

.01 

Dated  this day  of 188-. 

(Signed)  . 

Note.— No  claim  under  the  contract  will  be  allowed  which  is  not  made  in  writing 
and  within  one  mouth  from  the  final  measurement. 

)>irections.-  No  tender  will  be  received  except  iu  this  form. 

The  blanks  must  be  filled  up  and  the  tender  must  be  signed  and  inclosed  in  an 
envelope,  indorsed  "Tender  for  paving,  etc.,"  and  must  be  addressed  to  "The  streets 
and  sewerage  committee,  town  clerk's  office,  Leeds." 


LEEDS    IMl'KOVICMENT   ACTS. 


Specification  of  certain  works  that  shall  be  done  in  paying,  flagging,  and  leveling 
,  iu  the  township  of ,  in  the  borough  of  Leeds,  for  the  corporation 


of  the  said  borough. 


270  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS   IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  works  embraced  under  this  specification  are  as  follows,  and  shall  be  execuwd 
according  to  the  drawings  and  instructions,  and  in  every  respect  to  the  complete  sai-  " 
isfaction  of  Mr.  Thomas  Hewson,  the  engineer  and  surveyor  of  the  borough  of  Leeds, 

Excavating  and  leveling.— The  carriage  ways  and  footways  shall  be  carefully  exca- 
vated, leveled,  aud  formed  to  such  level  as  shall  be  deemed  by  the  borough  engineer 
most  convenieut  for  the  tenements  abutting  upon  the  street.  The  bed  of  the  car- 
riageway shall  be  made  with  a  rise  from  the  channels  to  the  center  of  1  in  30, 
and  shall  be  cut  out  to  a  depth  to  allow  a  bed  of  4  inches  of  clean,  dry  ashes,  I 
which  shall  be  laid  down  to  form  the  bed  of  the  paving  stones.  The  bed  of  the 
causeway  shall  be  formed  with  a  rise  of  1  in  30,  and  shall  be  cut  out  to  a  depth  . 
that  shall  allow  a  bed  of  4  inches  of  clean,  dry  ashes,  which  shall  be  laid  down  to 
form  the  bed  of  the  flags.  The  superfluous  earth  or  rubbish  (if  any)  shall  be  led 
away  immediately  after  completion  of  work.  Should  any  hollow  place  require  fill- 
ing up,  the  same  shall  be  done  with  dry  and  sound  materials,  well  rammed.  The 
price  for  doing  all  this  work  shall  be  included  in  the  scheduled  prices  for  paving, 
flagging,  and  curbing. 

-Paving. — The  carriage  way  shall  be  formed  of  paving  stones  of  the  hardest  stone, 
from  the  best  beds  in  Bradford,  Bolton  Wood,  or  Bingley  quarries,  or  of  equal  qual- 
ity; entirely  free  from  beds  or  flaws;  in  cubes  not  less  than  6  inches  each  way,  of 
uniform  size,  very  neatly  squared,  and  laid  in  regular  courses  from  side  to  side,  with 
fine  cross  joiuts,  which  must  be  kept  perfectly  clear  to  receive  asphalt  and  coal  tar- 
boiling  hot ;  each  stone  must  be  laid  with  its  natural  bed  in  a  vertical  position  ;  no 
stone  will  be  allowed  to  be  laid  with  its  natural  bed  in  a. horizontal  position  on  any 
account.  The  stones  shall  be  well  rammed,  and  all  the  joints  shall  be  completely 
filled  with  a  mixture  of  asphalt  and  coal  tar,  in  approved  proportions,  run  in  boil- 
ing hot. 

Curbstones. — The  curbstones  shall  be  of  the  hardest  Nell  stone,  entirely  free  from 
beds  and  flaws,  from  the  bottom  beds  in  Bradford,  Bolton  Wood,  or  Bingley  quar- 
ries, or  of  equal  quality;  they  shall  be  12  inches  deep  by  7  inches  wide  and  not  less 
than  3  feet  long,  and  shall  be  firmly  set  on  a  solid  bed  in  mortar.  At  the  corners  of 
the  streets  the  flaggiug  aud  curbstones  shall  describe  a  curve  with  a  radius  equal  to 
the  width  of  the  footway.  No  circular  curbstone  shall  be  less  than  2  feet  long. 
The  ends,  tops,  and  sides  of  every  stone  shall  be  properly  dressed  and  neatly  boasted. 
When  set  the  outer  edge  shall  be  neatly  chamfered  off  for  a  width  of  an  inch. 

Channels. — The  channels  shall  drop  4£  inches  below  the  top  edges  of  the  curb- 
stone, when  the  surface  of  the  road  has  a  natural  fall  to  the  gully  grates;  otherwise 
the  channel  must  be  constructed  with  a  regular  fall  to  take  off  the  surface  water 
which  fall  must  be  approved  of  before  the  channel  is  laid. 

Flagging.— The  flags  of  the  footway  shall  be  not  less  than  3  inches  thick,  of  the 
best  aud  hardest  riveu  flags,  knotted  on  face,  from  Bradford  or  Idle,  or  of  equal 
quality,  no  dimension  to  be  less  than  18  inches.  When  the  width  of  the  cause- 
way shall  be  4  feet  or  less,  every  alternate  course  of  flags  shall  go  through  the 
whole  width.  When  the  said  width  shall  be  more  than  4  and  up  to  6  feet,  not  more 
than  two  flags  shall  be  laid  to  every  course ;  and  where  above  6  feet,  they  may 
be  coursed  two  and  three  alternately.  The  joints  shall  be  well  broken  in  every 
case.  Ail  the  flags  shall  be  well  squared,  and  the  edges  shall  be  properly  squared 
through  and  dressed ;  they  shall  be  laid  in  mortar  on  a  solid  bed  of  clean  ashes  4 
inches  thick.     No  beddy  flags  shall  be  used. 

Landings. — The  landings  shall  be  not  less  than  6  inches  in  thickness,  of  the  best 
and  hardest  stone  from  Bradford  or  Idle,  or  of  equal  quality.  When  the  width  of 
the  causeway  shall  be  5  feet  or  less,  the  landing  shall  go  through  the  whole  width, 
and  it  more  than  5  feet,  the  landings  shall  be  3  feet  square,  if  for  a  coal  shoot,  but  if 
for  cover  to  a  cellar  it  must  be  the  full  width  of  the  causeway.  Each  landing  shall 
be  properly  squared,  dressed,  fixed,  and  made  water-tight  with  cement. 

Crossings. — The  crossings  shall  bo  single  sets  of  the  hardest  stone,  entirely  free  from 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  271 

beds  and  flaws,  from  the  best  beds  of  Bradford,  Bolton  Wood,  or  Binglcy  quarries,  or 
of  equal  quality;  laid  down  of  widths  corresponding  to  the  footways.  The  sets 
shall  be  well  squared  and  neatly  dressed,  not  less  thau  8-J  inches  deep  and  6  inches 
thick,  laid  in  asphalt  and  tar,  on  a  well-rammed,  solid  bed.  The  joints  of  the  stones 
must  be  kept  perfectly  clear  to  receive  asphalt  aud  coal  tar,  boiling  hot;  each  stone 
must  be  laid  with  its  natural  bed  in  a  vertical  position;  no  stone  will  be  allowed  to 
be  laid  with  its  natural  bed  in  a  horizontal  position  on  any  account.  Two  courses  of 
inclined  sets  shall  be  laid  parallel  to  the  circular  curb,  so  as  to  prevent  any  6tep  in 
the  causeway,  and  the  crossing  shall  be  so  laid  as  to  meet  the  level  of  the  paved  car- 
riageway without  break. 

Briekwork, — The  bricks  to  be  machine  made,  of  good  quality,  souud,  well  burnt, 
and  sharp  in  the  arrisses. 

Mortar. — The  mortar  used  throughout  the  work  shall  be  composed  of  ono  part  of 
the  best  Garforth  quicklime  to  two  parts  of  clean,  sharp  river  sand,  well  mixed. 

Asphalt. — The  asphalt  and  tar  shall  be  mixed  in  such  proportions  that  the  mixture 
shall,  when  cold,  be  tough  and  not  brittle  in  any  way,  and  shall  be  poured  in  boiling 
hot  until  the  joints  are  well  filled. 

General  conditions. 

The  contractor  shall  provide  all  implements  and  all  materials  (except  only  cast-iron 
work),  and  all  labor  of  every  kind  necessary  for  the  perfect  completion  of  the  works, 
and  shall  make  good  all  damage  done  to  water  or  gas  pipes  or  other  property  iu  the 
execution  of  the  works. 

The  contractor  shall  remove  and  cart  away  all  the  old  paving,  flagging, -and  other 
materials  that  shall  not  be  allowed  by  the  borough  engineer  to  be  relaid,  or  that  shall 
not  be  claimed  by  the  owners  of  property  in  the  street. 

The  contractor  shall  remove  all  grates,  taps,  gutters,  and  other  fittings  at  present 
existing  in  the  street,  and  shall  replace  such  of  them  as  shall  be  suitable,  aud  shall 
fix  such  new  ones  as  shall  be  pointed  out  by  the  borough  engineer.  The  iron  work 
not  refixed  shall  belong  to  the  owners  of  property. 

A  rebate  must  be  cut  in  the  stonework  to  receive  the  front  of  all  grates.  The  lugs 
to  be  let  into  stoue-work  aud  fastened  with  melted  lead  run  in. 

The  contractor  shall  either  always  attend  himself  or  shall  employ  a  foreman,  who 
shall  be  always  upon  the  spot  to  direct  the  workmen  ;  and  the  borough  engineer 
shall  have  full  power  to  discharge  such  foreman  or  any  workmen  should  he  or  they 
disobey  the  orders  of  the  borough  engineer  or  conduct  themselves  in  an  improper 
manner. 

The  contractor  shall  provide  a  watchman  and  keep  fires  burning  during  the  uight 
in  the  said  street,  sufficient  to  protect  the  public  effectually  ;  and  the  said  contractor 
shall  be  responsible  for  all  accidents  or  damage  which  may  occur  at  any  time,  either 
to  person  or  property,  in  auy  way  caused  by  any  operations  carried  on  in  pursuance 
of  bis  contract. 

Wherever  old  paving,  flagging,  or  curbing  shall  be  found  in  the  street  that,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  borough  engineer,  will  suffice  if  relaid,  the  contractor  shall  redress 
and  relay  the  same,  as  nearly  as  may  be,  in  tho  same  place. 

The  contractor  shall  distinctly  understand  that  the  works  shall  be  throughout  of 
the  best  materials  and  of  the  full  sizes  and  thickuesses  specified  ;  and  that  the  work- 
manship shall  be  first  class. 

The  contractor  shall  give  assistance  in  measuring  up  work,  and  net  measurement 
ouly  shall  be  taken,  notwithstanding  auy  local  or  other  custom  to  the  contrary. 

No  allowance  will  be  made  for  rising  window  areas,  coal  places,  and  all  other 
openings  in  the  street  where  the  height  is  less  than  6  inches.  The  contractor  must 
therefore  carefully  consider  the  nature  of  the  work  from  inspecting  the  ground,  and 
the  plans  aud  sections  deposited  at  this  office,  before  sending  in  his  tender. 


272  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

The  contractor  shall  send  in  his  tender  upon  the  printed  form  supplied  for  this  pur- 
pose by  the  borough  engineer,  as  no  other  will  be  accepted. 

Unskillful  work  or  bad  materials  to  be  taken  up  and  replaced. — If,  at  any  period  during 
the  execution  of  the  works,  or  within  6  months  after  their  completion,  it  shall 
appear  to  the  borough  engineer  that  any  work  has  been  executed  with  unsound 
materials,  or  imperfect  or  unskillful  workmanship,  or  if  any  repairs  shall  be  con- 
sidered necessary  by  the  borough  engineer  during  such  period,  arising  from  any  sunk 
or  damaged  paving,  flagging,  curbs,  or  other  works,  that  may  occur  from  any  cause 
whatever,  whether  arising  from  his  own  act,  or  the  work  of  other  parties,  or  of  the 
workmen  employed  by  the  corporation,  the  contractor  shall  forthwith  rectify,  reform, 
aud  repair  the  same,  in  whole  or  in  part,  as  the  case  may  require,  at  his  own  proper 
cost  and  charge;  and  in  the  eventof  his  refusingto  do  so,  or  to  take  back  and  remove 
any  materials  or  articles  which  are  considered  by  the  borough  engineer  unsound,  of 
bad  quality,  or  not  agreeable  to  the  terms  of  the  contract,  and  to  provide  imme- 
diately suitable  materials  in  lieu  of  those  condemned,  within  a  period  to  be  specified 
by  the  borough  engineer,  then  the  borough  engineer  shall  have  full  power  and 
authority  forthwith  to  cause  such  imperfect  work  to  be  taken  up  and  destroyed,  and 
to  employ  other  persons  to  alter  or  repair  the  same,  aud  to  supply  the  necessary 
materials  thereto;  and  any  expeuse  thereby  incurred  shall  be  defrayed  by  the  con- 
tractor, and  may  be  deducted  out  of  any  moneys  which  may  be  due  to  him  from  the 
corporation,  or  may  be  recovered  from  him  and  his  surety  by  the  corporation  (in  the 
eventof  its  exceeding  the  amount  of  moneys  so  due)  as  and  for  liquidated  damages. 

Bankruptcy  of  contractor. — That  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  corporation,  in  case  the 
contractor  shall  fail  in  the  due  performance  of  any  part  of  his  undertaking,  or  shall 
become  bankrupt  or  insolvent,  or  shall  compound  with  his  creditors,  or  propose  any 
composition  to  his  creditors  for  the  settlement  of  his  debts,  or  shall  carry  on  or  pro- 
pose to  carry  on  his  business  under  inspectors  on  behalf  of  his  creditors,  or  shall  com- 
mit any  act  of  baukruptcy,  or  shall  not,  according  to  the  judgment  of  the  borough 
engineer,  exercise  such  due  diligence  and  make  such  due  progress  as  would  enable 
the  works  to  be  completed  within  the  time  hereinafter  mentioned,  to  determine  the 
contract  as  far  as  respects  its  performance  by  the  contractor,  by  a  notice  to  that 
effect,  in  writing,  but  without  thereby  affecting  the  obligations  and  liabilities  of  the 
contractor,  the  whole  of  which  shall  continue  in  force  as  fully  as  if  the  contract  had 
not  been  so  determined,  and  as  if  the  works  subsequently  executed  had  been  executed 
by  or  on  behalf  of  the  contractor,  and  also  without  thereby  creating  any  trust  in  his 
favor,  and  may  enter  upon  aud  take  possession  of  the  works,  and  of  all  the  plant, 
tools,  aud  materials  of  the  contractor,  and  use  and  sell  the  same  as  the  absolute  prop- 
erty of  the  corporation,  and  may  proceed  to  complete  the  works,  either  by  contract 
or  otherwise,  by  engaging  workmen  and  providing  materials  and  implements,  and 
may  deduct  the  cost  thereof  from  any  sum  or  sums  of  money  due  or  to  become  due  to 
the  contractor  in  respect  of  the  contract,  or  recover  the  same  by  action  at  law  or 
otherwise,  as  the  corporation  may  be  advised. 

Disputes.— Any  disputes  which  may  arise  during  the  progress  of  the  works  or  at  or 
after  their  completion,  whether  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  specification,  or  the  ma- 
terials, workmanship,  or  any  other  matters  whatsoever  relating  to  this  contract,  shal 
be  referred  to  the  borough  engineer,  whose  decision  shall  be  final,  conclusive,  anc 
binding  both  on  the  corporation  and  the  contractor. 

Payments  shall  be  made  to  the  contractor  by  installments,  as  follows:  When  worl 
to  the  value  of  £100  has  been  completed,  90  per  cent,  of  the  amount  shall  be  paic 
within  1  week  after  the  borough  engineer  shall  have  certified  to  that  effect  to  the 
streets  and  sewerage  committee  of  the  council  of  the  borough  of  Leeds;  mxl  so  on 
installments  of  not  less  amount  until  the  whole  be  completed.  The  remain iug  10  pe 
cent,  shall  be  paid  after  6  months  from  the  date  of  the  last  certificate,  provided  tl 
borough  engineer  shall  certify  to  the  next  ensuing  meeting  of  the  streets  and  sewer 
age  committee  aforesaid  that  the  works  are  then  in  complete  repair  tohissatisfactior 
but  not  otherwise.    The  borough  engineer  shall  have  the  power  to  refuse  to  grant 


EUROPE- -UNITED    KINGDOM.  273 

certificate  at  any  time,  if  the  works  are  not  progressing,  being  executed,  or  being 
pnt  in  repair,  to  his  satisfaction. 

Time. — The  works  shall  be  commenced  as  soon  after  the  contractor's  tender  is  ac- 
cepted as  the  borough  engineer  shall  order  aud,  shall  be  completed  within weeks 

after  the  said  order  has  been  given. 

Penalty. —The  penalty  for  noncompletion  within  the  specified  time  shall  be  at  the 
rate  of  £5  sterling  for  every  week,  or  part  of  a  week,  that  the  specified  period  shall  be 
exceeded. 

TnoMAS  Hewson, 

Borough  Engineer. 

Leeds, ,  188—. 


LEEDS  IMPROVEMENT  ACTS. 

Tender  for  paving,  flagging,  and  leveling. 

To  the   MAYOR,    ALDERMEN,    AND  BURGESSES  OP  THE  BOROUGH   OF  LEEDS: 

,  the  undersigned, ,  residing  at ,  do  hereby  offer  to  execute  the 

various  works  required  to  be  done  in  paving,  flagging,  and  leveling  in  the 

borough  of  Leeds,  at  the  prices  affixed  to  each  item  in  the  schedule  hereunto  written  ; 
to  fiud  aud  provide  all  materials  necessary  thereto,  and  all  labor  requisite  for  com- 
pleting and  fiuishing  the  same  in  the  most  perfect  manner,  to  the  entire  satisfaction 
of  Mr.  Thomas  Hewson,  the  engineer  and  surveyor  appointed  by  the  council  of  the 
said  borough  of  Leeds,  on  or  before  the  time  mentioned  in  the  specification,  aud 
according  to  the  forms  and  dimensions,  and  upon  the  terms  and  conditions  detailed 
and  set  forth  in  the  drawing  and  specification  deposited  at  the.  office  of  the  said  Mr. 
T.  Hewsou. 

In  case  this  tender  shall  be  accepted do  hereby  agree  to  abide  by  and  fulfill 

all  the  terms  aud  conditions  above  mentioned,  and  to  execute  a  contract  in  accord- 
ance therewith,  and  hereby  propose  Mr. ,  of ,  as  surety  for  the  due 

performauce  thereof. 

33a 18 


274  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Schedule  above  referred  to. 

The  following  prices  include  all  materials,  labor,  all  excavation  or  filling,  and 
everything  connected  with  and  required  for  the  completion  of  the  various  works 
hereinafter  mentioned  : 


English 
currency. 


Equivalent 
in  U.  S. 
currency. 


New  flagging,  3  inches  thick,  of  the  hest  riven  Bradford  or  Idle  stone,  knotted 
on  face,  well  squared  through,  and  laid  down  in  mortar,  on  a  hed  of  ashes 
4  inches  in  thickness,  properly  rammed  and  prepared  for  the  same,  in- 
cluding rising  in  brickwork  set  in  mortar,  window  areas,  coal  places,  and 
all  other  openings  where  the  height  is  less  than  6  inches  per  superficial 
yard • 

Old  flagging,  taking  up,  removing,  resquaring,  and  relaying  in  mortar,  on  a 
bed  of  ashes  4  inches  in  thickness,  including  rising  in  brickwork  set  in 
mortar,  window  areas,  coal  places,  and  all  other  openings  where  the  height 
is  less  than  6  inches,  per  superficial  yard s 

New  straight  curbs,  12  inches  deep,  7  inches  wide,  in  length  of  not  less  than 
3  feet,  of  the  best  Bradford  or  Idle  stone,  including  chamfered  edge,  per 

New  circular  curbs",  12  inches  deep  and"  7  inches  wide,  in  lengths  of  not  less 
than  2  feet,  of  the  best  Bradford  or  Idle  stone,  including  chamfered  edge, 
per  lineal  yard 

Old  curbs,  taking  up,  rejointing,  and  refixing,  including  chamfered  edge,  per 
lineal  yard .- - -■ 

New  sets  from  Bradford  or  Bingley  quarries,  8J  inches  deep,  well  squared 
through  and  laid  in  asphalt,  on  a  bed  properly  rammed  and  prepared  for 
the  same,  per  superficial  yard 

Old  sets,  taking  up,  redressing,  removing,  and  relaying  in  asphalt,  on  a 
proper  bed,  per  superficial  yard 

Macadam,  per  superficial  yard - ........... 

New  paving  stones  in  cubes  not  less  than  6  inches  each  way,  from  Bradford, 
Bolton  Wood,  or  Bingley,  laid  in  asphalt,  on  a  bed  of  ashes  4  inches  in 
thickness,  including  road  forming,  excavating,  and  leveling,  per  super- 
ficial yard : --- •-•■•■- 

Old  paving,  taking  up,  redressing,  and  relaying  in  asphalt,  on  a  bed  of 
ashes  4  inches  in  thickness,  including  road  forming  and  leveling,  per 
superficial  yard ........ : 

Brickwork,  set  in  mortar,  to  area  grates,  coal  places,  and  all  other  openings, 
where  the  height  is  above  6  inches  and  10  inches  thick,  per  square  yard 

Cutting  hole  in  landing,  and  rebating  to  receive  coal  plate,  each 

Rebating  and  fixing  flap  door  and  ash-pit  plates,  each 

Rebating  in  window  grates,  with  lead  run  in,  complete,  each 

Fixing  area  grates  (new  pattern),  each 

Reworking  old  landings,  per  superficial  foot 

Reworking  old  steps,  per  foot  run  of  step 

Fixing  steps,  each 

New  thresholds,  stops,  or  trapdoor  frames,  wrought,  per  cubic  foot 

Six-inch  laudiDgs  for  cellar  tops,  etc.,  complete,  per  superficial  foot 

Fixing  old  landings,  and  making  water-tight  with  cement,  per  superficial 
foot 


$1.01 

.24 

.45 

1.58 
.10 

1.58 
.49 


.43 
1.70 


Dated  this day  of ,  188—. 

(Signed)  

Note.— No  claim  under  the  contract  will  be  allowed  which  is  not  made  in  writing 
and  within  one  month  from  the  final  measurement. 

Directions.— No  tender  will  be  received  except  in  this  form. 

The  blanks  must  be  filled  up,  and  the  tender  must  be  signed,  and  inclosed  in  an 
envelope,  indorsed  "Tender  for  paving,  etc.,"  and  must  be  addressed  to  "The  streets 
and  sewerage  committee,  town  clerk's  office,  Leeds." 


SPECIFICATION   FOR  MACADAMIZING. 


Form  a  ballast  foundation,  clean  hard  rubble  pitching  from  approved,  Potternew- 
ton  or  Woodhouse  quarries,  12  inches  thick  in  center  and  9  inches  thick  at  sides  of 
road. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  275 

The  pitching  must  be  haud-packed  on  edge,  the  thickest  and  broadest  end  of 
stoue  laid  downwards. 

On  this  foundation  form  a  layer  of  hard,  clean  broken  stone,  3  inches  thick  above 
the  general  level  of  ballast.  The  stones  to  bo  broken  to  pass  a  2|-inch  gauge  ;  care- 
fully roll  uutil  firm,  then  lay  top  cover  of  best  Threlkeld  or  other  approved  granite,  6 
inches  thick  in  the  center  of  the  road  aud  4  inches  at  the  sides,  well  and  evenly 
broken  to  pass  a  2-inch  ring,  neatly  formed  to  curve  of  road  ;  the  whole  must  then  be 
thoroughly  rolled  with  a  steam  roller.  (The  highways  committee  will  grant  the  use 
of  their  roller,  which  must  be  paid  for  by  the  contractor  at  the  usual  rate.) 

The  rolling  must  begin  at  the  sides  and  gradually  proceed  to  the  middle  of  the  road. 
It  must  be  accompanied  by  a  water  cart  aud  all  hollows  that  may  appear  on  the  sur- 
face as  the  rolling  proceeds  must  be^filled  iu  with  smallstones,  and  the  surface  loosened 
for  this  if  necessary. 

When  the  stone  is  firmly  wedged  together,  fine,  clean,  dry  gravel,  or  dry  macadam 
road  sweepings  must  be  spread  with  a  shovel  uniformly  over  the  surface  iu  small 
quantities,  and  must  be  thoroughly  rolled  into  the  road  with  the  aid  of  watering  and 
sweeping,  fresh  binding  being  added  as  that  first  applied  works  in  or  is  found  nec- 
cessary. 

The  crown  of  the  road  when  finished  must  be  not  less  than  3  inches  above  the  curb 
level. 

Form  the  channel  18  inches  wide  of  courses  of  best  Bradford  or  Bolton  sets,  8  inches 
deep,  laid  and  set  on  a  bed  of  screened  engine  ashes,  6  inches  thick,  the  whole  to  be 
well  squared,  and  neatly  dressed  and  run  with  boiling  asphalt  until  the  joints  are 
entirely  filled. 

The  following  is  the  statement  previously  referred  to  as  received  from 
Mr.  T.  A.  Prince,  highways  surveyor,  borough  of  Leeds: 

INFORMATION   AS  TO   KOADS  AND   STREETS   IN  THE   BOROUGH   OF   LEEDS. 

Materials  used  for  paved  streets  of  heavy  traffic  :  Granite  sets  6  inches  deep,  7  to 
8  inches  long,  3  inches  wide.  These  sets  are  in  every  case  laid  on  a  bed  of  cement 
concrete  9  inches  deep.  Cost,  complete,  of  concrete  paving  and  grauite  sets,  about 
14s.  per  superficial  yard  ($3.41). 

Materials  used  for  paved  streets  of  light  traffic:  Gritstone  pavors  obtained  from 
quarries  iu  Yorkshire.  Size,  6-inch  cubes  laid  on  a  bed  of  ashes  only.  Cost  of  pav- 
ing complete,  about  4s.  per  superficial  yard  (97  cents). 

Cost  of  making  macadam  roads  lor  heavy  traffic,  with  granite  broken  to  a  2£-inch 
gauge  purchased  by  the  corporation  from  the  various  granite  companies  in  England 
and  delivered  by  the  said  companies  at  the  various  railway  stations  as  required,  aud 
afterwards  carted  by  the  corporation  from  the  said  stations  to  wherever  required 
throughout  the  borough,  is  about  2s.  lid.  per  superhcial  yard  (71  cents). 

Cost  of  making  macadam  roads  for  light  traffic  with  limestone  or  dross  broken  to 
a2£-inch  gauge  is  about  2s.  per  superficial  yard  (49  cents). 

Entirely  new  streets  are  sewered,  paved,  and  flagged  at  the  cost  of  the  owners  of 
property  on  each' side  of  the  road  and  afterwards  declared  public  highways  And  main- 
tained by  the  corporation  forever  out  of  a  uniform  highway  rate  assessed  throughout 
the  borough. 

In  a  majority  of  cases  throughout  the  borough  flagged  footways  are  laid  on  each 
side  of  the  road.  The  total  width  of  these  footways  is  one-third  of  the  full  width  of 
the  road,  i.  e.  a  36-foot  road  equals  two  6-foot  causeways  and  24  feet  of  roadway. 

Cost  ot  curbing  per  lineal  yard,  about  3s.  2d.  (77  cents). 

Cost  of  flagging  per  superficial  yard,  about  4s.  3d.  ($1.03). 

In  making  an  entirely  uew  macadam  road  we  pitch  the  foundation  to  a  thickness 
of  8  or  10  inches  and  afterwards  put  on  a  coveriug  of  nietal  about  7  inches  thiok. 

Su/k  rriximi.— In  Leeds  there  an-  close  upon  300  miles  of  paved  and  macadam  high- 
ways, tin;  management  of  which  is  under  one  central  department. 


276  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

We  have  eight  outdoor  inspectors  who  have  under  their  charge  a  staff  of  men 
numbering  from  20  to  30.  These  inspectors  overlook  nearly  40  miles  of  highways, 
and  their  duties  comprise  the  looking  after  the  men,  the  putting  ou  of  materials,  and 
the  rolling  of  the  same.  . 

Experience  has  proved  that  in  numerous  cases  within  the  borough  of  Leeds  when- 
ever a  new  road  has  been  made  or  an  existing  road  widened  and  improved  the  value 
of  the  land  adjoining  the  same  has  wonderfully  increased. 

With  regard  to  the  country  roads  within  the  borough  of  Leeds  there  are  very  few 
which  have  not  the  footways  properly  formed  with  curbstones  and  chanuel. 

F.   H.   WlGFALL, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Leeds,  December  10,  1890. 


BIRMINGHAM. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  JARBETT. 

CITY  STREETS. 

In  the  city  of  Birmingham  there  is  something  over  200  miles  of  pub- 
lic streets,  of  which  7  miles  have  the  carriageways  paved  with  wood, 
about  24  miles  with  granite,  and  the  remainder  are  macadamized. 

For  the  wood-paved  streets  3-inch  by  6-inch  creosoted  yellow  deal 
blocks  are  used,  being  laid  on  a  6-inch  bed  of  Portland  cement  concrete. 
In  the  construction  of  these  roads  care  is  taken  to  have  the  ground  dry 
and  firm  before  the  concrete  is  laid  on.  A  very  thin  coat  of  cement  or 
a  mixture  of  cement  and  clear  sand  is  placed  over  the  concrete  so  as  to 
have  the  surface  perfectly  even,  which  is  lett  to  stand  for  several  hours 
and  when  dry  the  blocks  of  wood  are  finally  laid  on,  over  which  heated 
pitch  or  a  mixture  of  heated  pitch  and  tar  is  thrown  so  as  to  fill  up  all 
the  crevices  between  the  blocks. 

The  first  cost  of  these  at  present  is  about  $2.68  per  square  yard.  The 
Improved  Wood  Pavement  Company  (a  London  corporation  construct- 
ing this  kind  of  road  throughout  Great  Britain)  maintain  these  roads 
whereon  there  are  not  any  tramways  (street  railways)  for  1  year  free 
of  charge  and  for  20  years  thereafter  at  prices  varying  with  their  situa- 
tion from  15  cents  to  18  cents  per  square  yard  per  annum.  On  tramway 
routes  the  company  is  paid  at  a  rate  of  24  cents  per  square  yard  per 
annum  for  maintenance  between  and  for  21  inches  on  either  side  of  the 
metals,  the  first  cost  remaining  the  same. 

For  granite-paved  streets,  Leicestershire  or  Carnarvonshire  sets  3 
inches  in  width  by  6  inches  in  depth  are  generally  used,  being  placed  on 
6  inches  of  Portland  cement  concrete.  In  the  construction  of  these 
roads  great  care  is  taken  to  have  the  foundation  good  and  firm.  The 
first  cost  of  these  is  about  $2.92  per  square  yard.  The  repairs  for  the 
first  7  years  are  practically  nil,  for  the  next  7  years  from  6  cents  to  14 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  277 

cents  per  square  yard  per  annum.  In  the  heaviest  traffic  streets  the 
paving  would  probably  then  require  relaying  at  a  cost  of  about  73  cents 
per  square  yard,  when  it  would  last  under  similar  conditions  another 
period  of  14  years,  and  the  best  of  the  stone  might  be  then  redressed 
and  used  in  second  or  third  class  streets,  and  the  remainder  be  broken 
up  and  used  for  macadamizing  purposes. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  first  cost  of  construction  is  very  large 
when  compared  with  the  cost  of  relaying  with  new  blocks.  This  is  due 
to  the  great  care  taken  in  preparing  the  roadbed  for  the  blocks  in  the 
first  case.  Such  a  roadbed  may  last,  if  properly  constructed,  for  a  very 
long  period.  I  have  very  carefully  investigated  the  matter  but  have 
not  yet  found  a  single  case  in  which  granite  blocks  are  placed  on  a  bed 
of  loose  sand  or  gravel,  which  is  so  commonly  done  in  the  United  States. 
First  cost  may  be  heavy  in  this  country  but  cost  of  maintenance,  it  will 
be  observed,  is  comparatively  very  light. 

Then  there  is  the  advantage  of  good,  even  roadways,  over  which  the 
heaviest  loads  are  easily  and  conveniently  conveyed.  I  have  seen 
breakdowns  on  the  streets  of  this  city  through  overloading  or  defective 
axles,  but  so  far  have  not  seen  wheels  of  wagons  stick  in  a  hole  be- 
tween granite  blocks  or  between  blocks  and  the  metals  of  the  street 
railways. 

For  newly  made  macadamized  streets,  assuming  that  the  ground 
has  been  roughly  formed,  about  9  inches  of  ashes  are  required  over 
which  8  inches  of  either  gravel  or  broken  slag,  is  placed  and  over  this 
again  is  placed  G  inches  of  broken  rowley  rag  stone  which  is  obtained 
about  7  miles  outside  the  city.  Large  heavy  iron  rollers  are  then  passed 
over  the  stone  surface.  During  this  process  water  is  applied,  and  about 
an  inch  of  clean  gravel  is  worked  into  the  surface. 

The  first  cost  of  such  roads  may  be  taken  at  ab  out  73  cents  per  square 
yard.  The  maintenance  thereof  varies  very  much  according  to  the 
traffic,  and  it  is  found  economical  to  substitute  pavement  for  macadam 
if  two  coatings  of  stone  are  required  annually. 

John  Jakrett, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Birmingham,  February  13, 1891. 


HULL. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  DANIELS. 

GRANITE  PAVEMENTS. 

Granite  and  wood  pavements  and  macadamized  roads  are  used  in  this 
city  and  district.  The  work  is  done  by  contract  under  the  direction  of 
the  borough  engineer. 

In  granite  pavements  the  surface  tor  the  foundation  is  formed  parallel 
with  the  finished  surface  of  the  road  and  at  the  required  depth  below 


278  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

the  same.  The  foundation  of  the  carriageway  extends  under  the  curbs 
and  channels  and  consists  of  a  layer  7  inches  in  thickness  of  cement 
concrete,  composed  of  clean  broken  brick,  stone,  or  coarse  gravel,  of 
such  size  as  will  pass  in  any  direction  through  a  ring  2£  inchesin  diame- 
ter, together  with  such  quantity  of  other  suitable  tine  material  as  will 
make  up  the  interstices,  and  Portland  cement  in  the  proportions  of  one 
of  cement  to  eight  of  the  other  materials.  The  whole  to  be  well  and 
carefully  mixed  with  the  proper  quantity  of  water,  the  materials  being 
hacked  gradually  down  and  watered  on  a  platform,  and  being  turned 
over  at  least  three  times  in  such  process. 

Existing  foundations  are  utilized  when  suitable,  all  loose  material 
being  removed  from  the  surface  when  necessary  by  the  addition  of  fresh 
concrete.  The  whole  surface  of  the  foundation  is  covered  to  a  depth  of 
from  1  to  2£  inches  as  required  to  level  the  surface,  with  fine  concrete 
as  a  bed  for  receiving  the  sets,  which  are  laid  while  the  concrete  is  soft, 
and  must  be  well  bedded  therein,  and  no  greater  area  is  covered  at  one 
time  than  can  be  easily  paved  before  the  same  has  set. 

The  sets  are  carefully  sorted  out  and  selected  as  nearly  as  possible  of 
equal  depth,  so  as  to  run  in  parallel  courses,  the  entire  width  of  the 
roadway  and  the  courses  are  arranged  throughout  so  that  the  sets  in 
each  course  will  break  joint  well  and  evenly  with  those  in  the  adjoin- 
ing courses,  and  the  sets  are  placed  close  end  to  end;  the  closiug  as 
well  as  the  commencing  stones  adjoining  the  channels  and  tramways,  if 
any,  being  alternately  long  and  short.  The  courses  are  laid  as  close  as 
possible  together,  the  joints  at  no  point  exceeding  f  inch  in  width. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  to  adhere  to  the  camber,  and  all  necessary 
templates  must  be  used  to  secure  this.  The  rammer  must  be  used  as 
little  as  possible,  and  any  set  above  or  below  the  required  level  must 
be  taken  up  aud  reset.  When  the  fine  concrete  has  set  hard,  the  inter- 
stices in  the  paving  must  be  well  raked  in  full  to  the  top  with  small, 
clean  shingle  of  good  quality,  free  from  sand  aud  perfectly  dry,  and  as 
soon  as  possible  after  the  joints  have  been  filled  with  shingle,  they  must 
be  run  up  full  to  the  top,  while  dry,  with  asphalt,  which  is  composed 
hereof  coal-tar  pitch  and  thick  boiled  coal-tar,  from  which  the  spirit 
has  been  extracted,  in  proper  proportions,  the  whole  boiled  together 
for  such  a  period  as  may  be  necessary  to  cause  the  mixture  to  set  hard 
and  stiff  when  cold,  without  being  brittle,  and  to  be  whilst  hot,  suffi- 
ciently fluid  to  fill  all  the  interstices  in  the  shingle.  No  joints  are  run 
with  asphalt  until  the  laying  of  the  pavement  has  been  approved  by 
engineers.  As  soon  as  the  asphalting  of  the  joints  is  completed,  the 
whole  surface  of  the  pavement  must  be  covered  evenly  and  uniformly 
with  approved  dry  gravel,  which  must  be  laid  on  before  the  asphalt  is 
quite  set,  so  as  to  become  partially  bedded  therein.  The  crossings  are 
paved  in  a  similar  manner  with  sets  provided  for  the  purpose. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  279 

WOOD  PAVEMENT. 

In  wood  pavement,  which  gives  much  satisfaction  in  this  country,  a 
foundation  of  cement  concrete  is  formed,  7  inches  in  thickness,  com- 
posed as  described  in  granite  pavements. 

Its  surface  is  faced  with  half  an  inch  of  cement,  mixed  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one  measure  of  cement  to  three  of  sand,  formed  to  the  proper 
camber  and  iucliuati  ons,  and  smoothed  so  as  to  form  an  accurate  bed 
for  the  wood  blocks. 

The  blocks  of  wood  are  sawed  die-square  from  redwood,  9  inches  by 
3  inches  by  5  inches,  the  grain  of  the  wood  running  with  the  5-inch 
measurement,  and  equal  to  the  samples  deposited  for  inspection.  After 
the  blocks  are  cut  up,  the  contractor  must  give  notice  to  the  engineer 
in  order  that  he  may  inspect  them,  and  when  the  engineer  has  approved 
them,  they  must  be  creosoted  with  12  pounds  best  creosote  to  the  cubic 
foot. 

Two  courses  of  wood  blocks  are  laid  parallel  to  and  adjoining  each 
curb,  and  the  remainder  in  courses  running  transversely  to  the  street, 
and  the  blocks  in  the  courses  are  placed  close  end  to  end,  those  ad- 
joining the  channel  being  long  and  short  in  alternate  courses. 

The  courses  themselves  are  three- eighths  of  an  inch  apart,  the  proper 
distance  being  maintained  by  laths  laid  on  the  cement.  The  joints  are 
filled  up  with  shingle  to  a  level  of  1  inch  below  the  surface,  and  run  up 
with  asphalt,  as  for  set  pavement,  to  such  level,  care  being  taken  to 
allow  no  asphalt  to  run  over  the  surface  of  the  blocks. 

The  remaining  inch  of  the  joints  is  run  up  with  cement-grout  mixed 
in  the  proportions  of  one  of  cement  to  two  of  sand,  and  the  whole  sur- 
face is  then  covered  with  fine  gravel. 

MACADAMIZED  ROADWAY. 

The  surface  for  receiving  the  foundation  material  for  macadamized 
roads  is  formed  parallel  with  the  finished  surface  of  the  road  and  at  the 
required  depth  below  the  same. 

Where  the  existing  surface  is  raised  the  material  must,  if  required 
by  the  eugineer,  be  watered  and  rolled  or  rammed. 

The  foundation  of  the  carriage  way  consists  of  a  layer  of  hard  chalk- 
stone  or  other  material  accepted  by  the  engineer,  8  inches  in  thickness, 
broken  into  sizes  not  exceeding  that  of  a  4-iuch  cube,  and  into  smaller 
pieces  on  the  surface  as  required  to  fill  the  interstices,  and  properly 
rolled,  and  such  layer  is  to  extend  under  the  channels  and  curbs.  The 
next  coating  consists  of  a  layer  of  granite,  or  other  suitable  material, 
broken  to  pass  in  any  direction  through  a  2£-inoh  ring,  of  a  thickness 
before  being  consolidated  of  2£  inches,  and  such  coating  to  be  rerolled 
until  set.  The  coatiug  is  to  be  formed  to  a  proper  camber,  making  the 
ciown,  in  the  case  of  a  roadway  24  feet  wide,  1  inch  above  the  curbs. 

The  surface  covering  consists  of  a  further  coating  of  whinstone, 


280  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

broken  to  pass  iu  any  direction  through  a  2^-inch  ring,  of  a  thickness 
before  being  consolidated  of  2£  inches,  such  coating  being  covered  with 
gravel  and  rolled  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  previous  one. 

As  to  maintenance,  a  paved  road  is  repaired  in  a  similar  manner  to 
that  in  which  it  is  first  made. 

A  macadamized  road  in  town  is  hacked  over,  spread  with  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  broken  whiustone  to  raise  it  to  its  proper  level  and  camber, 
and  rolled  with  a  steam  roller,  just  sufficient  binding  material  being 
used  to  fill  the  interstices  in  the  larger  material.  The  binding  material 
generally  used  is  a  somewhat  loamy  gravel. 

On  country  roads  the  old  surface  is  not  hacked  over,  nor  is  the  new 
material  rolled,  but  is  left  to  be  consolidated  by  traffic. 

SYSTEMS  AND   COST   OF   ROAD  MAKING. 

The  roads  are  under  the  control  of  the  city  or  borough  engineers.  As 
the  same  staff  also  deal  with  drainage  and  architectural  work,  I  found 
it  impossible  to  separate  the  office  expenses  chargeable  to  highways. 

PUBLIC  EFFECTS  OF  IMPROVED  ROADWAYS. 

I  have  not  been  able  to  get  sufficient  information  which  would  enable 
me  to  give  a  satisfactory  reply  to  this  query. 

Byron  G.  Daniels, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Hull,  December  30,  1890. 


LONDON. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  NEW. 

As  directed  iu  Department's  circular,  dated  November  8, 1890, 1  have 
the  honor  to  submit  herewith  a  report  upon  the  subject  of  the  streets 
and  highways,  and  of  their  construction  and  maintenance  iu  this  con- 
sular district. 

I  am  fortunate  to  be  able  to  obtain  and  inclose  herewith  the  reports 
of  William  Haywood,  esq.,  engineer  and  surveyor,  to  the  honorable  com- 
missioners of  sewers  of  the  city  of  Loudon,  for  the  years  1873,  1874, 
1877,  and  1882,  upon  the  condition  of  the  streets  and  pavements  of  the 
city  of  Loudon. 

The  streets  and  pavements  of  the  city  of  London  are  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  commissioners  of  sewers,  and  Mr.  Haywood  has  been  their 
engineer  and  surveyor  in  charge  for  many  years. 

I  was  also  fortunately  able,  through  the  great  kindness  of  William 
Weaver,  esq.,  engineer  and  surveyor  to  the  vestry  of  the  parish  of  St 
Mary  Abbotts,  Kensington,  to  obtain  from  him  a  most  able  and  full  aud 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  281 

elaborate  communication  upon  the  merit  of  the  various  kinds  of  streets 
and  pavements  under  the  charge  of  that  vestry,  which  includes  that  part 
of  the  metropolitan  London  called  Kensington  ;  and  I  wish  to  acknowl- 
edge to  that  vestry  their  very  great  kindness,  and  to  Mr.  Weaver  my 
sincere  thanks  for  his  most  valuable  communication. 

I  also  inclose  herewith  the  thirty-second  and  thirty-fourth  reports  to 
the  vestry  of  St.  Mary  Abbotts,  which  include  much  information  upon 
the  subject  in  hand. 

I  also  inclose  a  valuable  communication  from  James  R.  Heward,  esq., 
surveyor,  etc.,  to  the  board  of  works  of  the  Greenwich  district  of  the 
city  of  Londou,  upon  the  subject,  together  with  printed  copies  of  the 
specifications  for  making  the  various  kinds  of  streets,  pavements,  and 
roads  in  that  district. 

From  these  reports  and  communications  may  be  learned  the  original 
cost  of  the  various  kinds  of  pavements  used  in  London,  as  also  the 
annual  cost,  through  a  series  of  years,  of  the  maintenance  of  the  several 
kinds,  and  another  valuable  report  on  the  accidents  to  horses  and  ve- 
hicles upon  each  kind  of  street  in  the  varying  conditions  of  tbe  weather. 

These  reports,  being  authentic  and  official,  and  made  as  those  are  by 
these  eminent  engineers  of  so  many  years1  practical  experience  and  ob- 
servation, are  vastly  more  valuable  and  reliable  than  would  be  a  report 
made  by  a  non  expert  in  such  matters,  and,  I  believe,  fully  answer  the 
inquiries  of  the  circular  so  far  as  my  immediate  consular  district  is  con- 
cerned. 

I  desire  to  express  herein  my  thanks  to  these  several  gentlemen  for 
their  great  kindness  in  providing  these  reports  and  communications. 

Jno.  C.  New, 

Consul-  General. 

United  States  Consulate-General, 

London,  January  3,  1891. 


THE  STREETS  OF  LONDON. 
Mr.  Weaver,  chief  engineer  and  surveyor,  to  Consul-General  New. 

Town  Hall,  Kensington,  December  15,  1890. 

Sir:  The  Kensington  vestry  at  its  meeting  on  the  10th  instant  considered  your 
letter  asking  for  certain  information  on  the  subject  of  roads,  and  issued  a  general 
instruction  to  their  vestry  clerk  and  surveyor  (myself)  to  furnish  you  with  informa- 
tion on  the  .subject. 

In  obedience  to  the  instructions  above  referred  to,  I  hasten  to  discharge  my  part 
of  the  reference. 

Your  letter  to  me  of  the  5th  instant  specified  four  heads  of  information,  and  I  pro- 
ceed hereunder  to  deal  with  them  in  the  order  of  your  enumeration,  prefacing  my 
remarks  by  pointing  out  that  the  information  hereinafter  s«'t  forth  is  of  a  general  char- 
acter, susceptible  of  detailed  treatment  to  an  almost  unlimited  extent,  but,  involving 
in  such  elaborated  treatment  an  amount  of  labor  impossible  of  bestowal  within  the 
li'uits  of  the  vestry's  instruction. 


282  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

I  now  proceed  to  deal  with  the  several  heads  of  information. 

(1)  The  methods  employed  in  makiug  and  maintaining  public  roads  in.  Kensington. 

There  are  about  84  miles  of  roads  in  Kensington  paved  with  svood,  asphalt,  pitch- 
ing, broken  granite  (macadam),  flints,  and  gravel.  All  the  main  roads  are  paved 
with  wood  except  about  1,000  square  yards  of  asphalt.  The  whole  of  the  wood  pav- 
ing is  laid  on  a  foundation  6  inches  thick  of  concrete  composed  of  Thames  ballast 
and  Portland  cement  mixed  6  to  1.  This  foundation  is  sufficient,  provided  there  is  a 
good  solid  8ubs!ratum  beneath  ;  where  such  solidity  does  not  exist  extra  concrete 
should  be  provided.  The  concrete  is  worked  to  a  perfectly  smooth  face,  aud  when 
hard  set  the  wood  blocks  are  laid  thereon  in  transverse  rows.  Over  200,000  square 
yards  of  wood  have  been  laid  in  Kensington,  and  I  have  tried  various  kinds  of  wood, 
including  the  ordinary  fir  deals,  beech,  vale,  and  jarrah,  cut  to  depths  varyiug  from 
3  to  6  inches,  and  have  laid  the  blocks  in  a  variety  of  ways  close  together,  with  open 
joints  grouted  with  different  materials,  with  felt  joints  laid  on  asphalt  and  on  felt, 
plain  deal  blocks,  creosoted  blocks,  naphthalizcd  blocks,  etc.,  etc. 

The  figures  and  details  appertainiug  to  the  various  experiments  in  this  one  descrip- 
tion of  road  work  would  make  a  good-sized  pamphlet,  but  the  result  to  the  present 
time  in  Kensington  is  that  we  are  laying  down  creosoted  deal  blocks  9  inches  by 
3  inches  by  5  inches  deep  (on  concrete  as  aforesaid)  generally  with  open  joint  three- 
eighths  inch  wide,  filled  with  asphalt  to  a  depth  of  one-fourth  or  one-half  inch,  and 
remainder  of  joint  grouted  iu  with  Portland  cemont  grout.  Sometimes  the  wood  is 
laid  close  without  any  joint,  and  if  the  weather  (dry)  permits  this  to  he  done  the  re- 
sult is  good.  The  success  of  creosoted  wood  depends  upon  the  quality  of  the  creo- 
sote and  the  thoroughness  of  the  creosoting.  By  the  method  I  employ  this  is  assured. 
My  table  of  results  shows  about  10£  pounds  of  creosote  forced  into  each  cubic  foot  of 
wood  laid. 

Herewith  I  have  forwarded  copies  of  my  two  last  auuual  reports,  aud  you  will  see 
therein  (amongst  other  information  which  may  be  of  service)  that  the  greater  part  of 
the  wood  laid  is  6  inches  deep. 

Of  late  years,  however,  5-iuch  blocks  have  been  used  and  in  one  thoroughfare,  Syd- 
ney place  and  Onslow  square,  4-inch  blocks  have  been  laid  down,  and  it  is  very  likely 
that  a  few  years  hence  blocks  deeper  than  4  inches  will  not  be  used.  The  object  of 
reducing  the  depth  is  to  save  the  great  waste  of  wood  wheu  the  road  is  repaved.  With 
6-inch  blocks  there  is  about  3  inches  of  wood  wasted  consequent  on  the  necessity  of 
repaving,  when  3  inches  of  the  contour  of  the  road  has  been  worn  away,  as  the  side 
channels,  unaffected  by  traffic,  retaiu  their  original  levels. 

A  road  wood-paved  with  5-inch  creosoted  deal  blocks  will  last  10  years,  and  at 
present  prices  will  cost  Is.  Gd.  per  square  yard  per  annum  for  first  cost  and  reparation 
throughout  that  period;  the  concrete  included  in  the  first  cost  will  remain  as  an 
unencumbered  asset  to  be  taken  over  for  the  uext  term.  The  first  cost  of  excavating 
for  and  providing  concrete  foundation  may  bo  taken  at  3s.  per  square  yard. 

Scavenging  is  not  included  in  foregoing  cost  of  maintenance. 

In  my  opinion  wood  paving  is  at  present  the  best  paving  for  the  main  roads  of  a 
district  such  as  Kensington.  In  a  nonresidential  commercial  district,  such  as  the 
city  of 'Loudon,  I  should  give  the  preference  to  asphalt,  which  can  be  laid  at  a  first 
cost  of  about  lis.  per  yard,  or  laid  and  maintained  for  15  years  at  an  annual  cost  of 
about  Is.  6d.  per  yard,  but  the  price  would  vary  according  to  traffic. 

The  essential  requirements  of  wood  and  asphalt  paving  is  cleanliness — thorough- 
cleansing.  Washing  and  sweeping  every  night,  if  necessary,  and  the  prompt  removal 
or  picking  up  of  horse  droppings  during  the  day.  One  of  the  great  difficulties  is  tho 
removal  of  the  sludge  formed  on  wet  days.  This  I  effect  by  wide  india-rubber 
squeegees,  the  slush  being  forced  into  large  iron  gully  pits  under  channels  and 
cleaned  out  and  carted  away  during  the  night.  In  Appendix  A  you  will  find  this  iron 
gully  (which  I  designed)  described,  and  I  may  add  that  since  the  date  of  that  report 
the  said  gully  has  proved  so  successful  that  I  have  extended  their  use  considerably. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  283 

With  reference  to  pitched  roads  in  Kensington,  this  paving  is  almost  exclusively 
confined  to  mews,  stable  yards,  and  tram  lines.  Mews  are  generally  paved  with  4-inch 
by  4-inch  cubes  on  6  inches  of  concrete;  tram  lines  with  6-inch  by  3-inch  pitchers  on 
concrete,  and  pitched  roads  for  heavy  traffic  with  9-inch  by  3-inch  pitchers  on  concrete. 
The  greater  dimensions  of  the  pitchers  represent  the  depth  of  the  stone. 

Without  doubt  the  most  durable  road  is  one  formed  of  granite  pitchers.  The  great 
objection  to  their  use  is  the  noise.  For  heavy  traffic  roads,  with  steep  gradients, 
pitching  is  the  best  and  most  economical  road  paving,  especially  if  granite  tram- 
wheel  tracks  are  provided. 

With  regard  to  roads  made  and  repaired  with  broken  granite,  flints,  and  gravel,  it 
is  essential  in  the  first  place  to  provide  a  good  foundation.  My  specifications  always 
provide  for  a  consolidated  foundation  18  inches  thick  of  good  brick  rubbish  or  hard 
core,  and  spread  thereon  a  consolidated  coat  9  inches  thick  of  Kentish  flints  or  gravel 
(as  the  case  may  be)  or  of  broken  granite.  With  the  last-mentioned  material  a  con- 
solidated coating  4  inches  thick  will  generally  suffice.  The  consolidation  is  effected 
by  steam  rolling.  I  use  broken  granite  of  various  descriptions,  broken  to  various 
gauges,  1J  inches  to  2£  inches,  using  the  smaller  gauge  in  light  carriage  roads  and 
the  larger  in  roads  traversed  by  omnibuses.  In  my  opinion,  the  most  pleasant  road 
to  travel  upon  and  easiest  to  maintain  is  a  well-formed  gravel  road  ;  but,  of  course, 
this  kind  of  road  is  out  of  the  question  beyond  a  certain  traffic  point. 

(2)  The  details  of  the  systems  followed  aud  expenses  incurred  respecting  same. 

I  take  it  that  a  great  deal  of  the  information  embodied  in  the  answer  to  question 
No.  1  will  also  apply  to  this  question.  In  addition  I  may  add  that  the  work  of  mak- 
ing  new  roads  (of  all  kinds)  and  the  supply  of  all  materials  for  the  reparation  of 
existing  roads,  is  executed  and  carried  out,  under  specifications  prepared  by  me. 
Tenders  are  invited  by  advertisement  for  the  new  work  as  it  arises,  and  for  the  supply 
of  materials,  annually.  The  maintenance,  scavenging  aud  watering,  is  executed  by 
the  vestry's  own  staff,  consisting  of  about  450  men,  100  horses,  and  about  150  carta 
and  wagons.  All  the  carts,  etc.,  are  made  in  our  own  workshops,  blacksmiths'  and 
harness  work  is  also  performed  by  vestry's  own  men.  The  foregoing  staff  also  per- 
forms the  work  of  house  refuse  collection  and  removal.  The  house  refuse  (dust, 
ashes,  etc.),  and  street  refuse  (mud  and  sweepings),  amounts  to  about  100,000  tons 
annually.  It  is  collected  by  the  carts  and  deposited  in  barges  on  the  river  and  Grand 
Junction  Canal.  In  relation  to  this  refuse  the  scheme  of  the  vestry  is  to  utilize  it 
for  agricultural  purposes,  and  with  this  object,  land  at  Purfleet  (17  acres)  has  beeu 
acquired,  but  as  this  scheme  is  only  just  being  entered  upon,  it  is  too  early  to  form 
an  opinion  relative  thereto,  based  on  facts.  I  may  add,  however,  that  my  views  on 
this  subject  are  not  in  accord  with  those  of  the  majority  of  the  vestry,  and  are  set 
forth  in  the  series  of  reports  hereto  attached  in  Appendix  No.  2. 

(3)  The  effect  of  hn  proved  public  roads  upon  land  values  aud  other  economic  con- 
ditions. 

This  is  a  very  wide  question  upon  which  I  could  write  a  very  long  essay,  but  speak- 
ing generally,  it  is  beyond  question  that  the  formation  aud  maintenance  of  good 
roads  increases  the  value  of  laud  in  a  district  and  adds  to  the  rental  value  of  tho 
house*.  If  the  governing  authorities  of  a  town  or  district,  by  good  management, 
make  such  district  a  nice  comfortable  place  to  live  in,  people  will  flock  to  it  iu 
added  numbers,  convert  agricultural  land  into  building  land  and  increase  the  trade. 

In  185<>  the  roads  in  Kensington  maintained  by  tho  vestry,  wore23£  miles  in  length. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  district  was  market-garden  ground,  now  covered  with 
mansions  and  houses  from  £100  to  £1,000  a  year  rental  value. 

At  the  picsent  time,  in  Kensington  there  are  about  84  miles  of  road  maintained  by 
the  vestry  ;  the  population  is  179,720,  and  tho  gross  rateable  value  of  tho  parish  is 
£2,390,728  (net,  £1,999,682). 

Shops  in  the  High  street,  then  letting  at  £80  and  £100  per  annum,  now  command 
£500  a  year,  with  heavy  premiums. 


284  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

This  change  has  not,  of  course,  all  been  brought  about  by  parochial  management. 
Proximity  to  the  parks,  etc.,  has  had  a  good  deal  to  do  with  the  change,  but  the 
parks,  etc.,  existed,  I  may  say,  for  centuries  prior  to  the  change,  and  I  am  certain 
of  this*,  that  wealthy  people  will  not  continue  to  reside  in  a  district  where  sanitary 
requirements  are  neglected,  refuse  allowed  to  collect  in  houses,  bad  roads  provided 
for  traveling,  and  neglected  lighting,  watering,  and  scavenging  allowed  to  prevail. 

(4)  Such  other  information  as  may  be  germane  to  the  general  subject  of  improved 
public  roads. 

Under  this  head  may  properly  be  considered  the  questions  of  subsoil,  and  the  rights 
of  companies  and  others  to  lay  mains,  pipes,  electric  and  telephone  wires,  etc. 

The  functions  of  the  vestry  in  relation  to  road  making  commence  as  soon  as  vacant 
land  is  proposed  to  be  laid  out  for  building. 

Formations  of  roads.  (25  and  26.Vic,  C.  102,  S.  S.  98  aud  99  ;  45  Vic.  C.  14,  S.  S.  7,  8, 
9)_The  first  step  in  the  transformation  is  to  submit  duplicate  plaus  to  the  London 
county  council,  showing  the  road  proposed  to  be  formed  or  laid  out  and  setting  forth 
the  widths  and  levels  of  same.  One  of  the  said  duplicate  plans  is  forwarded  to  the 
vestry  for  their  opinion,  which  guides  in  a  great  measure  the  decision  of  the  London 
county  council.  Under  the  98th  and  99th  sections,  25  and  26  Victoria,  Cap.  102,  aud 
the  7th,  8th,  and  9th  sections,  45  Victoria,  Cap.  14,  very  full  powers  are  conferred  upon 
the  Metropolitan  board  of  works  (now  London  county  council)  enabling  them  to  con- 
trol this  initial  stage  of  the  development. 

The  council  can  refuse  to  sanction  a  street  with  a  less  width  than  40  feet,  or  with 
less  than  two  outlets  ;  and  by  the  increased  powers  given  under  the  last-mentioned 
act,  they  can  require  the  roads  to  be  formed  in  such  directions  as  to  secure  conven- 
ient intercommunication  with  adjoining  roads.  This  power,  although  guarded  by  a 
proviso  giving  a  right  of  appeal  to  a  police  magistrate,  in  order  to  check  uuduly  arbi- 
trary treatment  by  the  council  is  an  extremely  salutary  one,  as  it  tends  to  prevent 
the  isolation  and  locking  in  of  estates  to  the  detriment  of  the  public  convenience. 
Although  in  certaiu  circumstances  the  council's  powers  may  conflict  with  the 
right  of  the  freeholder  to  do  what  he  likes  with  his  own  laud,  still  it  ia  only  just 
that  the  owner,  in  increasing  some  forty  fold  the  value  of  his  ground,  should  in  some 
degree  have  to  study  the  interests  of  the  public,  to  whom  the  land  owes  its  incre- 
ment of  value.  Had  this  act  been  in  force  years  back  it  would  have  prevented 
estates  being  laid  out  to  the  detriment  of  public  intercommunication. 

The  plan  of  the  proposed  roads  having  been  approved,  the  formal  consent  of  the 
council  is  given,  with  the  condition  attached  that  no  bars  or  obstacles  to  the  free 
use  of  the  roads  by  the  public  are  at  any  time  to  be  erected.  This  condition  has  only 
of  late  years  been  appended ;  but  it  is  a  most  wise  one,  as  it  prevents  the  existing 
nuisance  of  gate-barred  streets.  A  bill,  seeking  powers  to  abolish  barriers  now  in 
existence,  is  before  Parliament,  and  if  enacted  will  confer  great  benefit,  but  doubt- 
less will  entail  considerable  public  expense.  Had  the  law,  as  it  now  stands,  been  the 
same  in  the  past,  this  compensation  for  removal  would  not  have  to  be  paid. 

The  owner  having  obtained  the  approval  of  the  council,  who,  at  the  same  time, 
name  the  street,  may  proceed  with  its  foundation,  and  now  the  anxieties  of  the  sur- 
veyor to  the  local  authority  commence.  If  zealous  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties,  he 
is  desirous  that  the  road  shall  be  formed  in  such  a  mauner  as  to  be  a  safe  and  conven- 
ient highway  for  public  tfraffic,  aud  that  it  shall  contain  nothing  concealed  below 
the  surface  likely  to  jeopardize  the  health  or  safety  of  the  future  abutting  residents, 
or  the  public  passing  thereover.  He  has  in  the  first  place  to  see  that  the  full  width 
is  set  out,  and  then  that  the  proper  level  is  observed.  Very  little  difficulty  arises  on 
the  first  point,  and  the  second  question  of  level  should  have  received  full  thought 
when  the  plan  was  before  his  vestry  for  consideration,  as  it  is  essential  that  new 
roads  on  one  estate  should  be  laid  out  at  such  level  and  incline  as  conveniently  to 
iutersect  and  join  with  other  roads  formed,  or  to  be  formed,  on  adjoining  estates. 
The  proper  levels  having  been  determined  after  due  consideration,  it  only  remains  to 


EUROPE UNO  ED    KINGDOM. 


285 


enforce  them,  and  although  the  heights  of  all  intersecting  streets  are  set  out  hy  the 
vestry's  surveyors,  and  the  value  of  such  heights  above  ordnance  datum  furnished 
to  the  builders,  yet  it  is  no  unusual  thing,  upon  the  vestry  proceeding  to  make  up 
the  street  some  year  or  two  afterwards,  to  find  the  houses  erected  at  different  heights 
with  an  utter  disregard  of  the  intersecting  levels  furnished  as  aforesaid,  leaving  to 
the  surveyor  the  interesting  problem  of  how  to  adjust  the  paving  and  road  levels  to 
the  varying  heights  of  the  areas  and  steps  with  the  minimum  of  injury  and  disfig- 
urement to  the  property.  In  clay  lauds  I  find  the  tendency  is  to  make  the  roads  too 
high  ;  and  in  sand  and  gravel  soils,  too  low.  In  the  former  the  surplus  clay  has  to  bo 
carted  away  at  considerable  expense,  while  in  the  latter  every  load  of  sand  and 
gravel  excavated  means  increased  profit. 

By  the  sixth  section  of  the  metropolis  management  act,  18'JO,  the  abstraction  of 
subsoil  is  prohibited  from  the  site  of  anyroad  formed  or  proposed  to  be  laid  out,  and 
no  road  is  to  be  formed  upon  made  ground,  except  under  conditions  to  be  imposed  by 
the  local  authority,  subject  to  appeal  to  the  London  county  council.  This  new  law 
will  add  materially  to  the  stability  of  future  roads,  and  to  the  safety  of  pipes,  inaius, 
drains,  etc.,  laid  in  them. 

Gas  mains,  electric  light  and  telephone  wires,  I  am  of  opinion  should  belaid  in  sub- 
ways. In  old  streets,  the  initial  outlay  is  the  great  hindrance  to  their  adoption,  but 
in  forming  new  streets  this  difficulty  to  a  great  extent  does  not  exist.  By  forming  a 
subway  over  the  sewer  when  it  is  being  built  the  only  extra  cost  is  the  brickwork  ; 
all  the  excavation  is  necessitated  by  the  sower,  and  by  laying  side  pipes  in  the  drain 
trenches  nearly  all  the  expense  of  the  side  connections  is  saved. 

W//. 


The  water  mains  I  should  lay  in  footways.  As  the  sewers  are  rebuilt,  I  should  add 
the  subways,  and  thus,  at  any  rate  within  a  100  years,  subways  would  be  universal. 
If  this  process  of  gradual  provision  were  deemed  too  slow  or  tedious,  it  might  well  be 
considered  whether  it  would  not  be  well  to  raise  a  "  subway  loan"  to  provide  the 
capital  expenditure.  Taking  sue  h  a  loan  at  3  per  cent,  for  50  years  and  the  cost  of 
subway  at  £10,000  a  mile,  1  think  it  would  be  practicable  to  charge  such  a  rent  for 
its  nse  as  the  companies  would  be  glad  to  pay  and  such  rent  would  repay  the  capital 
expenditure  within  the  life  of  the  subway.  The  public  authorities  would  thus  save 
the  loss  caused  by  the  incessant  disturbance  of  the  highways,  and  the  public  them- 
selves would  be  saved  the  incouvenience  attaching  to  such  incessant  disturbance. 
With  regard  to  above  estimate  of  £10,C00  a  mile,  the  cost  would  bo  about  half  this 
amount  if  the  subway  was  formed  with  the  sewer. 

Referring  generally  as  to  question  No.  4,  I  would  advise  that  the  roads  of  a  district 
should  bo  made  in  relation  to  the  traffic  upon  them,  and  paved  with  the  most  suit 
able  material,  having  due  regard  to  all  the  circumstances  attaching  to  such  road.  In 
Kensington  before  any  road  is  made  up  or  converted,  I  submit,  a  report  and  estimate 
which  generally  guides  the  vestry  in  its  action. 

With  regard  to  your  inquiry  as  to  hooka  of  reference,  I  am  sorry  I  cau  not  help  you 
in  that  respect.     I  have  never  studied  hooks.     I  have  gone  about  a  good  deal,  and  my 


28fi  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

views,  as  hereinbefore  set  forth,  are  the  outcome  of  31  years  practical  experience, 
and  if  the  information  I  have  roughly  tried  to  convey  in  a  concise  form  does  not 
prove  too  prolix  for  your  patience,  and  does  prove  of  some  service  to  your  department, 
I  shall  be  well  satisfied. 
If  you  would  like  to  see  me,  or  desire  further  information,  pray  command 
Yours  faithfully, 

William  Weaver,  C.  E., 
Surveyor,  Toivn  Hall,  Kensington. 
General  J.  C.  New, 

Consul- General  of  the  United  States  of  America, 

12  St.  Helens  Place,  Bishopsgate  Street,  E.  C. 


STREET  AND  HOUSE  REFUSE. 

[Appendix  to  Mr.  Weaver's  report.] 

parish  of  st.  mary  abbotts,  kensington. 

Vestry  Hall,  Kensington, 
Surveyor's  Department,  March,  1860. 
To  the  Wharves  and  Plant  Committee  op  the  Vestry  of  Kensington  : 

Gentlemen:  In  accordance  with  the  directions  of  the  vestry,  instructing  me  to  .jj 
report  on  the  slopping  work  of  the  parish  of  Kensington,  I  have  prepared  and  beg 
to  submit  the  following  remarks.     For  reasons  which  will  be  obvious  after  a  consid-   ] 
eration  of  the  following  pages,  I  have  found  it  necessary  and  advisable  to  deal  con-    E 
junctively  with  the  subject  of  dust  collection. 

The  committee  will  recollect  that  prior  to  the  vestry  undertaking  the  execution  of  j 
the  parish  work,  in  1877,  the  cost  of  slopping  and  dusting  had  been  increasing  annu- 
ally, and  wheu  in  February,  1877,  the  tenders  for  these  works  were  opened,  such    ' 
largely  increased  amounts  were  demanded  that  the  vestry  resolved  at  once  to  take 
the  work  into  their  own  hands. 

Acting  energetically  upon  the  foregoing  resolution  the  vestry,  on  the  basis  of  a  re-  1 
port  and  estimate  which  I  had  the  honor  of  submitting,  o-btained  the  necessary  plant  ^ 
aud  premises,  and  from  that  period  have  carried  on  the  work  until  the  present  time,  | 
in  a  much  more  satisfactory  manner  than  under  the  old  contract  system,  and  at  the 
same  time  at  less  cost.     Owing,  however,  to  causes  hereinafter  referred  to,  the  work  1 
each  succeeding  year  becomes  more  costly  aud  difficult  of  execution,  and  unless  * 
prompt  and  effective  measures  are  adopted,  the  time,  in  my  judgment,  is  not  far  dis- 
tant when  the  vestry  will  find  itself  in  serious  difficulties,  with  the  present  available 
means  of  escape  therefrom  then  closed  or  only  to  be  acquired  at  vastly  iucreased  cost.   I 

With  a  firm  conviction  that  a  large  amouut  of  the  present  cost  of  work  may  be 
saved,  aud  with  the  future  difficulties  of  the  work  plainly  apparent,  I  beg  to  submit  § 
aud  place  on  record  the  views  I  entertain  with  respect  to  the  subject  on  which  I  am    ' 
directed  to  report. 

The  accounts  of  the  vestry  for  the  past  3  years,  during  which  the  work  ha?  been 
performed  by  the  vestry's  own  staff  aud  plant,  furnish  only  the  total  expenditure  for 
the  entire  work  theretofore  executed  under  contracts  aud  do  not  give  the  separate 
cost  of  any  one  particular  braneh  thereof.  It  thus  being  impossible  to  ascertain  the 
value  per  day  of  a  horse  and  cart  engaged  on  any  one  particular  work,  I  have,  in  the 
subjoined  statements,  taken  the  value  of  the  horse  labor  herein  referred  to ;  the  totals 
given  as  the  cost  of  the  work  must,  therefore,  be  taken  as  comparative  estimated 
amounts  and  not  as  actual  totals  of  expenditure.  The  deductions  and  inferences, 
however,  drawn  from  the  rates  and  amounts  tabulated,  would  be  but  very  slight! 
altered  by  a  reduction  or  increase  of  a  shilling  in  the  assumed  rates  per  day. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  287 

Statement  I.—  Boad  sweepings.— Number  of  loads  removed,  amount  of  labor  employed 
in  removal,  and  estimated  cost  of  same. 

During  the  year  ending  Lady  Day,  1879: 

Number  of  loads  removed 32,706 

Horse,  cart,  and  man,  at  13s.,  number  of  days 6,981 

Total  costof  collection  and  shoots £5,290  19s.  6d. 

Amount  paid  for  shoots £753  6s.  6d. 

Netcost  per  load  for  collection  aud  shoots 3s.  3d. 

Average  number  of  loads  per  day  per  horse  and  c  art 4$ 

During  9  months  eudiug  Christmas,  1879: 

Number  of  loads  removed 20, 252 

Horse,  cart,  and  man,  at  13s.,  number  of  days 5,096 

Total  cost  of  collection  and  shoots £3,467    9s.  9d. 

Amount  paid  for  shoots £155    Is.  9d. 

Netcost  per  load  for  collection  aud  shoots 3s.  5d. 

Average  numher  of  loads  per  day  per  horse  and  cart — _  4 

Statement  II. — Dust  and  ashes. — Number  of  loads,  labor,  and  cost  of  collection. 

During  the  year  ending  Lady  Day,  1879: 

Number  of  loads  collected 25,567 

Dust,  cart,  and  dustinau,  number  of  days, at  14s.  9d* 10,180 

Gross  cost  of  collection £7,  507  15s.  Od. 

Amount  received  for  dustt £3,837  lfis.  Od. 

Net  cost  of  collection £3,6t>9  19s.  Od. 

Net  cost  of  collection  per  load 2s.  10£d. 

Average  number  of  loads  per  day  per  cart 2£ 

During  9  mouths  ending  Christmas,  1879: 

Number  of  loads  collected 19,914 

Dust,  cart,  and  dustman,  number  of  days,at  14s. 9d* 7,352 

Gross  cost  of  collection £5,422    2s.  Od. 

Amount  received  for  dustt £497  15s.  Od. 

Net  cost  of  collection £4,924    7s.  Od. 

Netcost  of  collection  per  load 4s.  Hid. 

Average  number  of  loads  per  day,  per  cart 2^ 

As  the  committee  have  decided  that  the  collection  of  dust  can  be  performed  more 
economically  by  having  one  dustman  to  two  dust  carts,  rather  than  by  having  a  dust- 
man with  each  cart,  in  addition  to  the  cartman,  it  assumed  in  the  preceding  state- 
ment that  the  whole  of  the  carts  have  been  worked  on  the  preferential  plan. 

It  will  be  seen  on  reference  to  the  two  statements,  that  nearly  60,000  loads  of  ref- 
use have  annually  to  be  collected  in  the  parish  and  carted  away,  a  work  of  great 
magnitude,  involving  a  heavy  expenditure. 

The  cost  of  the  work  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  on  the  distance  to  which  the 
refuse  has  to  be  carted  ;  for  iustauce,  if  during  the  12  months  ending  Lady  Day,  1879» 
the  slop  carts  had  been  enabled  to  deliver,  on  an  average,  6  loads  each  per  day,  in- 
stead of  4f  (Statement  1),  a  saving  in  that  work  alone  would  have  been  effected, 
amounting  to  £1,758,  assuming  that  the  shoot  was  the  property  of  the  parish,  a,nd 
tbe  committee  will  perceive  from  the  same  statement  that  the  net  cost  per  load  was 

less  during   this  period,   compared  with   the   following   9   months,  although  tho 
mots  were  costing  nearly  four  times  more  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter  period. 
During  the  same  year  (12  months  ending  Lady  Day,  18J9  (Statement  11),  t lie  dust 
jalized  a  large  sum  of  money,  an  amount  which  it  is  not  likely  to  produce  in  the 

'Horse  and  cart,  ladders,  baskets,  tools,  etc.,  9s./  Carter,  4s.;  Moiety  of  dust  man's 
wages,  Is.  '.)(/.;   total  per  day,  Ms.  9d. 
t  The  dui-t  delivered  under  agreement  of  sale  is  taken  as  all  being  paid  for. 


288  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

future.  Leaving  out,  therefore,  that  exceptional  time  from  this  calculation,  an  il  tak- 
ing the  return  for  the  9  months  ending  Christinas,  1879,  we  have  a  total  of  19,914 
loads  delivered,  giving  an  average  of  2^  loads  each  cart  per  day.  If  nearer  shoots 
bad  been  provided,  enabling  the  carts  to  deliver  4  loads  each  per  day,  a  saving  of 
£1,252  would  have  accrued  upon  the  net  cost,  and  calculating  the  saving  during  the 
remaining  3  months  of  the  year  at  the  same  ratio,  the  total  saving  in  the  12  months 
would  be  £1,670.  This  amount  added  to  the  reduction  in  slopping  (£1,748),  above 
referred  to,  gives  £3,418  as  the  total  amount  which  might  be  fairly  expected  to  be 
saved  in  1  year  by  the  acquisition  of  bandy  shoots.  Such  saving,  however,  could 
only  be  effected  on  this  important  condition,  viz,  that  the  refnse,  when  once  deposited, 
should  not  involve  any  further  net  expense  to  the  vestry,  but  should,  after  its  recep- 
tion, be  made  at  least  to  pay  for  itself. 

This  condition,  which  I  believe  can  be  more  than  fulfilled,  necessarily  leads  up  to 
the  subjectbfthe  best  means  of  disposing  of  and  utilizing  the  refuse,  in  order  that  it 
may  be  made  at  least  to  pay  for  itself,  and  thus  fulfill  the  condition  referred  to. 

In  the  first  place,  a  large  amount  of  material  has  to  be  dealt  with,  viz,  60,000  loads 
per  aunum,  which  may  be  taken  as  over  90,000  cubic  yards.     The  question,  then,  for 
consideration  is  the  best  method  of  dealing  with  58,000  cubic  yards  of  slop  and  road 
sweepings,  and  40,000  cubic  yards  of  dust  and  house  refuse. 
The  road  refuse  consists  of  sweepings  from— 

First,  macadamized  roads ;  second,  flint  and  gravel  roads  ;  and  third,  wood-paved 
roads. 

The  first  mentioned  is  composed  of  particles  of  grauite,  more  or  less  small,  horse 
droppings,  water,  and  litter.  The  particles  of  granite  and  horse  droppings  could"be 
eliminated  by  screening  the  slop  mixed  with  added  water;  the  fineparticles  of  gran- 
ite-like sand  would  settle,  and  the  water,  almost  clear,  could  then  be  drawn  oft"  for 
reuse.  The  first  screenings,  i.  e.,  granite  and  horse  droppings,  would  be  dried  in  an 
oven  attached  to  furnace,  hereinafter  referred  to,  and  the  horse  droppings  separated 
therefrom.  This  latter  material,  would,  I  am  of  opinion,  find  a  sale  as  a  dressing  for 
grass  lands,  but  if  not  sold  it  could  be  burnt. 

The  flint  and  gravel  road  sweepings  are  composed  of  small  particles  of  flint,  with 
horse  droppings  mixed  with  water,  aud  could,  with  added  water,  be  passed  through 
a  screen  of  a  mesh  gauged  to  pass  the  flint  grit  and  retain  the  horse  droppings. 
After  drawing  off  the  water  the  flint  settlings  would  remain  and  be  very  valuable 
for  consolidating  the  macadam  roads  under  the  steam  roller.  With  this  binding 
material  a  road  is  better  made  tlian  if  sand  is  used,  and  does  not  give  off  so  much 
slop.  Every  yard  of  this  material  used  would  represent  a  saving  of  4a.  6d.,  and  if 
such  material  was  rewashed  and  passed  through  a  finer  screen  the  pure  grit  would 
fetch  10s.  a  yard. 

The  sweepings  from  wood-paved  roads  consist  almost  entirely  of  horse  droppings, 
which  could  be  sold  as  manure.  The  sweepings  from  Brompton  Road,  the  committee 
are  aware,  now  fetch  £5  per  barge  load. 

In  the  street  refuse,  the  committee  will  therefore  perceive  that  they  possess  valu- 
able useful  materials  which  they  are  now  paying  to  get  rid  of,  owing  to  want  of 
storage  space.  Samples  of  all  the  component  parts  of  the  street  refuse,  as  herein 
referred  to,  are  herewith  submitted. 

The  dust  aud  house  refuse  is  composed  of  breeze,  dust,  hard  and  soft  core,  and  pick- 
ing's, all  possessing  a  market  value,  except  the  soft  core,  which  would  be  burnt— a 
portion  of  the  breeze  forming  the  fuel. 

The  market  for  Kensington  dust  without  doubt  has,  in  the  past,  been  spoiled  by 
the  inability  of  the  vestry  to  hold  over  their  stock,  and  the  price  for  the  same  would 
go  up  on  its  being  stored,  and  sold  at  such  a  rate  as  to  make  its  own  market.  True 
it  is  that  dust  will  be  wanted  as  long  as  bricks  are  being  made  in  the  neighborhood, 
but  so  long  as  the  vestry  is  without  storage  accommodation,  the  committee  is  at  the 
mercy  of  the  brickmakcrs,  who  have  only  to  combine  to  dictate  their  own  terms; 
but  given  the  storage  space,  with  the  means  of  burning  the  soft  core,  etc.fAnd  the 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  289 

positions  are  reversed,  with  the  additional  advantage  of  saving  the  labor  now  ex- 
pended in  carting  the  material  long  distances,  a  large  part  of  it  being  not  only  of  no 
use  when  it  reaches  its  destination,  but  the  cause  of  nuisances,  which  at  any  moment 
may  place  the  vestry  in  the  dilemma  of  having  to  collect  the  dust  without  having  any 
place  to  shoot  it. 

The  committee  will  perceive  that  the  foregoing  remarks  all  point  to  the  desirabil- 
ity of  the  vestry  acquiring  depots  within  the  parish  for  the  receipt  of  the  street  and 
house  refuse,  and  in  addition  to  the  direct  saving  resulting  therefrom,  as  hereinbe- 
fore alluded  to,  I  would  point  out  other  attendant  advantages. 

1st.  The  horses  and  men  could  be  better  supervised  then  when  going  to  distant 
shoots,  such  as  Acton,  Fulham,  etc.,  and  the  strictness  of  the  supervision  is  inversely 
proportionate  to  the  area  of  the  work.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  sickness  and  mortality  amongst  the  vestry's  horses  is  attributed  to  the 
distant  shoots. 

2d.  A  stock  work  would  be  provided  for  otherwise  idle  horses  and  men,  whose  un- 
earned wages  have  now  to  be  paid. 

3d.  The  present  shoots,  costing  a  large  sum  for  attendant  men,  chain  horses,  and 
road  making,  are  only  temporary  ;  they  are  situated  almost  entirely  in  Fnllam  and 
Hammersmith,  the  board  of  works  for  which  districts  are  just  commencing  the  exe- 
cution of  their  own  work,  and  it  is  extremely  unlikely  that  Kensington  will  be  able, 
in  the  face  of  the  extra  carting  involved,  to  offer  better  terms  than  Fulham  for  shoots 
within  its  own  district,  but  outside  ours. 

4th.  I  would  ask  the  committee  to  consider  the  equity  of  the  question,  whether  it 
is  fair  for  Kensington  to  send  its  offensive  refuse  into  other  districts,  the  authorities 
of  which  object  to  its  presence,  but  perhaps  are  unwilling  to  take  legal  measures  to 
stop  its  delivery.  Acton,  however,  it  will  be  remembered,  did  stop  the  delivery  of 
our  dust  last  summer. 

5th.  The  neighborhoods  now  receiving  the  parish  refuse  are  rapidly  being  built 
over,  and  in  a  short  time  will  cease  to  afford  shoots. 

6th.  The  present  distant  shoots  involve  a  large  increase  in  the  number  of  horses 
and  carts,  and  proportionate  increase  in  risks  of  working  and  increased  cost  of  super- 
vision. By  having  the  shoots  near  the  work  a  much  smaller  plant  would  do  more 
work  with  greater  efficiency,  with  the  risks  attendant  upon  bad  roads,  public  water 
troughs,  and  unsupervised  carmen,  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Recently  as  many  as  50 
horses  out  of  a  stock  of  84  have  been  employed  in  dusting  alone,  and  that  at  a  time 
when  the  slopping  required  extra  strength,  the  lack  of  which  entailed  loss  to  the 
parish. 

7th.  The  proximity  of  the  depots  would  enable  the  horses  to  change  carts  quickly, 
a  matter  of  much  importance  in  the  watering  season,  when  through  change  of  weather 
the  horses  have  to  be  transfered  from  slop  carts  to  water  vans  as  expeditiously  as 
possible.  By  the  courtesy  of  the  guardians  of  the  poor  we  are  allowed  at  present  to 
stand  carts,  etc.,  at  the  stoneyard,  potteries,  a  convenience  liable,  however,  to  be 
withdrawn  at  any  time. 

8th.  By  withdrawing  a  large  number  of  carts,  vans,  etc.,  from  the  Pembroke  Road 
depot,  storage  space  would  be  given  there,  now  much  needed.  At  the  present  time, 
for  want  of  room,  I  am  often  compelled  to  send  material  (other  than  street  sweepings) 
to  the  shoot,  which,  if  stored  at  the  depot,  could  hereafter  be  used  with  economical 
results. 

Each  of  (he  foregoing  considerations  are  submitted  in  a  condensed  form  only,  but 
they  are  capable  of  beiug  enlarged  upon  to  a  very  considerable  extent. 

I  beg,  therefore,  to  strongly  recommend  that  two  depots  be  obtained  ;  one  in  the 
north,  and  the  other  in  the  south  part  of  the  parish.  In  the  northern  depot  pits  could 
be  excavated  for  the  receipt  of  all  refuse  Dot  sold,  burnt,  or  utilized;  the  excavated 
clay  being  burnt  into  ballast  worth  2*.  Ud.  per  yard  in  the  depot.  Such  material  will 
be  largely  required  in  the  uorth  district  during  the  next  10  years,  and  its  value  will 
increasPftoyond  the  price  named,  proportionately  to  the  difficulty  in  obtaining  it. 
;<3a 19 


290  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

In  the  south  district  the  depot,  would  yield  sand,  and  gravel,  worth  respectively,  at 
present  2s.  6d.  and  2s.  per  yard  on  the  ground,  but  these  prices  are  going  up  every 
year. 

As  before  mentioned,  the  only  portion  of  tbe  street  refuse  for  which,  at  the  present 
time,  I  am  unable  to  show  a  profitable  use,  is  tbe  fine  mud  of  the  granite  slope,  re- 
maining after  the  granite  aud  horse  droppings  are  removed.  This  mud,  although 
consisting  of  minute  particles  of  granite,  would,  as  far  as  I  am  able  to  see  at  pres- 
ent, have  to  be  buried  ;  dealing  with  it,  however,  in  this  way,  the  ground  excavated 
for  its  reception  would  if  sand  more  than  pay  for  the  labor  involved,  and  nearly  so 
in  the  case  of  clay  having  to  be  got  out,  such  material  beiug  converted  into  burnt 
ballast  as  aforesaid. 

A  furnace  would  have  to  be  erected  at  each  depot,  with  sifting  and  screening  ap- 
paratus, and  the  ground,  if  sufficiently  spacious,  could  be  so  laid  out  in  inclines  as 
to  make  a  good  deal  of  labor  self-performed  by  gravitation.  Disinfecting  chambers 
might  be  economically  erected  in  conjunction  with  the  furnace,  aud  the  money  now 
paid  by  the  vestry  for  the  disinfection  of  clothiDg,  bedding,  etc.,  saved. 

I  would  here  remark  that  several  large  towns — Manchester,  Birmingham,  Warring- 
ton, Blackburn,  Derby,  Leeds,  Nottingham,  aud  Rochdale  amongst  others — have  ac- 
quired depots  and  erected  furnaces  for  dealing  with  and  burning  their  refuse,  and  it 
is  well  worthy  of  the  vestry  whether  a  small  committee  might  not  be  appointed  with 
advantage  to  this  parish  to  inspect  the  operations  as  carried  out  in  the  towns  re- 
ferred to. 

If  the  committee  and  vestry  agree  with  me  as  to  the  advisability  of  acquiring 
depots  as  herein  suggested,  I  would  recommend  that  no  time  be  lost,  as  laud  is  daily 
increasing  in  value  and  becoming  more  difficult  to  obtain.  In  addition,  I  would  ad- 
vise that  ample  space  be  provided,  as  the  work  is  increasing  every  year,  and  would, 
even  at  the  outset,  require  a  large  area  for  sortiug  aud  turning  over  the  refuse,  and 
the  excavations  as  filled  in  as  before  mentioned  would  not  renew  their  virgin  soil. 

In  the  foregoing  report  I  have  endeavored  not  to  exaggerate  the  expected  future 
results,  but  rather  to  take  the  worst  view  of  the  question,  for  I  am  firmly  of  opinion 
that  the  committee  would  find,  after  a  year's  experience  in  dealing  with  the  refuse  of 
the  parish,  that  a  great  deal  of  so-called  refuse,  now  costing  a  largo  sum  annually  to 
get  rid  of,  would,  under  skillful  management,  prove  a  large  item  of  revenue. 

According  to  the  less  sanguiue  view  of  the  subject,  the  vestry  can  afford  to  spend 
£60,000  on  the  acquisition  of  suitable  land  for  depots,  and  the  erection  of  buildings, 
machinery,  etc.,  and  still  save  on  the  present  aunual  expenditure;  bat  looking  to  the 
future,  with  the  increasing  difficulties  of  the  work,  I  should  be  afraid  to  state  the  sum 
which  the  vestry  might,  in  my  judgment,  spend  with  advantage  for  this  purpose. 

In  the  foregoing  paragraph  £60,000  is  mentioned  as  the  sum  which  might  be  ex- 
pended without  increasing  the  current  expenditure,  but  it  is  not  intended  to  convey 
to  the  committee  that  that  amount  of  outlay  is  needed — £35,000  would,  I  am  of  opin- 
ion, cover  the  entire  expense. 

I  trust  I  am  not  out  of  order  instating  that  should  the  vestry  deem  me  over  confident 
as  to  the  profits  likely  to  accrue  from  dealiug  with  the  refuse  in  the  manner  herein 
suggested,  I  believe  private  individuals  are  ready  to  come  forward  and  enter  into 
arrangements  with  the  vestry,  whereby  you  might  be  relived  of  all  trouble  with  re- 
gard to  such  refuse  when  once  deposited. 

In  conclusion,  I  would  remark  that  in  the  foregoing  report  I  have  confined  myself 
to  the  scope  of  the  vestry's  reference,  but  should  it  be  deemed  desirable,  I  could  now, 
with  the  experience  of  the  past  3  years'  execution  of  the  parish  work,  founded  upon 
my  report  of  1876,  offer  some  suggestions  relative  thereto,  which,  I  believe,  would 
prove  of  value  to  the  vestry  ;  but  inasmuch  as  such  reports  involve  considerable  time 
and  labor,  I  have  thought  it  right  not  to  withdraw  the  necessary  time  from  my  other 
duties  without  the  vestry  directing  me  to  do  so. 

I  have  the  honor  to  remain,  gentlemen,  your  obedient  servant, 


Wm.  Weaver,  Gbp 
Siir 


urveyor. 


EUROPE — UNITED  KINGDOM.  291 

STREETS  OP  LONDON. 

Mr.  Heward,  surveyor,  to  Consul-General  New. 

Board  of  Works  for  tiie  Greenwich  District, 
141  Greenwich  Road,  Greenwich,  S.  E.,  January  1,  1891. 
Sir:  Iu  answer  to  yours  of  the  8th  ultimo  respecting  the  cost  of  making  and  main- 
taining public  roads  in  London,  I  take  pleasure  in  sending  the  following  answers  to 
your  questions,  obtained  from  practical  results  extending  over  a  period  of  nearly 
half  a  century : 

(1)  The  methods  employed  under  my  superintendence  are:  (a)  Land  value  on 
flint  roads ;  (6)  Macadamized  or  broken-granite  roads ;  (c)  granite-cube  or  set  pav- 
ing; (d)  wood-cube  paving;  (e)  asphalt. 

I  attach  a  specification,  marked  A,  giving  details  for  forming  and  making  up  new 
roads  or  streets,  on  which  system  land  values  or  macadamized  roads  are  constructed 
in  my  district,  also  a  specification,  marked  B,  giving  details  of  forming  granite-cube 
and  wood-cube  paving.  Asphalt,  although  the  more  costly  material  at  first  cost,  is 
the  most  cleanly  and  durable  of  any,  but  is  not  easily  repaired  after  trenches  made 
by  gas,  water,  electric,  aud  other  companies,  and  is  very  treacherous  uuder  certain 
conditions  of  atmospheric  changes  for  horse  traffic.  The  foundation  for  an  asphalt 
is  made  as  for  a  paved  road,  with  a  3-inch  coating  of  asphalt  in  lieu  of  the  granite 
cubes. 

(2)  Systems  followed  in  repairing  roads  (a  and  h)  by  picking  up  the  crust  or  sur- 
face to  a  depth  of  about  2  inches  and  coating  same  with  material  to  a  depth  of  about 
2  to  3  inches,  and  the  whole  rolled  solid,  cost  (a)  about  Is.  per  yard  superficial;  (6) 
from  2s.  to  3s.  per  yard  superficial.  The  life  of  these  roads  depends  entirely  upou  traf- 
fic aud  weather,  but  an  average  of  2  years  might  betaken. 

The  life  of  a  granite-cube  paved  road  is  about  21  years,  with  an  average  expense 
for  repairs  of  6d.  per  yard  superficial  per  anflum. 

The  life  of  wood-cube  paving  is  from  4  to  5  years,  aud  the  average  expense  per 
annum  would  not  exceed  6d.  per  yard  superficial. 

Asphalt  will  stand  from  15  to  20  years  if  left  undisturbed. 

(3)  The  effect  of  improved  public  roads  upon  land  values  depends  entirely  upon  situ- 
ation and  traffic.  Where  heavy  traffic  has  to  be  carried,  and  in  large  towns  and 
cities,  improved  paving  is  found  more  economical  and  cleanly,  but  laud  values  or 
macadamized  roads  are  less  costly  and  preferable  in  country  or  park  roads,  where 
traffic  is  of  a  lighter  nature. 

I  trust  this  information  is  what  you  seek,  but  shall  be  pleased  to  answer  any  fur- 
ther questions  you  may  wish,  upon  your  application. 

I  have  a  book,  "System  of  Road-Making,"  by  John  London  MacAdam,  1827,  which 
I  should  be  pleased  to  lend  for  your  perusal.     I  can  not  part  with  same,  as  it  was 
given  to  me  by  my  tutor.  Sir  James  MacAdam. 
Yours,  respectfully, 

James  R.  Hkward, 
Road  Surveyor  to  the  Greenwich  District  Board  of  Works. 
John  C.  New,  Esq., 

Consulate- General  of  the  United  States  of  America,  London,  E.  C. 


A. 

BOARD    OF  WORKS  FOR  THE  GREENWICH   DISTRICT. 


Specification  for  forming  and  making  up  the  roadway  and  paving,  curbing,  chan- 
neling, and  making  up  the  footpaths  of  the  street  called  America,  in  the  paiiuli  of 
,  in  the  Greenwich  district. 


292  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  contractor  is  to  remove  all  slop,  mud,  clay,  and  soft  material  in  proper  slop 
carts  when  and  as  required  by  the  road  surveyor  to  the  hoard  of  works  for  the  Green- 
wich district  for  the  time  being,  and  to  remove  and  cart  away  all  superfluous  earth 
and  regulate  the  finished  level  of  the  roadway  by  the  general  level  of  the  adjoining 
premises,  as  determined  by  the  said  surveyor. 

The  surface  of  the  roadway  to  be  properly  formed  by  the  contractor  previously  to 
the  whole  width  of  such  roadway  being  covered  by  him  with  a  good  9-inch  dressing 
of  hard  pottery  or  brick  waste,  to  be  evenly  spread  and  well  rolled  by  him,  after 
which  he  is  to  lay  on  such  road  a  good  C-iuch  coating  of  Guernsey  granite  in  two 
3  inch  dressings,  and  to  well  and  evenly  break,  spread,  water,  and  roll  in  the  same 
•with  10  tons. 

The  footpaths  on  both  sides  of  the  above  road  are  to  be  paved  with  best  3-inch 
tooled  York  stone.     (The  width  of  footways  can  be  stated.) 

The  contractor  is  to  provide  and  fix  on  edge,  on  both  sides  of  the  above-mentioned 
road,  a  good  7  by  12  inch  granite  curb,  squared  at  both  ends,  with  close-butting  joints, 
well  jointed  and  parallel  on  the  top,  with  circular  aud  return  curb  for  all  the  corners, 
gateways,  and  approaches,  where  required  by  the  said  surveyor,  and  to  pave  the  chan- 
nels with  5-inch  by  6-inch  and  6  inches  deep  approved  granite  cubes  on  both  sides  of 
the  said  street,  to  be  set  on  best  concrete  6  inches  deep,  three  stones  wide,  and  to  pave 
the  same  to  a  proper  gradient  £pr  the  gulleys,  to  well  grout  the  same  with  hot  lime 
and  sand,  and  well  ram  down  the  same. 

The  crossings,  to  be  of  best  dressed  granite,  are  to  be  payed  by  the  contractor  with 
7-inch  by  4-inch  and  7  inches  deep,  to  be  laid  on  concrete  6  inches  thick,  to  be  well 
and  properly  rammed  aud  grouted  in  with  Shay  sand  and  hot  lime. 

Any  private  gateways  are  to  be  paved  by  the  contractor  with  3  inch  by  6-inch  and 
6  inches  deep  dressed  granite  cubes  set  on  4-inch  concrete,  to  be  well  grouted  in  with 
hot  lime  and  properly  rammed. 

The  contractor  is  to  shift  and  remove^such  of  the  present  gullies  as  the  said  sur- 
veyor may  direct,  so  as  to  range  with  the  paved  chaunels. 

The  contractor  shall  construct gullies,  in  such  places  as  may  be  pointed  out  by 

the  road  surveyor,  with  No.  1  best  wire-cut  Gait  bricks,  well  bonded,  9  iucties  in  thick- 
ness, in  Portland  cement,  with  invert  bottom,  the  whole  surrounded  with  Portland 
cement  concreto  6  inches  in  thickness,  the  entire  iuuer  faces  of  the  gullies  to  be 
rendered  with  Portland  cement  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  to  connect  the 
said  gullies  with  the  sewers,  with  best  G-iuch  (iu  the  bore)  glazed  stoneware  pipes 
■■ointed  with  clay ;  also  to  provide  and  fix  a  cast-iron  grating  and  frame  aud  cast- 
iron  siphon  trap  (as  per  plan)  to  each  gully,  sample  to  be  seen  at  the  office  of  the 
board.  The  contractor  must,  previous  to  the  commencement  of  the  construction  of 
any  gully,  give  two  days'  uotice  to  Mr.  J.  Nidd  Smith,  the  district  board's  engineer, 
under  whom  and  to  whose  entire  satisfaction  the  work  is  to  be  performed. 

All  watching,  lighting,  fencing,  aud  notices  for  gas  aud  water  companies  and 
others  which  may  be  necessary  shall  bo  provided  and  given  by  the  contractor,  who 
will  be  held  responsible  for  any  accident  or  damage  of  whasoever  description  that 
may  happen  or  occur  during  the  progress  or  execution  of  or  in  completing  the  works 
referred  to  in  this  specification. 

If,  under  the  direction  in  writing  of  the  said  surveyor,  the  contractor  omits  to  do 
any  of  the  before  mentioned  works,  or  to  supply  auy  of  the  before-mentioned  mate- 
rials, or  does  any  additional  work,  or  supplies  any  additional  materials,  then  such 
omissions  or  additions  shall  be  valued  by  the  said  surveyor,  and  the  amount  of  said 
valuation  deducted  from  or  added  to  (as  the  case  may  be)  the  sum  at  which  the  con- 
tractor shall  tender  to  execute  the  said  works. 

All  the  said  works  are  to  be  executed  and  completed  under  the  direction  of  the 
said  surveyor,  and  to  his  entire  satisfaction  ;  and  if  any  question  should  arise  as  to 
the  labor  or  material,  the  levels,  or  the  mode  of  executing  the  said  works,  or  other- 
wise in  reference  to  this  specification,  or  with  regard  to  any  extras  or  omissions  (if 
any),  all  such  questions  shall  be  finally  detertniued  by  the  said  surveyor. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  293 

Advances  of  money  at  the  rate  of  75  per  cent,  on  the  value  of  the  work  executed, 
as  certified  by  the  said  surveyor,  will  be  made  to  the  contractor  as  the  works  proceed 
until  the  whole  of  the  works  are  completed,  but  such  advances  shall  in  no  case  be 
made  at  more  frequeut  intervals  than  monthly,  or  until  work  of  the  value  of  £100, 
certified  as  aforesaid,  shall  have  been  completed,  and  such  certificate  shall  be  final 
and  binding  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  amount  of  the  advances  to  be  from 
time  to  time  made  under  this  clause,  but  shall  not  affect  the  right  of  the  board  against 
the  contractor,  or  be  considered  or  be  held  at  all  conclusive  as  to  the  sufficiency  of 
any  work  or  materials  ;  and  such  advances  shall  in  no  way  affect  any  question  in  the 
ultimate  settlement  of  the  accounts,  or  be  considered  as  proof  or  admission  of  any 
particular  work,  or  amount  of  work,  having  been  completed  ;  and  the  balance  shall 
be  paid  at  the  expiration  of  3  months  from  the  time  when  the  work  shall  have  been 
completed  in  accordance  with  the  contract,  and  the  said  surveyor  shall  have  certified 
in  writing  to  the  board  that  the  works  have  been  so  completed  to  his  satisfaction. 

The  commencement  of  the  works  referred  to  in  this  specification  is  to  be  postponed 
until  the  time  for  commencing  the  same  shall  be  specified  in  a  written  notice,  given 
to  the  contractor  by  the  said  surveyor,  and  the  contractor  shall  commence  the  same 
at  the  time  specified  in  such  notice,  and  must  execute  and  complete  the  whole  of  the 
said  works  within  3  calendar  months  after  the  time  so  specified  for  commencing  them, 
and  if  the  said  works  are  not  completed  within  the  said  period  of  3  caleudar  mouths, 
the  contractor  shall  pay  to  the  said  board  the  sum  of  20«.  for  every  day  until  the 
works  are  completed  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  said  surveyor  ;  and  all  such  sumspay- 
able.under  this  clause,  and  any  expense  which  may  be  incurred  by  the  board  by  rea- 
son of  delay  on  the  part  of  the  contractor,  shall  be  deducted  from  the  amount  pay- 
able to  him  under  this  contract,  or  paid  by  him  to  the  board  on  demand. 

The  contractor  must  execute,  when  required,  a  written  contract  in  due  form,  to 
perform,  fulfill,  and  complete  the  works  meutioned  and  referred  to  in  the  above 
specification,  and  in  all  respects  according  ip  the  terms  thereof. 

J.  R.  H., 
Road  Surveyor  to  the  Greenwich  District  Board  of  Work$. 


B. 

parish  of  greenwich — new  granite  and  wood  paving  works. 

Boakd  op  Works  for  the  Greenwich  District, 

June  23,  1886. 
jification  to  pave  the  unpaved  portions  of  the  Greenwich  road,  from  Wellington 
Grove  to  London  street,  of  London  street,  from  Greenwich  road  to  Royal  Hill,  of  Rom- 
ney  road,  of  Trafalgar  road,  and  of  the  lower  Woolwich  road  (except  in  front  of 
Christ  Church  and  the  Wesloyan  Chapel)  from  Trafalgar  road  to  Marsh  Lane,  in  the 
parish  of  Greenwich,  with  7-inch  by  3-inch,  or  7-inch  by  4-inch  granite  cubes,  and 
to  perform  other  works  in  connection  therewith ;  and  to  pave  the  unpaved  portions 
of  London  street  from  Royal  Hill  to  Stock  well  street ;  of  Church  street,  from  Stock- 
well  street  to  Nelson  street,  and  of  Nelson  street,  and  in  front  of  Christ  Church,  and 
the  Wesleyan  Chapel  in  the  lower  Woolwich  road,  in  the  parish  of  Greenwich,  with 
6-inch  by  3  inch  wooden  blocks,  and  to  perform  other  works  in  connection  there- 
with. 

1.  The  contractor  shall  remove  all  the  macadam  or  paving  belonging  to  the  board, 

)rming  the  surface  of  tin  road   between  the  curb  and  existing  granite  paving  out 

Bide  the  tram  rails  to  a  formation  level,  and  cart  the  macadam,  paving,  cubes,  curb 

or  other  stone  to  the  board's  wharf,  or  any  other  depot  at  a  distance  of  not  exceeding 

2  miles  from  any  part  of  the  works. 


294  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

2.  The  contractor  shall  dress  the  surface  level  at  the  foundation  to  the  same  profile 
as  the  paved  surface  will  have  when  c  ompleted,  and  provide  and  lay  thereupon  and 
over  the  entire  area  thereof,  a  bed  of  concrete,  6  inches  in  depth. 

3.  The  concrete  for  the  grauite  paving  is  to  be  formed  of  the  best  fresh  burnt  ground 
blue  Rugby,  bine  lias,  or  other  approved  hydraulic  lime,  clean  sharp  Thames  or 
approved  ballast,  in  the  proportion,  by  measurement,  of  one  part  lime  to  four  of 
ballast,  to  be  laid  in  place  and  fretted  to  the  required  level  at  once,  and,  if  required, 
to  be  well  panned  with  iron  rammers,  and  left  undisturbed  until  the  same  is  set  aud 
the  grauite  sets  are  laid  upon  it. 

4.  The  concrete  for  the  wood  paving  is  to  be  composed  of  best  Portland  cement, 
weighing  not  less  than  116  pounds  to  the  strike  bushel,  and  is  to  bear  a  breaking 
weight  of  410  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  is  to  be  mixed  with  clean  sharp  Thames  or 
approved  ballast,  in  the  proportion,  by  measurement,  of  one  part  cement  to  four  of 
ballast,  to  be  laid  in  place,  and  fretted  to  the  required  level  at  once,  and,  if  required, 
is  to  be  floated  to  an  even  surface,  and  left  undisturbed,  until  it  is  set  and  the  wood 
blocks  are  laid  npon  it. 

5.  The  contractor  is  to  provide,  deliver,  and  lay  on  a  bed  of  clean  sharp  gravel 
mixed  with  blue  Rugby,  blue  lias  or  other  approved  lime  in  the  proportion  of  one  of 
lime  to  f  >nr  of  gravel,  on  the  concrete  bed  and  parallel  to  the  lines  of  curb,  two 
courses  of  approved  grauite  sets,  7  inches  in  depth  and  4  inches  in  width,  or  7  inches 
in  depth  aud  3  inches  in  width,  as  may  be  directed,  to  form  a  channel  where  directed. 

6.  The  contractor  is  to  provide,  deliver,  and  lay  on  a  bed  of  clean,  sharp  gravel, 
mixed  with  blue  Rugby,  blue  lias,  dry,  or  other  approved  lime  in  the  proportion  of 
one  of  lime  to  four  of  gravel  on  the  concrete  bed,  aud  between  the  existing  paviug 
outside  the  tram  rails  and  the  channel  stones  by  the  curb  hereinafter  described,  ap- 
proved granite  sets  7  inches  in  depth  and  4  inches  in  width,  or  7  inches  in  depth  and 
3  inches  in  width,  as  may  be  directed,  such  sets  to  be  properly  bonded  in  with  such 
existing  paving. 

7.  The  pitchiugs  or  sets  are  to  be  of  the  best  and  hardest  description,  each  stone  is 
to  be  7  inches  deep,  and  3  or  4  inches  in  width,  as  may  be  directed,  to  be  perfectly 
square  on  all  sides,  the  bottom  full  and  equal  to  the  top,  and  before  being  used  shall 
have  the  special  approval  of  the  surveyor.  The  top  and  bottom  are  to  be  roughed 
not  hogbacked,  and  the  stones  are  to  be  laid  in  regular  courses,  straight,  parallel, 
aud  of  an  equal  width  and  (except  the  channel  courses  specified  above)  at  right  an- 
gles with  the  curb,  unless  otherwise  directed,  and  to  be  rammed  and  back  rammed 
after  the  grouting  as  often  as  may  be  required  by  the  said  surveyor. 

8.  The  wood  paving  to  be  of  the  best  souud  aud  approved  pitch  pine  blocks,  free 
from  sap  or  knot,  6  inches  deep,  3  inches  in  widih  by  9  inches,  set  as  directed  on 
a  bed  of  clean  sharp  sand,  mixed  with  Portland  cement  iu  proportion  by  measures  of 
one  of  cement  to  four  of  sharp  sand  set  at  right  angles  with  the  curb,  unless  other- 
wise directed,  and  to  be  rammed  and  back  rammed  after  the  grouting  as  often  as 
may  be  required  by  the  said  surveyor. 

9.  The  grout  to  be  formed  of  the  best  burnt  ground  blue  Rugby,  blue  lias,  or  other 
approved  hydraulic  lime,  and  best  clean  sharp  Thames  or  other  approved  sand  of  an 
equal  quality  in  proportion  by  admeasurement  of  one  of  lime  to  three  of  saud;  it  is 
to  be  well  worked  up  and  amalgamated  and  spread  upon  the  paved  roadway  and  well 
worked  into  the  joints  and  interstices  with  scrapers  and  brooms  so  as  to  run  into 
and  through  aud  fill  up  all  the  joints  and  interstices,  and  afterwards  is  to  be  dressed 
over  with  washed  aud  screened  granite  or  gravel  as  often  as  may  be  considered 
necessary  by  the  surveyor  for  14  days  after  the  road  is  open  for  traffic. 

10.  The  contractor  is  to  keep  and  maintaiu  at  his  own  cost  and  charges,  in  good 
and  substantial  repair,  free  from  looseness,  sinkiugs,  holes,  indents,  wide  joints,  aud 
all  other  imperfections,  the  whole  of  the  works  herein  specified  for  one  year  after  the 
date  of  the  said  surveyor's  certificate  that  the  whole  of  the  works  have  been  com- 
pleted to  his  satisfaction. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  295 

11.  In  case  any  company  or  person  shall  at  any  time  during  fcho  said  twelve  months 
open  the  roads  or  any  part  thereof,  the  work  of  relaying  the  granite  and  reinstating 
or  repairing  the  road  so  hroken  np,  shall  ho  executed  by  the  contractor,  and,  the 
amount  received  by  the  board  from  such  company  or  person  for  restoring  the  road 
shall  be  paid  to  the  contractor. 

12.  From  the  date  of  the  contract  until  the  completion  of  the  works,  the  board  will 
water,  scrape,  sweep,  and  cart  away  the  road  scrapings  and  sweepings  of  snch  part 
of  the  roads  as  shall  bo  open  for  the  public  traffic,  in  such  manner  as  the  board  may 
think  fit. 

13.  The  contractor  shall  commence  the  works  within  three  weeks  after  he  shall 
have  received  a  written  order  to  do  so  from  tho  surveyor,  and  complete  the  works  and 
deliver  up  the  same  to  the  said  board,  within  16  weeks  after  the  receipt  of  the  said 
order,  under  a  penalty  of  £-25  sterling  per  day,  for  each  and  every  day  that  the  same 
shall  remain  incomplete  after  the  expiration  of  the  said  16  weeks,  and  in  case  of  such 
default,  tho  amount  of  any  penalty  or  penalties  so  incurred  is  to  be  deducted  from 
any  moneys  due  to  the  contractor,  or  recovered  from  him  as  liquidated  damages. 

14.  The  contractor  shall  not  have  or  put  forward  any  claim  for  any  sum  or  balance 
of  money  whatsoever,  as  due  to  him  from  the  board,  except  on  the  certificate  of  the 
surveyor. 

15.  That  payment  shall  be  made  to  the  contractor  for  the  works  herein  specified  in 
manner  following:  75  per  cent,  of  the  estimated  value  of  the  works  executed  on  the 
certificates  of  the  surveyor,  such  certificates  to  be  granted  at  the  expiration  of  every 
4  weeks  after  the  commencement  of  the  works.  Such  further  sum  as  shall  make  the 
total  payments  amount  to  90  per  cent,  of  the  contract  sum,  with  the  amount  of  extra 
works  (if  any)  added  thereto,  or  if  omissions,  deducted  therefrom,  within  28  days 
after  the  date  of  the  certificate  of  completion  of  the  whole  of  the  works  to  tho  sat- 
isfaction of  the  surveyor.  A  further  payment  of  5  per  cent,  thereon  within  3  months 
after  the  said  completion,  and  the  balance  within  12  months  after  the  completion. 

IG.  Should  the  works,  in  the  opinion  of  the  surveyor,  not  he  carried  on  with  suf- 
ficient despatch,  or  should  the  contractor  neglect  or  refuse  to  amend  any  works  or 
materials  objected  to  by  the  surveyor,  then  it  shall  be  competent  for  him,  the  said 
surveyor,  after  giving  to  the  contractor  48  hours'  notice  of  his  intentions  so  to  do,  to 
employ  other  persons,  or  procure  other  materials,  so  as  to  perform  and  amend  the 
said  works,  and  all  costs  so  incurred  are  to  be  deducted  out  of  any  moneys  that  may 
be  due  to  the  contractor  in  respect  of  the  contract  or  extras  thereon,  or  may  be  re- 
covered as  a  debt,  at  the  option  of  the  board. 

17.  If  any  dispute  shall  arise  between  the  contractor  and  the  board,  or  between 
the  contractor  and  the  surveyor,  as  to  meaning  or  intentions  of  this  specification  and 

mder,  such  matter  shall  be  referred  to  and  explained  by  tho  surveyor,  whose  expla- 
lation  and  award  shall  be  final  and  biuding  upon  tho  contractor  and  the  board. 

18.  The  contractor  shall  not  be  entitled  to  make  any  claim  against  the  board  for 
any  works  whatever,  iu  addition  to  those  herein  tendered  for,  except  such  additional 
works  shall  have  been  performed,  executed,  and  completed  upon  a  written  order, 
signed  by  the  surveyor. 

19.  If  the  contractor  should  from  bankruptcy,  insolvency,  or  any  other  cause  what- 
ever be  prevented  or  delayed  in  proceeding  with  the  work,  or  be  unable  to  proceed 

ith  the  work,  according  to  the  contract,  or  shall  not  proceed  therein  to  the  entire 
satisfaction  of  the  surveyor,  it  shall  bo  lawful  for  tho  board,  after  seven  days'  previ- 
ous notice  to  the  contractor  herein  stated,  of  their  intention  so  to  do,  to  enter  upon 
the  works,  and  take  possession  of  them,  and  of  all  materials  and  plant  that  may  be 
on  the  works,  and  to  employ  other  persons  to  complete  tho  works,  and  at  the  option 

>f  the  board  the  contract  shall,  at  the  expiration  of  the  said  notice,  become  void  to 
the  contractor,  but  without  prejudice  to  any  right  of  action  the  board  may  have. 
The  contractor  in  such  case  shall  have,  no  farther  claim  for  such  works,   materials, 

>r  plant,  hut  such  payment  as  may  have    1 n   previously  made  shall   he  considered 

and  taken  as  payment  in  full  for  all  such  materials  or  plant,  or  vork  done. 

In  case  of  the  death  of  the  contractor  before  tho  works  hereby  undertaken  by 


296  STREETS    AND   HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

him  shall  have  been  executed,  performed,  or  completed,  his  executors  or  administra- 
tors shall  execute,  perform,  and  complete  the  same. 

21.  The  contractor  shall  not  underlet  or  make  a  subcontract  for  the  execution  ot 
any  portions  of  the  works,  nor  assignor  otherwise  dispose  of,  or  part  with  his  interest 
in  the  contract,  or  any  part  thereof,  without  the  previous  consent  in  writing  of  the 
board. 

22.  The  contractor  or  contractors  shall  securely  and  properly  fence  off  and  light  the 
works  during  the  progress  thereof  in  such  places  and  at  such  times  as  may  be  neces- 
sary for  the  safety  of  the  public,  or  as  the  surveyor  may  direct,  and  whether  the 
surveyor  shall  give  directions  or  not  the  contractor  is  to  be  held  responsible  for  any 
accident  that  may  occur  through  noncompliance  with  or  neglect  of  this  clause. 
The  contractor  is  to  be  held  responsible  for  and  to  make  good  any  damage  to  gas  or 
water  pipes,  drains,  fences,  or  other  works  or  property  damaged  by  him  during  the 
progress  of  the  works,  or  which  may  occur  in  consequence  of  the  works  within  4 
months  nfter  the  completion,  and  in  case  of  default  on  the  part  of  the  contractor  the 
damage  will  be  made  good  by  the  surveyor,  and  the  amount  thereof  deducted  from 
any  money  due,  or  which  may  become  duo  to  the  contractor,  or  may  be  recovered 
from  the  contractor  in  an  action. 

23.  The  contractor  shall  include  in  his  estimate  the  sum  of  2  pounds  10  shillings 
per  week  to  be  paid  by  the  board  to  their  clerk  of  the  works  for  superintending  the 
works  herein  specified  during  the  period  of  their  execution,  and  the  sum  so  paid  to 
such  clerk  of  the  works  shall  be  deducted  from  the  amount  of  the  contract  after  its 
final  completion. 

24.  All  the  materials  and  workmanship  of  their  several  kinds  are  to  be  of  the  best 
description,  and  are  to  be  approved  by  the  surveyor. 

25.  In  this  tender  and  contract  the  word  "  contractor  "  shall  include  his  heirs,  ex- 
ecutors, or  administrators."  "The  board"  shall  mean  the  board  of  works  for  the 
Greenwich  district.  The  "  surveyor  "  shall  mean  the  road  surveyor  of  the  board  for 
the  time  being,  or  any  other  surveyor  from  time  to  time  appointed  by  the  board  in 
respect  of  this  contract. 

26.  Every  notice  shall  be  deemed  to  be  served  upon  the  contractor  which  shall  have 
been  put  into  the  post  addressed  to  the  contractor  at  his  address  hereunder  stated, 
or  to  any  other  address  which  he  may  furnish  in  writing  to  the  clerk  of  the  board. 

Board  of  Works  for  the  Greenwich  District, 
Parish  of  Greenwich : 

hereby  tender  to  and  agree  to  perform  and  keep  in  repair  for  12  calendar 

months,  all  the  works  in  the  foregoing  specification,  and  to  perform  all  the  conditions 
thereof  at  the  price  hereunder  stated  per  superficial  yard  of  road  surface,  broken  up 
and  paved  with  new  granite  or  wood  cubes  in  manner  hereinbefore  mentioned. 
Price  per  yard  superficial  if  the  paving  is  executed  in—  s.  d. 

7x3  Mount  Sorrel  granite 15    0 

7X4  Mount  Sorrel  granite 13    0 

7x3  Guernsey  granite 15    0 

7X4  Guernsey  granite 14    0 

7x3  Aberdeen  granite 14    0 

7  X  4  Aberdeen  granite 13    0 

Price  per  yard  superficial  for  wood  paving  6x3x9  pitch  pine 10    6 

And further  agree  to  relay  the  existing  paving  outside  the  tram  liues  where 

required  by  the  surveyor  to  do  so,  at  the  price  of per  superficial  yard. 

And agree  to  execute  a  contract  for  the  performance  of  the  works,  as  afore- 
said, upon  being  requested  to  do  so. 

(Name  of  person  tendering  :) , 

(Address :) . 

Tenders  must  be  delivered  at  the  board's  office,  141,  Greenwich  road,  not  later  than 
4  o'clock  on  Wednesday,  23d  June,  1886. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  297 

Schedule  of  rtices. 

Parties  tendering  are  required  also  to  fill  in  prices  for  additional  works  as  per  fol- 
lowing schedule : 

8.      d. 

To  supply  aud  fix  new  12  X  7  Aberdeen  edge  curbs,  at  per  foot  run  extra 1     10 

To  supply  and  fix  new  12  X  6  Aberdeen  edge  curbs,  at  per  foot  run  extra 1      8  - 

To  supply  and  fix  new  12  x  8  Guernsey  channel  curbs,  at  per  foot  ruu  extra.     2      2 

To  take  up  existing  curbs  and  reset  same,  at  per  yard  run 2 

To  take  np,  redressing,  and  resetting  curbs,  at  per  yard  run 6 

To  supply  and  lay  complete  best  3-iucb  Yorkshire  llaggi.igs,  at  per  foot  su- 
perficial    10  J 

To  supply  aud  lay  complete  best  2|-inch  Yorkshire  flaggings,  at  per  foot  su- 
perficial   94 

To  remove  and  relay  old  York,  to  square  aud  relay  same  at  per  100  feet 10      G 

To  relay  old  channel,  carriageway  cubes  and  grout  same  complete,  at  per 

yard  superficial 1      2 

To  supply  aud  lay  down  on  a  bed  of  Portland  cement  concrete,  G  inches  in 
thickness,  the  concrete  to  be  composed  of  one  part  Portland  cement  to  four 
of  clean  Thames  ballast,  approved  pitch  pine  blocks,  (5  by  3  by  9  inch,  of 

the  best  quality,  free  from  sap  or  knots,  at  per  yard  superficial.... 

To  supply  and  lay  down  on  a  bed  of  Portland  cement  concrete,  7  inches  deep 

aud  3  inches  in  width,  at  per  yard  superficial 

To  take  up,  redress  if  necessary,  and  relay  on  any  portion  of  the  works,  any 

old  cubing  as  directed,  at  per  yard  superficial 

To  supply  and  lay  concrete  as  described  in  clause  3  of  specification  at  per 
yard  cube 

All  digging  and  carting  in  any  way  connected  with,  preparing  for,  or  in  the  ex- 
ecution of  the  works  herein  referred  to,  shall  be  included  in  the  above  prices. 


REPOETS  OF  MR.  HAYWOOD. 

Tbe  following  four  inclosures  in  Consul-General  New's  report  are  re- 
ports of  Mr.  Haywood,  engineer  aud  surveyor  to  the  commissiouers  of 
sewers  of  the  city  of  London. 

accidents  to  horses  on  carriageway  pavements. 

Sewers  Office, 
Guildhall,  December  16,  1873. 
To  the  Honorable  the  Commissioners  of  Sewers  of  the  City  of  London  : 

Gentlemen  :  The  following  is  the  reference  made  to  me : 

"That  tin;  engineer  cause  observations  to  be  made  and  particulars  taken  as  to  the 
number  of  accidents  befalling  horses  on  the  asphalt,  wood,  and  granite  pavings, 
under  as  nearly  as  possible  similar  circumstances,  distinguishing  the  different  results 
under  various  conditions  of  weather,  and  showing  the  percentage  of  accidents  under 
each  circumstance  and  condition.;  also  taking  note  of  any  other  particular  he  may 
think  desirable,  with  a  view  to  elicit  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  information 
respecting  the  various  pavements." 

After  considering  the  means  to  betaken  lor  obtaining  the  desired  information  with 
the  least  delay  and  expense,  I  came  to  the  conclusion  I  hat  t  lie  police  could  he  usefully 
employed  for  the  purpose;  accordingly  I  applied  to  Colonel  Prascr,  who  expressed  his 


298  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

willingness  to  assist  the  commission  by  allowing  a  certain  portion  of  the  pol.ce  forca 
to  take  the  daily  observations,  and  arrangements  were  ultimately  made  with  him  to 
this  end. 

Books  were  then  prepared  by  me  in  such  manner  as  appeared  best  suited  to  insure 
accuracy  in  recording  the  traffic  and  accidents,  as  well  as  to  reduce  the  labor  of  the 
work.  These  books  when  rilled  up  by  the  police,  were  placed  in  the  hands  of  my 
assistants,  who  checked  the  casts,  and  arranged  the  figures  so  as  to  enable  me  to 
prepare  the  summaries  and  tables  which  are  herewith  submitted. 

Forty-three  men  were  employed  altogether  in  taking  the  observations  of  traffic  and 
accidents,  38  of  whom  were  constables.  The  constables  acted  under  the  inspection  of  4 
sergeants,  and  their  duty  was  so  arranged  that  inspection  was  never  taken  off  them. 
Tbe  whole  service  was  directed  and  superintended  by  the  chief  inspector  of  police. 

The  observations  taken  were  : 

Firstly,  of  the  traffic :  The  number  of  horses  and  vehicles  which  passed  through 
the  selected  streets. 

Secondly,  of  the  accidents  which  occurred  to  the  horses. 

I.  Traffic. — For  ascertaining  the  traffic  2  men  were  stationed  at  each  point  of  ob- 
servation, aud  on  opposite  sides  of  the  way,  each  man  taking  the  traffic  on  the  side 
of  the  road  which  was  nearer  to  him,  and  passing  in  one  direction  only.  The  men 
were  employed  for  3  hours  at  a  time,  and  were  then  relieved  by  others  for  3  hours: 
and  there  were,  therefore,  altogether  4  men  employed  during  the  day  at  each  point  of 
observation.  Each  mail  was  on  duty  for  6  hours  daily.  The  observations  were 
taken  from  8  a.  m.  to  8  p.  m  ,  a  period  of  12  consecutive  hours. 

Observations  of  the  main  streams  of  traffic  were  taken  at  each  selected  spot  for  2 
consecutive  days  in  a  week;  and  were  followed  by  2  other  days'  observations  in 
the  week  after,  but  on  different  days  to  those  of  the  preceding  week.  They  were 
carried  on  in  such  order  until  6  days'  observations,  including  every  day  in  the  week 
(Sundays  excepted)  had  been  taken  at  each  point.  Observations  of  cross  or  collat- 
eral traffic  were  also  taken  sufficiently  to  ouable  the  effect  on  the  general  stream  of 
traffic  to  be  ascertained. 

Whilst  the  traffic  was  being  taken  none  of  the  streets  in  the  vicinity  of  the  main 
thoroughfares  under  observation  were  materia  lly  obstructed  for  paving  or  other  works 
and  the  traffic  was  therefore  in  its  normal-fltate. 

II.  Accidents.— The  number  of  men  employed  in  taking  account  of  the  accidents 
was  30, 15  being  on  at  a  time.  The  relief  took  place  every  3  hours,  aud  the  men  were 
subject  to  the  same  supervision  by  the  inspectors  and  chief  superintendent  as  those 
taking  the  traffic. 

The  observers  wore  stationed  at  such  points  as  enabled  each  man  to  see  easily  the 
area  assigned  to  him  without  moving  far  from  a  central  position.  These  points  had 
been  fixed  after  careful  observation  by  myself,  so  as  to  ascertain  the  area  which  could 
be  properly  watched.  Each  man  recorded  all  the  accidents  which  occurred  on  his 
assigned  area. 

Owing  to  differences  in  the  extent  and  nature  of  the  traffic,  the  width  of  streets, 
and  other  conditions,  the  length  of  thoroughfare  assigned  to  the  men  varied  from  239 
feet  to  636  feet,  aud  the  areas  from  640  to  2,071  yards  superficial;  the  mean  of  the 
whole  being  one  man  to  every  333  feet  lineal  and  1,226  yards  superficial  of  carriage- 
way pavement.  These  lengths  and  areas  are  shown  on  the  plan  accompanying  this 
report,  and  also  in  Table  A  in  the  appeudix. 

The  observations  of  accidents  were  commenced  on  the  10th  March  last,  aud  contin- 
ued until  tbe  5th  April,  during  which  time  the  weather  was  generally  fine.  As  there 
was  no  appearance  of  change  in  the  weather,  and  it  being  in  the  highest  degree  de- 
sirable to  have  observations  during  all  kinds  of  weather,  they  were  then  discontin- 
ued. On  the  9th  May,  as  rainy  weather  appeared  likely  to  ensue,  thoy  were  resumed, 
and  continued  until  the  7th  Juno.  The  weather,  however,  became  again  fine,  and 
continued  for  the  most  part  so  until  the  observations  were  completed.  They  were 
discontinued  because  police  arrangements  did  not  admit  of  their  being  prolonged. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  299 

As  the  horse  traffic  in  the  city  is  ranch  less  on  Sundays,  being  in  fact  in  the  main 
streets  only  from  20  to  30  per  cent,  of  that  which  passes  on  other  days  in  the  week, 
the  observations  were  confined  to  working  days  alone. 

By  omitting  Sundays  there  were  50  working  days  on  which  observations  of  the 
accidents  were  made. 

As  the  expense  would  have  been  largely  increased  by  taking  observations  during 
the  night ;  as  owing  to  the  darkness  they  would  have  been  less  reliable ;  and  as  the 
great  bulk  of  the  traffic  passes  through  the  city  thoroughfares  between  8  a.  m.  and  8 
p.  m.,  observations  of  accidents  were  made  ouly  during  those  12  hours  of  day. 

During  the  first  three  wee ks  the  accidents  were  recorded  without  explanation  of 
(heir  nature  ;  but  as  a  large  proportion  of  the  horses  were  observed  to  fall  only  on 
their  knees,  the  accidents  on  the  remaining  32  days  were  classified  under  the  heads 
of  "  falls  on  knees,"  "  falls  on  hauuches,"  and  "  complete  falls."  No  notice  was  taken 
df  the  mere  slipping  of  a  horse. 

The  weather  during  the  observations  will  now  be  generally  described,  for,  what- 
ever be  its  character,  weather  affects  the  surface  of  all  pavements  and  largely  influ- 
ences the  conditions  under  which  slipperiness  varies. 

The  direction  of  the  wind  varied  during  the  50  days,  but  was  principally  either 
from  the  north,  east,  or  northeast.     The  prevailing  direction  was  northeast. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  24  hours,  as  taken  from  the  registrar-general's  re- 
turns during  the  period,  varied  from  34.5°  to  60.9°.  The  observations  of  temperature 
taken  in  Guildhall  yard  by  me  daily,  at  9  a.  m.  and  3  p.  in.,  show  a  variation  of  from 
35.7°  to  64.8°.  The  mean  daily  temperature  was  for  the  most  part  somewhat  below 
the  average. 

Out  of  the  50  days  there  were  but  17  days  on  which  rain  fell.  On  the  average 
there  are  150  days  annually  in  London  in  which  rain  falls  at  some  period  during  the 
24  hours;  therefore,  during  the  50  days'  observations  there  was  proportionately  less 
than  the  usual  number.  I  find  also  there  was  a  less  number  of  rainy  days  than  the 
average  during  those  particular  months,  and  that  the  quantity  of  rain  was  far  less 
than  usual.  This  is  a  fact  much  to  be  regretted,  inasmuch  as  the  slipperiness  of  all 
pavements  is  very  much  affected  by  moisture,  although  in  different  manners  and  in 
different  degrees.  The  character  of  the  weather  will  be  further  dealt  with  in  another 
portion  of  the  report. 

The  reference  to  me  being  to  take  observations  of  the  accidents  befalling  horses  on 
asphalt,  granite,  and  wood,  and  there  being  a  variety  of  each  of  these  classes  of  pave- 
ment on  each  of  which  the  slipperiness  varies,  it  became  necessary  in  the  first  place 
to  determine  which  to  select,  and  I  ultimately  chose  one  of  the  compressed  asphalt  of 
the  Val  de  Travers  Company,  and  one  formed  of  3-inch  Aberdeen  granite  cubes, 
these  two  kiuds  being  the  best  known  and  the  most  extensively  used  in  London  of 
their  several  classes.  I  also  selected  the  improved  wood  pavemeut,  this  being  the 
only  one  of  which  there  was  any  large  quantity  laid  down  in  the  city,  and  a  speci- 
men of  the  ligno-mineral  pavement  which  lay  adjacent  to  it. 

It  would  have  been  desirable  to  have  had  observations  taken  in  streets  of  similar 
width  and  gradieut,  of  which  the  pavements  were  in  equally  good  condition  of  repair, 
and  the  traffic  passing  over  them  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  in  character  and 
extent,  as  comparisons  would  then  have  been  more  easily  made,  and  discrepancies 
more  readily  accounted  for.  This  similarity  in  conditions  was  unattainable  ;  and 
after  giving  the  subject  much  consideration,  I  selected  Cheapside  aud  the  Poultry, 
King  William  street,  part  of  Gracechurch  street,  and  the  eastern  portion  of  Cannon 
street,  of  which  the  surface  conditions  generally  were  : 

Asphalt. — Ciieapside  and  the  Poultry  were  paved  with  the  compressed  asphalt  of 
the  Val  de  Travers  Company,  laid  2±  inches  thick,  on  a  bed  of  concroto  9  inches 
thick.     The  surface  of  this  pavement  was  in  good  condition. 

The  total  length  of  these  two  thoroughfares  was  2,033  feet,  aud  the  area  of  the 
carriageway  G.914  yards  superficial.     The  worst  gradient  was  on  a  length  of  48  feet 


300  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

next  to  St.  Paul's  churchyard,  which  was  1  iu  53.  The  other  gradients  varied  from 
1  in  6G  to  1  in  550,  nearly  the  whole  length  of  tho  two  thoroughfares  being  less 
steep  than  1  in  70. 

The  traffic  in  Cheapside  and  the  Poultry  was  of  a  mixed  character,  including  a 
considerable  number  of  omnibuses.  It  was  for  the  most  part  slow,  especially  in  the 
Poultry. 

Cranile. —  King  William  street  from  Cannon  street  to  Lombard  street,  and  Cannon 
street  from  King  William  street  to  Walbrook,  were  paved  with  Aberdeen  granite. 
The  stones  were  3  inches  wide,  9  inches  deep,  and  from  9  to  15  inches  long,  laid  so  as 
to  touch  each  other,  the  joints  being  filled  in  with  stone  lime  grout.  The  pave- 
ment of  Cannon  street  was  a  little  out  of  repair;  that  of  King  William  street  in  a 
bad  state  of  repair.  The  latter  was  under  order  to  be  replaced  by  a  new  pavement, 
which  has  since  been  laid. 

The  pavement  in  King  William  street  was  675  feet  long,  and  had  an  area  of  2,379 
yards.  A  length  of  138  feet  at  its  northern  end  had  a  gradient  of  1  in  54  ;  the  remain- 
der was  from  1  in  68  to  1  in  1,000. 

The  traffic  in  this  part  of  King  William  street  was  much  the  same  in  character  as 
that  in  Cheapside  and  the  Poultry,  but  on  the  average  it  passed  through  it  at  a 
greater  speed  than  in  the  other  thoroughfares  under  observation. 

The  portion  of  Cannon  streot  under  observation  was  807  feet  long,  and  its  carriage- 
way had  an  area  of  2,752  yards.  A  length  of  326  feet  at  the  western  end  had  gra- 
dients of  1  in  30  and  1  in  31.    The  remainder  varied  from  1  in  61  to  1  in  841. 

The  traffic  in  Cannon  street  was  generally  slow,  a  large  number  of  one-horse  vehi- 
cles passing  through  it,  and  only  a  few  omnibuses.  Carts  stopped  for  loading  and 
unloading  in  frout  of  the  premises  on  the  southern  side  of  the  street  during  the  larg- 
est portion  of  the  day. 

Wood.—  The  wood  pavements  under  observation  were  two  in  number  ;  that  of  the 
Improved  Wood  Paving  Company,  and  that  of  the  Ligno-Mineral  Paving  Company 
Trenaunay's  patent). 

King  William  street  from  London  Bridge  to  the  Statue,  and  a  small  portion  of 
Gracechurch  street,  were  paved  with  the  improved  wood  pavement,  which  is  formed 
of  fir  blocks  3  inches  wide,  5  inches  deep,  and  9  inches  long.  The  blocks  are  laid 
touching  each  other  at  their  ends,  but  crosswise  of  the  street,  the  joints  are  three- 
quarters  inch  wide,  filled  in  with  fine  clean  gravel,  and  then  grouted  with  a  bitumin- 
ous composition.  The  total  length  of  this  pavement  was  1,394  feet,  its  area  5,937 
yards.     Its  surface  was  in  excellent  condition. 

A  length  of  130  feet  of  this  pavement  near  to  Crooked  Lane  had  a  gradient  of  1  in 
30.  Near  to  Eastcheap  was  a  length  of  83  feet  with  a  gradient  of  1  in  34.  The  re- 
mainder varied  from  1  iu  37  to  1  in  260.  Near  to  the  statue  of  King  William  IV  the 
pavemeut  had  also  in  several  places  a  steep  transverse  slope. 

The  pavemeut  in  Gracechurch  street  of  the  Ligno-Mineral  Paving  Company  con- 
sisted of  beech  blocks,  3$  inches  wide,  6  inches  long,  and  4£  iuches  deep,  laid  with 
longitudinal  and  transverse  joints  one-quarter  inch  wide.  The  wood  was  mineral- 
ized, and  the  joints  were  filled  in  with  cement  or  lime  grout.  It  was  laid  on  a  bed  of 
concrete  5  iuches  thick.     The  surface  was  in  good  condition. 

The  length  of  the  ligno-mineral  pavement  was  87  feet,  the  area  410  yards,  and  the 
gradient  1  in  49. 

The  traffic  over  the  wood  pavements  in  King  William  street  and  Gracechurch  street 
comprised  vehicles  of  all  descriptions,  and  in  King  William  street  included  very 
much  of  that  which  passed  through  the  other  thoroughfares  under  observation.  The 
traffic  passed  generally  at  a  slow  rate,  but  from  Arthur  street  to  London  Bridge  dur- 
ing two  or  three  hours  of  the  day  it  was  less  slow  in  the  center  of  the  street. 

It  is  necessary  to  make  some  further  remarks  in  reference  to  these  wood  pavements. 

When  I  included  for  observation  the  two  kiuds  described,  I  did  so  because  it  was 
desirable  to  observe  considerable  lengths  of  street.     The  pavements  were  adjacent  to 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  301 

each  other,  and  could  be  conveniently  watched  from  one  station.  It  did  not  then 
occur  to  me  that  there  was  any  material  difference  between  the  two  in  respect  of 
safety;  but  as  investigation  into  the  causes  pf  the  accidents  advanced  and  the 
various  abstracts  and  tables  were  made  up  a  very  remarkable  difference  became  ap- 
paient.  I  do  not  feel  justified  iu  leaving  out  the  observations  taken  on  the  ligno- 
miucralpavcinent,and  the  accidents  which  occurred  on  it  are  accordingly  included  with 
those  which  occurred  on  the  improved  wood  pavement,  and  they  are  giveu  together 
hi  the  totals  and  general  results.  If  there  had  hecu  no  more  than  a  trifling  dill'er- 
euce  between  them  iu  the  proportion  of  accidents  I  should  take  no  notice  of  this  dif- 
feresce,  for  looking  at  the  mixed  causes  which  lead  to  accidents  it  might  not  have 
been  practicable  to  do  so  usefully  ;  but  the  excess  of  falls  on  the  ligno-niineral 
is  so  great  as  materially  to  alter  the  relative  position  of  the  wood  to  the  other  pave- 
ments as  regards  safety.  Although,  therefore,  as  before  said,  the  general  tables  in- 
clude the  accidents  on  both,  it  has  been  necessary  to  separate  them  in  various  parts 
of  the  report  to  prevent  erroneous  conclusions  beiug  drawn. 

The  lengths  and  areas  of  the  thoroughfares  under  observation  will  be  found  in 
Table  B  in  the  appendix. 

All  the  pavements  during  the  period  of  observation  were  cleansed  every  morning  and 
were  also  cleansed  constantly  during  the  busiest  hours  of  the  day  by  street  orderlies. 
The  asphalt  wasoccasionally,  but  not  frequently,  washed  in  the  morning;  and  all  the 
pavements  were,  therefore,  as  clean  as  the  nature  of  their  respective  surfaces  admitted 
with  the  amount  of  labor  and  expense  which  was  ordinarily  bestowed  on  them.  No 
measures  were  taken  to  keep  them  cleaner  than  the  other  main  thoroughfares  iu  the 
city. 

It  was  frequently  noticed  that  accidents  occurred  on  the  asphalt  when  it  was  dry, 
owing  to  the  horses  putting  their  feet  on  fresh  droppings;  but  scarcely  any  appear 
to  have  taken  place  from  this  cause  either  on  the  granite  or  the  wood. 

During  the  period  of  observation  the  asphalt  was  not  watered  to  lay  the  dust,  it 
not  being  customary  to  water  that  material,  but  the  granite  and  wood  were  watered 
the  same  as  other  thoroughfares  of  the  city. 

Some  of  the  accidents  on  the  wood  were  undoubtedly  attributable  to  the  moisture 
caused  by  this  surface  watering,  but  accidents  attributable  to  a  similar  cause  do  uot 
appear  to  have  taken  place  on  the  granite  pavement. 

The  asphalt,  when  the  surface  was  damp  or  slippery,  was  occasionally  strewn 
with  fine  sand  by  the  street  orderlies,  but  this  sand  was  used  sparingly,  and  owing 
to  the  state  of  the  weather  the  necessity  for  using  it  was  small. 

The  improved  wood  pavement  was  on  four  occasious  during  the  observations 
slightly  strewn  with  fine  gravel.  This  was  done  by  the  contractors  to  indurate  the 
surface  in  the  way  customary  with  wood  p  ivemeuts.  On  only  one  of  the  four  occa- 
sions was  the  pavement  in  such  a  state  that  strewing  gravel  was  likely  to  be  useful 
to  prevent  accidents. 

Nothing  was  strewn  either  by  the  contractors  or  by  the  commission  on  the  ligne- 
mineral  pavement  during  the  time  it  was  under  observation. 

Iu  the  calculations,  which  are  based  on  the  extent  of  traffic,  the  mean  traffic  arrived 
at  by  observation  has  been  taken  to  apply  to  the  whole  time  during  which  the  obser- 
vations of  accidents  were  made.  It  would,  of  course,  have  been  more  strictly  correct 
to  have  made  daily  observations  of  the  traffic  throughout  the  whole  period  simul- 
taneously with  those  made  of  tho  accidents;  but  to  have  made  them  would  have 
largely  increased  the  expense,  and  experience, has  shown  that  it  is  unnecessary  to 
prolong  such  observations  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  averages. 

It  is  assumed  in  this  report  that  each  horse  traversed  the  entire  line  under  obser- 
vation. Each  line  was  carefully  defined,  measured,  and  separately  calculated.  For 
example,  at  the  western  end  of  Cheapside  there  were  three  streams  of  truffle,  eacfa 
stream  having  a  different  length  of  journey.  On  each  of  these  the  number  of  horses 
and  the  accidents  occurring  to  them  were  separately  recorded  and  the  mileage  trav- 


302  STREETS    AND   HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

eled  by  the  horses  ascertained.  The  same  was  the  case  near  the  statue  in  King  Wil- 
liam street,  where  there  were  various  lines  of  traffic,  all  of  which  were  dealt  with  in 
a  similar  manner.  The  collateral  traffic  was  not  taken  for  any  length  of  time— to 
have  done  so  would  have  much  increased  the  expense— but  it  was  taken  at  every  cross 
street,  so  as  to  learn  how  the  average  number  of  horses  passing  through  the  main 
line  was  affected  by  it,  and  the  variation  in  numbers  was  found  to  be,  generally 
speaking,  as  much  on  the  oue  side  as  on  the  other.  As  the  observations  on  the  main 
lines  were  all  taken  from  points  selected,  so  as  to  include  the  collateral  traffic  as 
far  as  practicable,  it  is  believed  that  a  very  correct  average  of  the  whole  has  been 
obtained. 

It  has  now  to  be  stated  that  although  the  scope  of  the  reference  is  wide,  yet  in 
writing  this  report  I  have  thought  it  desirable  to  keep  closely  to  the  manifest  object 
of  the  reference,  which  is,  as  I  understand  it,  to  ascertain  by  direct  observation  the  rela- 
tive safety  of  the  three  classes  of  pavement.  I  have  therefore  not  referred  to  state- 
ments made  from  time  to  time  to  the  commission,  either  by  the  owners  or  drivers  of 
horses,  the  proprietors  of  pavements,  the  police,  or  the  public  as  to  the  safety  of 
particular  pavements.  Nor  have  I  referred  to  previous  observations  or  to  other  in- 
formation already  before  the  commission  on  the  subject,  but  have  dealt  simply  with 
the  results  of  the  observations  specially  made  for  this  report. 

I  have  also  avoided  entering  on  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  generally  of 
the  different  kinds  of  pavements.*  To  have  done  so  would  have  made  this  report  an 
essay  ou  pavements  rather  than  a  report  on  the  accidents  occurring  on  them.  I  have 
avoided  as  far  as  possible  giving  opinions  of  my  own  on  the  matter,  though  it  has 
been  essential  to  draw  attention  to  those  conditions  under  which  the  pavements  dif- 
fer from  each  other,  and  for  which  difference  due  allowance  will  have  to  be  made 
in  judging  the  results.  Had  I  not  done  so  the  general  results  given  in  some  of  the 
tables  might  have  been  taken  as  applicable  to  similar  pavements  under  all  condi- 
tions and  seasons,  which  would  have  been  erroneous. 

A  plan  is  appended  showing  the  pavements  which  were  under  observation,  their 
nature  and  gradients,  with  the  horse  traffic  which  passed  at  certain  places,  and  it 
contains  otheT  information  explanatory  of  the  report. 

The  most  important  of  the  abstracts  by  which  the  tables  and  summaries  are 
arrived  at,  and  from  which  the  conclusions  set  forth  in  the  report  aredrawn,  are  also 
appended.  By  reference  to  these  abstracts  the  details  of  the  observations  will  be 
Been.     These  abstracts  are  : 

(A)  Table  showing  length  and  superficial  area  of  carriageway  pavement  observed 
from  each  station. 

(B)  Table  showing  the  length  and  superficial  areas  of  the  thoroughfares  in  which 
the  observations  of  traffic  and  accidents  were  taken. 

(C)  Tabic  showing  the  number  of  horses  and  vehicles  passing  through  various  thor- 
oughfares during  12  hours,  from  8  a.  m.  to  8  p.  m. 

(D)  Table  showing  the  mean  numbers  of  vehicles  drawn  by  1  horse,  2,  and  3  or 
more  horses  that  passed  over  the  various  pavements  in  12  hours,  from  8  a.  m.  to  8 
p.  m. 

(E)  Table  showing  the  number  of  horses  that  fell  on  the  various  pavements  be- 
tween 8  a.  m.  and  8  p.  ro.,  the  state  of  the  weather,  the  direction  of  the  wind,  and 
other  information  during  certain  days  in  March,  April,  May,  and  June,  1873. 

(F)  Table  showing  the  traffic,  number  of  horses  that  fell,  and  the  distance  traveled 
before  a  horse  fell  on  each  of  the  various  pavements. 

(G)  Table  showing  the  proportions  of  horses  that  fell  on  knees,  on  haunches,  and 
completely  on  the  various  pavements  during  32  days'  observations. 

(H)  Table  showing  the  number  of  horses  that  fell  in  vehicles  drawn  by  1  horse,  2, 
and  3  or  more  horses. 

•These  will  be  dealt  with  in  a  report  upon  the  relative  advantages  of  wood  anc 
asphalt,  which  I  shall  shortly  commence.— W.  H. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM. 


303 


(I)  Table  showing  the  total  number  of  horses  that  fell  in  vehicles  drawn  by  1  horse, 
2,  and  3  or  more  horses  over  the  three  descriptions  of  pavement. 

(K)  Table  showing  the  distance  traveled  by  horses  in  vehicles  drawn  by  1  horse,  2, 
and  3  or  more  horses,  respectively,  before  a  horse  fell. 

(L)  Table  showing  the  order  of  slipperiness  as  compared  with  the  gradients  upon 
each  class  of  pavement. 

Throughout  the  report  the  pavements  are  referred  to  in  alphabetical  order:  As- 
phalt, granite,  wood  ;  this  being  a  convenient  mode  to  adopt  for  general  reference,  as 
well  as  for  other  reasons.  They  are  transposed  in  some  of  the  tables  incorporated  in 
the  body  of  the  report,  where  they  have  been  arranged  so  as  to  show  more  clearly  theii 
relative  safety. 

Having  now  laid  before  the  commission  a  general  account  of  the  nature  of  the  ob- 
servations taken  and  the  manner  in  which  they  have  been  used,  I  proceed  to  state 
the  general  results. 

TRAFFIC. 

The  horse  traffic  daily  between  8  a.  m.  and  8  p.  m.  on  the  working  days  in  the 
months  of  March  and  April,  1873,  during  which  the  observations  were  taken,  are 
given  in  table  C  iu  the  appendix  ;  the  mean  traffic  at  the  most  important  points  on 
the  lines  was : 


Number 
of  horses 
passing 
from  8  a. 
m.  to  8 
p.m. 


Asphalt : 

Cheapside,  east  of  Milk  street 

Poultry,  by  Grocers'  Hall  court 

Granite : 

Ring  William  street,  by  Abchurch  lane 

Cannon  street,  by  Bush  lane 

Wood: 

King  "William  street,  north  of  Arthur  street 
Gracechurch  street,  by  Talbot  court 


12,  366 
10, 920 


21,  162 
11,484 


The  vehicular  traffic  was  separated  in  the  observations  underthe  heads  of  one,  two 
and  three  or  more  horse  vehicles.  The  details  of  these  observations  are  given  in 
Table  D  in  the  appendix,  but  the  mean  number  which  passed  at  the  most  important 
points  on  the  line  is  given  in  the  following  table : 

Table  showing  the  mean  nutnber  of  one,  two,  and  three  or  more  horse  vehicles,  respectively, 
■passing  through  the  streets  under  observation  in  March  and  April,  1873. 


Mean  number  of  vehi- 
cles passing  from  8 


One 

horse. 


Two 

horses. 


Three 
or  more 
horses 


Total. 


Asphalt : 

Cheapside,  east  of  Milk  street 

Poultry,  by  Grocers'  Hall  court 

Granite: 

King  William  8treet,  by  Abcharoh  lane  — 

Cannon  struct,  by  Bush  lane 

Wood  : 

King  William  street,  north  of  Arthur  street 
Gracechurch  street,  by  Talbot  court 


6,  533 
5,472 


4.276 
4,090 


10,273 
5,817 


2,825 
2,  C37 


2,  006 
585 


4.831 
2,469 


9,419 
8,167 


6.371 
4,705 


15,513 
8,529 


304 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


The  proportions  of  the  whole  are  as  follows: 

Fer  cent. 

Vehicles  drawn  byoue  horse 71.42 

Vehicles  drawn  by  two  horses 26.95 

Vehicles  drawn  by  three  horses 1.63 

Some  general  idea  of  the  character  of  the  vehicles  which  passed  along  these  thor- 
oughfares, together  with  the  proportion  which  the  several  classes  bear  to  each  other, 
are  now  given.  The  observations  were  not  taken  on  the  same  day  as  those  on  which 
the  observations  of  traffic  and  accidents  were  recorded.  Nevertheless  they  fairly 
represent  the  proportion  of  the  several  classes  of  vehicles. 

Table  showing  the  proportions  of  the  different  classes  of  vehicles  passing  through  the 
various  thoroughfares  during  12  hours,  from  8  a.  m.  to  8  p.  m.,  on  certain  days  in 
November,  1873. 


Percentage  to  total  traffic. 

Street 

Cabs. 

Omni- 
buses. 

Railway 
vans. 

Trades- 
men's 
carts. 

All  other 
vehicles. 

All 
vehicles. 

38 
38 
29 
40 

19 
23 

22 
28 
22 
2 

20 
9 

17 
13 
19 

28 

25 
31 

8 
7 
8 
10 

10 
12 

15 
14 
22 
20 

26 
25 

100 

King  William  street,  by  Abchnrch  Lane. 

100 
100 

King   William  street,  north  of  Arthur 

100 

Gracechurch  street,  by  Talbot  court  ... 

100 

ACCIDENTS  TO  HORSES.* 

The  number  of  accidents  and  the  average  distance  traveled  before  an  accident  occurred. 

The  number  of  horses  that  fell  during  the  whole  period  of  50  days,  together  with 
the  places  at  which  the  accidents  occurred,  and  other  particulars  relating  thereto, 
are  given  in  Table  E  in  the  appendix,  and  may  be  identified  on  tho  plan  attached. 
The  general  results  are: 
Asphalt : 

Cheapside : 932 

Poultry 134 

Total  on  asphalt 1,066 

Granite: 

King  Willi  am  street 

Cannon  street 

Total  on  granite 

Wood : 

King  William  street  and  Gracechurch  street,  improved  wood  pavement... 
Gracechurch  street,  ligno-mineral  pavement 

Total  on  wood 

Total  on  all  pavements 2, 

whicb  gives  a  daily  mean  over  the  various  pavements  during  the  50  days  of— 

Asphalt : 

Cheapside 18.64 

Poultry 2. 

Total  on  asphalt 21.  32 

*See  ii'ote  by  Department  on  i>age  297. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM. 


305 


Granite: 

Kiug  William  street 8.58 

Caunon  street 5.80 

Total  on  granite 14.38 

Wood : 

King  William  street  and  Gracechurch  street — improved  wood  pavement. ..     7.  CO 
Gracechurch  street — ligno-mineral  pavement 3.24 

Total  on  wood 10.84 

No  opinion  of  value  as  to  the  relative  safety  of  the  different  classes  of  pavement 
can,  however,  he  formed  by  simply  comparing  the  number  of  horses  which  fell  in  any 
one  thoroughfare  witb  the  number  which  passed  through  it — or  by  comparing  the 
falls  with  those  which  took  place  in  another  thoroughfare,  inasmuch  as  the  risk  of 
falling  which  a  horse  incurs  on  a  pavement  necessarily  depends  on  the  length  o.f  the 
pavement  traversed.  With  the  view,  therefore,  of  arriving  at  a  correct  conclusion, 
the  various  streams  of  traffic,  as  well  as  the  distances  traveled,  were  taken  sepa- 
rately, and  thus  the  exact  distance  which  was  passed  over  before  an  accident  oc- 
curred was  ascertained.  These  lengths  are  given  with  much  other  detail  in  Table  F 
in  the  appendix,  but  the  totals  in  each  street  are  given  the  following  table: 

Table  showing  the  total  distance  traveled  by  horses  over  the  different  pavements,  and  the 
total  number  of  accidents  during  the  50  days1  observations. 


Description  and  situation  of  pavement. 


No.  of  ac- 
cidents. 


Distance 
traveled. 


Aspbalt: 

Chcapside 

Poultry 

Granite: 

King  William  street 

Cannon  street..  - 

Wood : 

King  William  street,  and  Gracenhurch  street,  improved  wood  pavement 
Gracechurch  street,  ligno-mineral  pavement 


162 
2,327 


Mile*. 
172,  783 
31,  022 


169, 690 
9,461 


The  aggregate  distance  traveled  by  the  horses  included  in  the  50  days'  observa- 
tion was,  therefore,  478,523  miles.  The  general  result  was  that  a  horse  might  during 
that  time  have  been  expected  to  travel  along  the  three  pavements — in  the  propor- 
tions due  to  their  lengths — a  distance  of  205  miles  before  an  accident  occurred.  The 
distances,  however,  differed  materially  on  the  various  pavements,  examination  show- 
ing that  a  horse  might  have  been  expected  to  travel  on  the — 

Miles. 
Asphalt: 

In  Cheapside 185 

In  Poultry 231 

Mean  of  the  asphalt 191 

Granite: 

In  King  William  street 127 

In  Cannon  street 140 

Mean  of  the  granite 132 

Wood : 

In  King  William  street  and  Graccchurch  street,  improved  wood  pavement.       446 
In  Gracechurch  street,  ligno-mineral  pavement 58 

Mean  of  the  wood 330 

33A 20 


306  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

The  order  of  slipperiness  during  the  50  days  was,  therefore,  ascertained  to  be : 

Miles.      ■ 

1.  Granite l32 

2.  Asphalt 191 

3.  Wood 330 

The  observations  therefore  show  that  a  horse  might  have  been  expected  to  travel 

before  it  met  with  an  accident  the  least  distance  on  the  granite,  a  greater  distance 
on  the  asphalt,  and  the  greatest  distance  on  the  wood. 

These  figures  are  correct  as  far  as  they  go  ;  but  to  adopt  them  as  determining  the 
relative  slipperiness  of  the  various  pavements,  without  considerable  limitation  and 
correction,  would  be  unsafe.  To  arrive  at  a  correct  opinion  it  is  necessary  to  make 
further  investigation,  in  order  to  see  whether  any  portion  of  the  accidents  was  due 
to  conditions  in  which  one  pavement  was  more  favorably  circumstanced  than  others, 
apart  from  the  difference  resulting  from  the  material  of  which  the  pavement  was 
composed.  Above  all  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  whether  the  general  results  would 
have  been  changed  if  the  observations  had  been  extended  over  a  much  longer  period 
of  time,  including  other  seasons  of  the  year,  and  every  description  of  weather. 
With  that  object  the  accidents  are  now  investigated  and  considered  under  the  follow- 
ing sections : 

(1)  Nature  of  the  accidents  to  horses. 

(2)  Effect  of  harnessing. 

(3)  Effect  of  rate  of  travel. 

(4)  Effect  of  gradient. 

(5)  Effect  of  condition  of  surface  repair. 

(6)  Effect  of  surface  cleanliness. 

(7)  Effect  of  weather  on  toe  surface. 

Before  proceediug,  however,  to  these  separate  considerations,  some  further  infor- 
mation derived  from  the  observations  may  be  usefully  given. 

It  might  have  been  expected  that  a  large  proportion  of  accidents  would  have  oc- 
curred at  or  near  to  the  point  of  junction  of  one  pavement  with  another  of  different 
character.  The  observations  show  that  such  was  not  the  case  to  any  material  ex- 
tent, excepting  in  Kiug  William  street,  at  the  junction  of  the  asphalt  with  the  granite. 
Even  in  this  case  investigation  assigns  other  conditions  as  in  some  degree  accounting 
for  the  large  proportion  of  falls  which  occurred  at  that  spot. 

It  might  also  have  been  anticipated  that  many  accidents  would  have  occurred  at 
points  where  the  collateral  traffic  either  joins  or  leaves  the  main  stream  ;  for  at  those 
points  a  horse  has  not  only  a  direct  draft,  but  has  to  exert  force  laterally,  and 
withstand  the  drag  of  the  vehicle  in  turning,  which  in  the  city  streets  usually  causeB 
the  wheels  to  grind  against  the  curbstones.  The  returns  show  that  although  near  to 
the  junction  of  Bow  lane,  Bread  street,  and  Gutter  lane  a  somewhat  large  number  of 
accidents  took  place,  yet  at  AVood  street,  Foster  lane,  and  Friday  street,  where 
there  was  a  larger  collateral  traffic,  no  such  excess  occurred.  Indeed,  looking  at  the 
returns  it  would  seem  that  the  collateral  traffic  led  to  accidents  to  the  horses  moving 
on  the  main  line,  by  causing  them  to  be  pulled  up  suddenly,  rather  than  itself  suffer- 
ing accidents  from  turning  into  or  out  of  the  main  line.  It  is  probable  that  the 
superior  safety  on  the  asphalt  in  the  Poultry,  to  that  in  Cheapside,  is  attributable 
in  some  degree  to  the  absence  of  much  collateral  traffic,  although  the  slower  rate  of 
travel  in  the  Poultry  was  the  most  important  element  in  causing  that  result. 

NATURE  OK  THE  ACCIDENTS  TO  HORSES. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  accidents  were  at  first  recorded  without  expla- 
nation of  their  character,  but  that  for  32  days  they  were  taken  under  the  respective 
heads  of  "  falls  on  knees,"  falls  on  "  haunches,"  arid  "  complete  falls." 

The  inconvenience  caused  to  the  general  traffic  of  a  street  by  an  accident  to  a  horse 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM. 


307 


differs  materially.  A  horse  which  falls  on  the  knees  generally  recovers  itself  speed- 
ily, and  creates  hut  little  obstruction.  One  which  falls  on  the  haunches,  and  espe- 
cially on  a  pavement  with  little  joint  or  foothold,  recovers  itself  with  more  difficulty, 
and  is  longer  in  doing  so  than  if  it  falls  on  the  knees ;  whilst  if  it  falls  on  the  side  it 
has  more  frequently  than  otherwise  to  be  unharnessed  before  it  can  regain  a  stand- 
ing position,  and,  therefore,  causes  more  obstruction  than  either  of  the  other  classes 
of  accident. 

It  is  probable  that  the  injury  to  horses  is  greater  when  they  fall  on  the  haunches 
than  when  they  fall  on  the  knees,  owing  to  the  strain  to  which  they  subject  them- 
selves when  attempting  to  rise.  This  is  especially  the  case  when  they  are  in  single 
harness  drawing  heavily-laden  two- wheeled  vehicles  and  fall  on  a  pavement  without 
joints.  Complete  falls,  if  sudden  and  sharp,  are  probably  still  more  injurious  when 
the  pavement  on  which  the  accident  takes  place  is  a  very  hard  one.  Facts  on  these 
points  are  difficult  to  obtain,  but  the  matter  is  worthy  of  serious  consideration. 

Details  of  the  accidents  are  given  in  Table  G  in  the  appendix,  but  the  following 
table  gives  the  general  results  : 

Table  showing  the  numbers  of  falls  on  knees,  on  haunches,  and  complete  falls  on  the  three 
pavements  during  32  days'  observation. 


Description  of  pavement. 

On  knees. 

On 

haunches. 

Complete. 

Total. 

140 
135 
277 

107 
10 

190 
134 
39 

437 
291 
326 

Grauite ! 

Wood 

552 

139 

363 

1,054 

Which  gives  the  following  general  proportions,  viz: 

Per  cent. 

Falls  on  knees 52.  37 

Falls  on  haunches 13. 19 

Complete  falls 34.44 

And  separating  the  accidents  as  they  occurred  on  the  different  pavements,  the  pro- 
portions are : 


Description  and  locality  of  pavement. 

Accidents  during  32  days' 
observations. 

On 

knees. 

On 

Haunches. 

Complete. 

Asphalt: 

Per  cent. 

32.04 

46.39 
84.97 

Per  cent. 
24.48 
7.  So 
3.07 

Per  cent. 

Poultry 5 

43.48 

Granite  : 

46.05 
11.96 

Wood: 

This  table  shows  that  of  falls  on  knees,  the  wood  had  by  far  the  greatest  propor- 
tion, more  than  five-sixths  of  the  accidents  being  of  this  class,  and  that  asphalt  had 
the  fewest  falls  on  knees. 

Of  falls  on  haunches,  the  asphalt  had  the  largest  proportion,  and  was  very  largely 
in  excess  of  those  on  either  of  the  other  pavements,  and  that  the  wood  had  the  small- 
est proportion  of  this  class  of  accidents. 

Of  complete  falls,  there  were  fewest  on  the  wood  and  most  on  the  granite,  but  the 
difference  between  the  asphalt  and  grauite  was  in  this  respect  small,  and  on  both 


308 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


asphalt  and  granite  there  was  something  like  four  times  the  porpoTtion  of  complete 
falls  that  there  were  on  the  wood. 

Separating  the  accidents  which  occurred  respectively  on  the  two  wood  pavements 
which  were  under  observation,  the  following  are  the  results: 


Improved  wood  pavement. 
Ligno-niineral  pavement  , . 


Accidents  occuring  during  32 
days'  observations. 


k£L     hatches.  Complete. 


Per  cent.    Per  cent. 
84. 00  3.  60 

88. 16  1. 31 




Per  cent. 
12.40 
10.53 


Thus  it  appears,  generally,  that  horses  traveling  on  the  wood  pavement  were  on 
the  whole  subjected  to  falls  of  a  character  less  inconvenient  to  the  general  traffic  of 
the  street,  and  also  less  likely  to  be  injurious  to  the  horses,  than  those  traveling  on 
the  other  two  pavements,  and  that  in  this  respect  the  ligno-mineral  was  superior  to 
tbe  improved  wood  pavement. 

It  was  noticed  also,  that  whatever  was  the  nature  of  the  accident,  the  horses  recov- 
ered their  feet  more  easily  on  wood  than  they  did  either  on  asphalt  or  granite. 


EFFECT  OF   HARNESSING. 


Although  it  but  little  affects  the  end  for  which  this  report  was  prepared,  it  maybe 
interesting  to  show  how  the  horses  to  which  the  accidents  occurred  were  harnessed. 

The  observations  were  taken  under  the  heads  of  one  horse,  two,  and  three  or  more 
horse  vehicles,  and  are  shown  by  Tables  H  and  I  in  the  appendix.  The  general  result 
on  all  the  pavements  during  the  50  days'  observation  gives : 


Falls  to  horses  in  one-horse  vehicles 

Falls  to  horse  8  in  two-horse  vehicles 

Falls  to  horses  in  three  or  more  horse  vehicles 


No.  of 
falls. 


1,279 
927 
121 


Percent- 
age of 
whole. 


54.96 
39.84 
5.20 


Assigning  these  to  the  various  pavements  on  which  the  falb  took  place,  the  results 
were: 

Asphalt : 

Cheapsie  and  Poulry :  Per  cent. 

Falls  in  one-horse  vehicles 55.  81 

Falls  in  two-horse  vehicles 41.56 

Falls  in  three  or  more  horse  vehicels 2.  ( 

Granite : 

King  William  street  and  Cannon  street : 

Falls  in  one-horse  vehicles 58. 

Falls  in  two-horse  vehicles 36. 

Falls  in  three  or  more  horse  vehicles t 4. 

Wood: 

King  William  street  and  Gracechurch  street : 

Falls  in  one-horse  vehicles 48. 

Falls  in  two-horse  vehicles 40- 

Falls  in  three  or  more  horse  vehicles U- 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  309 

Thus,  on  all  classes  of  pavement  the  largest  percentage  of  accidents  occurred  to 
horses  drawiug  one-horse  vehicles.  It  has  already  heen  shown  that  vehicles  drawn 
by  one  horse  form  the  largest  proportion  of  the  traffic,  being,  in  fact,  71.42  per  cent. 
of  the  whole,  whereas  those  drawn  by  three  horses  or  more  are  but  1.63  per  cent,  of 
the  whole;  and,  therefore,  as  in  previous  calculations,  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  the 
distance  traveled  by  the  various  classes  of  vehicles  in  order  to  see  what  was  the 
actual  risk  incurred  under  the  different  modes  of  harnessing.  These  distances  are 
shown  in  detail  in  Table  K,  but  the  general  results  are  that,  during  the  50  days'  ob- 
servations, a  horse  might  be  expected  to  travel  the  following  distances  before  it  met 
with  an  accident: 

Table  showing  the  average  distance  traveled  before  a  horse  fell,  in  vehicles  dratvn  by  one 
horse,  two,  three,  or  more  horses  respectively. 

Asphalt : 

Cheapside  aud  Poultry. 

Miles. 

A  horse  in  a  one-horse  vehicle 179 

A  horse  in  a  two-horse  vehicle 21 F 

A  horse  in  a  three  or  more  horse  vehicle 116 


Granite  : 

King  William  Street  and  Cannon  Street. 

A  horse  iu  a  ouc-horse  vehicle 133 

A  horse  iu  a  two-horse  vehicle 131 

in  a  three  or  more  horse  vehicle 72 


Wood : 

King  William  Street  and  Gracechurch  street. 

A  horse  in  a  one-horse  vehicle 352 

A  horse  in  a  two-horse  vehicle 341) 

A  horse  in  a  three  or  more  horse  vehicle 165 

The  result  of  the  50  days'  observations  therefore  was: 

That  on  all  three  classes  of  pavement  the  greatest  risk  of  accident  was  to  horses  in 
vehicles  drawn  by  three  or  more  horses. 

That  on  asphalt  there  was  more  risk  of  a  horse  falling  in  a  one-horse  than  in  a 
two-horse  vehicle,  but  that  on  grauite  and  wood  the  risk  was  very  nearly  the  same, 
whether  the  vehicle  was  drawn  by  one  or  two  horses. 

"  It  may  be  observed  that  in  the  three-horse  vehicles  the  horses  were  nearly  always 
in  Bingle  file,  and  that  in  the  two-horse  vehicles  the  animals  were  almost  invariably 
abreast,  the  exception  being  principally  brewers'  drays  and  market  gardeners'  carts 
and  wagons. 

EFFECT  OF  RATE  OF  TRAVEL. 

Fast  traveling  is  the  cause  of  accidents  iu  thoroughfares  of  much  traffic,  such  as 
those  of  the  city  of  London,  inasmuch  as  it  frequently  involves  either  sudden  reduc- 
tion of  speed  or  actual  stoppage  of  the  horse,  which  is  more  or  less  difficult  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  foothold  that  the  navement  affords.  It  is  more  difficult  to  stop 
I      ahorse  on  asphalt  than  on  granite  or  on  wood. 

Of  the  streets  under  observation,  that  in  which  the  traffic  usually  moved  with  the 
BBatesI  speed  was  King  William  street  from  Common  street  to  Lombard  street.  Tho 
carts  which  loaded  and  unloaded  there  were  few. 

Cheapside  at  certain  hours  of  tho  day  and  on  a  portion  of  its  length  only  had  a 
somewhat  quick  traffic  along  its  center,  but  not  so  quick  as  the  traffic  over*  the  nar- 
row part  of  King  William  Btreet.  In  the  Poultry  the  traffic  was  uniformly  slow  ; 
which  fact  in  some  degree  may  explain   the  other  fact   observed — that  a  horse  saw 


310  STREETS    AND   HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

shown  to  travel  there  before  au  accident  occurred  a  greater  distance  than  in  Cheap 
side.  Both  pavements  were  of  the  same  material  and  in  the  same  condition  of 
repair. 

In  King  William  street  and  Gracechnrch  street,  where  they  were  paved  with  wood, 
the  traffic  during  the  twelve  hours  in  which  observations  were  taken  was,  northwards 
of  Arthur  street,  for  the  most  part  slow,  and  southwards  of  that  street  perhaps  a  little 
quicker  in  the  center  during  some  hours  of  the  day,  but  not  materially  so. 

The  granite  was,  therefore,  on  the  whole,  more  disadvantageously  placed  in  respect 
of  speed  of  travel  than  either  the  asphalt  or  the  wood  ;  but  a  careful  examination 
of  the  accidents  does  not  enable  me  to  state  what  proportion  of  these  was  attributa- 
ble to  this  cause,  although  there  is  little  doubt  that  in  King  William  street  (granite) 
some  accidents  were  due  to  speed,  especially  as  the  surface  of  that  pavement  was  in 
bad  condition. 

EFFECT  OF  GRADIENT. 

The  power  required  to  draw  a  load  increases  directly  a  level  surface  is  departed 
from,  but  the  difference  is  not  appreciable  when  the  gradient  is  slight.  The  power 
varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the  road  surface,  the  state  of  repair,  the  way  horses 
are  laden  and  harnessed,  and  other  conditions.  Speaking  generally  and  in  round  num- 
bers, it  has  been  demonstrated  that  a  horse  can,  with  the  exertion  of  the  same  force, 
draw  up  agradieut  of  1  iu  100  about  nine-tenths  of  the  load  which  it  can  draw  on  a  . 
level  surface,  and  about  eight-tenths  of  the  same  load  if  the  gradient  be  1  in  50. 
After  that  the  tractive  power  needed  increases  more  rapidly,  for  on  a  gradient  of  1  in 
30  a  horse  can  draw  little  more  than  six-tenths  of  the  same  load  that  it  can  on  a  level 
surface.  For  practical  purposes  a  rod,  ever  if  it  be  paved  with  asphalt,  may  be  con- 
sidered to  have  a  safe  and  convenient  inclination  at  1  in  60  ;  but  under  all  conditions 
of  surface  and  gradient  the  extent  to  which  a  horse  is  laden  is  a  material  considera- 
tion. The  chance  of  an  accident  to  a  horse  is  greater  when  it  is  heavily  laden  than 
when  lightly  laden.  It  its  necessary  therefore  to  inquire  further  into  the  nature  of 
the  gradients  of  the  various  thoroughfares  under  observation  iu  order  to  see  if  one 
street  was  more  favorable  than  auother. 

Asphalt.—  The  gradients  of  the  asphalt  in  Cheapside  and  the  Poultry  were  excellent; 
there  being  but  a  very  short  length  at  the  western  end  of  Cheapside  which  was  as  .< 
steep  as  1  in  58. 

Granite.—  The  gradients  in  King  William  street  were  for  the  most  part  excellent. 
In  Cannon  street  there  were  326  feet  lineal,  or  about  40  per  cent,  of  its  length,  of 
which  the  gradients  varied  from  1  in  30  to  1  in  31.  Taking  both  granite  pavements, 
this  indifferent  gradient  was  22  per  cent,  of  their  entire  length. 

Wood. — On  the  wood  pavements  the  gradients  south  of  Arthur  street  were  excellent. 
In  the  vicinity  of  King  William  statue  there  were  various  lengths,  amouutingto  12 
per  cent,  of  the  total  length  of  the  wood,  which  had  gradients  of  from  1  in  30  to  1  in 
37.  Moreover,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  statue,  where  the  direct  gradients  were  the  worst, 
the  pavement  at  several  places  had  transverse  slopes,  varying  from  1  in  20  to  1  in  38. 
Nearly  the  entire  surface  between  Eastcheap  and  ashort  distance  south  of  the  statue 
had  objectionable  cross  gradients. 

From  what  has  been  stated  as  to  the  effect  of  gradient,  it  was  not  to  be  expected 
that  accidents  would  be  traceable  to  gradients  less  steep  than  1  in  60.  The  observa- 
tions do  not  show  that  accidents  increased  in  regular  proportion  as  the  gradients  be- 
came sharp,  whether  above  or  below  1  in  60  ;  but  they  indicate  that  when  the  gra- 
dients were  from  1  in  30  to  1  in  50  a  larger  proportion  of  accidents  occurred  both  upon 
the  granite  and  wood  than  elsewhere  on  the  same  lines  where  the  gradients  were 
better. 

Thus  the  mean  of  the  50  days' observations  showed  that  a  horse  might  be  expected 
to  travel  103  miles  before  falling  on  the  western  end  of  Cannon  street,  where  the  gra» 
dients  were  1  in  30  and  1  in  31,  assuming  it  to  have  traveled  both  uphill  and  down* 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  311 

bill;  -whilst  eastward  in  the  same  street, where  the  gradients  varied  from  1  in  61  to 
1  in  841,  it  might  be  expected  to  travel  187  miles  before  it  fell.  The  mean  of  all  the 
granite  pavements  gave  a  distance  of  132  miles  before  an  accident  happened  to  a 
horse. 

It  was  shown  that  in  Cannon  street  accidents  on  the  inferior  gradients  oftenor  oc- 
curred to  horses  going  uphill  than  to  those  going  downhill. 

The  observations,  it  is  true,  show  an  excess  of  accidents  on  the  granite  at  some  parts 
where  the  gradients  were  better  than  those  just  referred  to  ;  as,  for  example,  at  the 
western  end  of  King  William  street,  by  the  church  of  St.  Mary  Woolnotk,  which  had 
a  gradient  of  1  in  54 ;  but  there  the  excess  was  probably  attributable  to  the  state  of 
repair  of  the  surface,  in  conjunction  with  the  speed  of  travel  in  that  thoroughfare, 
and  also  to  its  immediate  proximity  to  the  asphalt. 

On  the  wood  pavement  in  the  vicinity  of  the  statue,  where  the  gradients  were  1 
in  30  and  I  in  37,  and  where  the  objectionable  cross  gradients  existed,  the  records  are 
mixed  with  those  referring  to  adjoining  lengths  of  roadway  having  gradients  of  from 
1  in  30  to  1  in  260  ;  but  the  average  of  the  whole  shows  that  a  horse  might  be  expected 
to  travel  in  that  neighborhood  244  miles  before  it  fell,  whereas  on  that  part  of  the 
pavement  which  lies  between  the  statue  and  London  bridge,  on  which  the  worst 
gradient  was  1  iu  56,  the  distance  which  a  horse  might  be  expected  to  travel  was  784 
miles. 

The  accidents  on  tho  Ligno-Mineral  pavement  in  Gracechurch  street  were  at  the 
rate  of  1  iu  58  miles.  There  the  gradient  was  1  in  49.  If  any  accidents  may  have 
been  attributable  to  this  gradient,  it  can  not  alone  account  for  the  large  number  oc- 
curring at  this  spot. 

The  asphalt  pavement  was,  therefore,  as  regards  gradients,  more  favored  than  the 
others.  The  next  in  order  was  the  granite.  The  wood  pavement  was,  on  the  whole, 
the  least  favored. 

EFFECT  OF  CONDITION  OF  SURFACE  REPAIR. 

The  state  of  repair  of  the  surface  of  a  pavement  affects  its  safety.  For  instance, 
more  horses  may  be  expected  to  fall  on  a  granite  pavement  that  has  many  sunken 
places,  and  the  general  surface  of  which  is  worn  smooth,  which  is  the  condition  of 
nearly  all  granite  pavements  when  they  need  relaying,  thau  on  one  which  has  an 
even  surface  and  is  somewhat  rough  to  the  foot,  which  is  the  condition  of  a  new 
granite  pavement. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  surfaces  of  both  the  asphalt  and  the  wood  were 
in  excellent  condition,  and  that  those  of  the  granite  were  not.  Cannon  street  was 
not,  however,  in  such  a  state  as  to  lead  to  the  belief  that  the  accidents  taking  place 
in  it  were  materially  attributable  to  the  state  of  repair ;  but  the  pavement  in  King 
William  street  being  under  order  to  be  renewed,  was  undoubtedly  in  such  a  state  as 
may  have  caused  some,  for  neither  the  traffic  nor  the  gradient  can  have  caused  the 
excess  of  accidents  that  occurred  in  that  portion  of  the  street  where  the  pavement 
was  iu  the  worst  condition. 

Had  tho  wood  pavements  been  in  an  indifferent  condition  of  surface  repair  more 
accidents  would  probably  have  taken  place  on  them  than  actually  occurred  during 
the  50  days'  observations. 

As  regards  asphalt  the  case  is  somewhat  different.  Asphalt  is  not  likely  at  any- 
time so  to  vary  in  condition  as  to  increase  materially  tho  number  of  accidents  faking 
place  on  it.  If  holes  show  themselves  of  any  size  or  depth  in  this  material,  and  they 
be  not  speedily  repaired,  they  are  quickly  enlarged  by  the  traffic,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  pavement  at  those  spots  soon  follows.  It  will  bo  absolutely  necessary  to 
keep  nt:  ail  times  the  surface  of  the  asphalt  comparatively  smooth,  and  therefore  the 
number  ftf  accidents  taking  place  on  it  is  not  likely  to  be  increased  by  condition  of 
surface  repair. 


312  STREETS    AND   HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

In  comparing  the  results  of  the  observations  for  general  application,  it  must  then 
be  borne  in  mind  that  in  respect  of  surface  repair  the  aspbalt  and  the  wood  were 
more  advantageously  placed  than  the  granite. 

EFFECT  OF  SURFACE  CLEANLINESS. 

The  thoroughfares  of  the  city  of  London  are  now,  speaking  generally,  perhaps  as 
clean  as  streets  of  so  much  traffic  can  be  kept,  except  by  washing  them  daily.  Cleau- 
liness  has  a  very  important  influeuce  on  the  slipperiness  of  all  pavements.  Its  effect, 
however,  differs  materially,  in  some  cases  being  favorable,  in  other  cases  unfavorable 
to  foothold,  this  quality  depending  largely  on  the  moisture  of  the  surface.  A  de- 
scription of  the  way  in  which  the  streets  were  cleansed  during  the  observations  has 
been  given  in  a  previous  part  of  the  report. 

As  an  example:  For  safety  asphalt  generally  can  not  be  too  clean,  but  a  granite 
pavement  when  very  clean  may,  under  certain  atmospheric  conditions,  be  much  more 
slippery  than  when  dirty.  If  clean  there  are  occasions  when  the  iron  from  the 
horses'  shoes  and  from  the  tires  of  the  wheels  is  cauglit  by  the  surface  of  the  stones, 
which  then  acquires  a  metallic  appearance ;  the  pavement  is  then  most  slippery.  If 
it  be  not  clean  the  dust  or  dirt  interposes  as  a  medium  between  the  surface  and  the 
horses'  feet,  and  the  slipperiness  is  in  a  certain  degree  prevented. 

A  similar  metallic  appearance  may  be  noticed  on  asphalt  in  very  dry  and  cold 
weather  if  the  roadway  be  kept  clean,  and  it  is  observable  especially  at  night.  Bnt 
this  condition  does  not  appear  materially  to  affect  the  slipperiness  of  the  asphalt,  or 
certainly  not  nearly  in  the  same  degree  that  it  does  granite. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  granite  be  dirty  and  the  dirt  be  slightly  damp,  it  is  more  slip- 
pery than  when  clean  and  slightly  damp.  Asphalt  is  similarly  affected,  bnt  in  a  very 
much  worse  degree. 

The  safety  of  wood  is  little  affected,  whether  it  be  clean  or  not,  so  long  as  the  sur- 
face is  dry.  If  dirty,  wood  becomes  just  after  rain  much  more  slippery  than  at  any 
other  time,  which  is  not  the  case  if  it  be  perfectly  clean. 

These  remarks  on  surface  cleanliness  are  made  because  many  of  the  accidents  oc- 
curring on  the  granite  pavement  during  the  50  days'  observations  would  certainly 
not  have  taken  place  had  the  pavement  not  been  kept  so  xslean.  Similar  cleanliness 
was  beneficial  to  the  other  pavements.  On  the  whole,  the  cleanliness  under  the  cir- 
cumstances to  be  narrated  in  the  section  which  treats  of  the  effect  of  weather  on 
the  surface,  will  be  seen  to  have  placed  the  granite  at  a  disadvantage  compared  with 
the  other  pavements. 

THE  EFFECT  OF  WEATHER  ON  THE  SURFACE. 

The  surfaces  of  all  pavements  are  largely  affected  by  the  weather.  A  cold  dry 
wind,  a  hot  sun,  a  heavy  or  a  light  rain,  a  thick  fog,  or  even  a  very  moist  atmosphere, 
causes  them  to  be  more  or  less  slippery,  according  to  the  character  of  the  pavement, 
and  other  conditions.  Moisture  plays  a  very  important  part  in  the  safety  of  traveling. 
For  example:  During  a  continuation  of  a  cold,  dry  wind,  with  a  somewhat  hot  snn 
1  (an  atmospheric  condition  prevailing  largely  in  the  spring),  neither  asphalt  nor  wood 
is  slippery,  whilst  granite,  if  it  be  worn  smooth,  which  is  its  ordinary  couditiou  in 
London,  and  if  it  be  clean,  is  in  its  very  worst  state  of  slipperiness.  If  light  rains 
ensue  the  slipperiness  of  the  granite  is  much  reduced  ;  the  wood  will  then  enter  into 
its  most  slippery  state,  but  for  a  short  time  only ;  as  the  mud  soon  begins  to  peel 
from  the  surface,  whilst  the  asphalt  becomes  for  a  time  almost  as  slippery  as  a  pave- 
ment can  be,  times  of  frost  or  snow  excepted,  aud  continues  so  until  the  mud  be- 
comes nearly  liquid.  If  the  rain  falls  heavily  the  granite  becomes  in  its  safest  con- 
dition; the  asphalt  much  safer  than  when  merely  damp ;  and  the  wood  approaches 
in  safety  its  condition  when  actually  dry. 

Again,  as  soon  as  fine  weather  comes  after  much  rain,  the  street  dirt  clings  to  the 
surface  of  the  wood  on  account  of  that  material  retaining  moisture ;  but  the  wood 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  313 

does  uot  always  become  slippery  whilst  this  process  is  going  on.  The  mud  in  the 
joints  of  the  grauite  retains  its  moisture  for  a  long  time  if  the  atmosphere  be  damp, 
aud  canses  tbat  pavement  for  a  certain  time  to  bo  more  slippery  thau  when  wet. 
Aflphalt,  which  from  its  impermeability  soon  dries,  enters  again  quickly  iuto  its 
safest  state,  but  not  until  it  has  passed  through  an  intermediate  stage  between  wet- 
ness aud  dryness,  during  which  it  is  quite  as  slippery  as  when  rain  first  falls  ou  it 
after  drought;  unless,  indeed,  the  rain  has  fallen  heavily  and  washed  it  perfectly 
cleau. 

It  must  therefore  be  understood  that  these  conditions  of  slipperiness  are  subjected 
fc<>  manifold  changes,  accordiug  to  the  condition  of  the  weather  aud  the  state  of 
cleanliness  of  the  surfaco  of  the  pavement. 

With  a  view  of  ascertaining  how  the  u  umber  of  accidents  was  affected  by  the 
moisture  on  the  surface,  observations  on  that  head  were  recorded  throughout  the 
day  and  also  each  time  an  accident  occurred.  Owing  to  the  many  gradations  be- 
tween positive  dryness  and  positive  wetness,  and  the  condition  of  each  surface  vary- 
ing many  times  during  the  day,  uniformity  of  description  was  not  obtained  in  the 
records.  Nevertheless  the  records  admit  of  the  accidents  being  arranged  generally 
under  certain  classes  of  surface  mo  isture,  and  of  some  general  approximate  results 
being  arrived  at. 

It  is  then  of  importance  in  judging  of  the  relative  safety  of  the  different  pavements 
to  give  consideration  to  the  state  of  the  weather  whilst  the  observations  were  in 
hand,  in  order  to  see  whether  it  was  such  as  was  likely  to  be  more  favorable  to  one 
pavement  than  another.  Indeed,  without  full  consideration  of  this  point  all  conclu- 
sions as  to  the  relative  safety  of  the  pavements  would  bo  fallacious  ;  the  subject  of 
the  weather  will,  therefore,  be  treated  more  fully  than  it  has  yet  been. 

As  regards  wind,  its  direction  frequently  shifts  for  short  periods  during  the  24 
hours;  and  there  are,  therefore,  various  directions  recorded  during  one  day.  This 
was  the  case  during  the  period  of  the  observations  of  accidents,  as  will  be  seen  by 
Table  E.  Examination  shows  that  the  wind  was  either  from  the  east,  northeast,  or 
southeast  during  a  large  proportion  of  the  time;  being  in  fact,  in  those  directious  on  38 
days  out  of  50,  or  76  per  cent,  of  the  whole. 

Duriug  the  50  days'  observations  there  was,  according  to  the  registrar-general's 
returus,  about  18  per  cent,  less  than  the  usual  proportion  of  rainy  days,  taking  the 
average  of  the  year,  and  about  14  per  cent,  less  than  the  average  during  the  same 
months.  The  police  returns  of  the  number  of  wet  days  is  still  less,  inasmuch  as  they 
only  recorded  the  rain  when  it  fell  during  the  12  hours'  observations,  but  what  is 
even  more  important  is  that  the  quantity  of  rain  was  very  noticeably  less,  inasmuch 
as  it  was  but  about  53  per  cent.,  or  little  more  than  one-half  of  that  which  usually 
falls  in  the  same  time  at  that  season  of  the  year.  Moreover,  a  considerable  portion 
of  it  fell  during  the  night  when  the  observations  of  accidents  were  discontinued.  It 
must  above  all  be  noticed  that  there  was  an  almost  entire  absence  of  days  in  which 
rain  fell  at  intervals  iu  small  quantities,  or  drizzling,  although  such  days  are  very 
frequent  in  London  during  the  year. 

As  regards  temperature,  it  wp,s  a  trifle  lower  than  the  average  of  years,  and  the 
atmosphere  was  on  but  few  occasions  much  charged  with  moisture.  The  weather 
was  in  fact,  in  its  main  features,  quantity  of  rain  excepted,  that  which  usually  occurs 
in  London  iu  the  spring,  when  dry  winds  are  accompanied  by  a  warm  sun,  owing 
to  which  moisture  soon  passes  away  from  street  surfaces. 

The  weather,  therefore,  on  the  whole  was  very  favorable  to  asphalt,  there  having 
been  a  great  absence  of  that  weather  which  creates  a  damp  surface  and  causes  that 
material  to  be  in  its  most  slippery  state,  aud  was  very  unfavorable  to  granite,  inas, 
much  as  that  material,  if  clean,  during  dry,  cold  winds  is  in  its  most  slippery  condi- 
tion. As  regards  wood,  the  absence  of  rain  was  decidedly  favorable  to  it,  although 
moisture  does  not  appear  to  render  that  material  relatively  so  slippery  or  to  play  so 
important  a  part  as  regards  safety  as  it  does  with  asphalt  and  granite. 

Table  E  in  the  appendix  shows  the  accidents  which  took  place  under  different 
conditioua  of  surface  moisture.    The  general  results  are  : 


314 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Mean  of  the  50  days'  observations,  including  all  those  conditions  of  ivtather  and  surface 
moisture  which  occurred  during  that  time. 


Granite— King  William  street  and  Cannon  street  .... 

Asphalt-  Cheapside  and  Poultry 

Wood— King  William  street  and  Gracechurch  street 


Distance 
traveled 
before  a 
horse  fell. 


These  results  have  been  given  before,  but  are  repeated  here  for  facility  of  refer- 
ence. 

Separating  the  accidents  under  three  heads,  namely,  those  which  occurred  when 
the  pavements  were  dry,  those  which  occurred  when  they  were  merely  damp,  as 
during  very  slight  rain  and  after  rain  had  ceased,  and  after  the  streets  had  been 
watered,  and  those  which  took  place  either  when  rain  was  falling  or  whilst  the  sur- 
faces were  wet,  the  following  results  were  obtained  : 

Table  showing  the  comparative  slipperiness  of  the  various  pavements  under  three  differ- 
ent conditions  of  surface  moisture. 


Situation. 


Days  when  surface  of  pavements  was  generally  dry : 

King  William  street,  and  Cannon  street 

Cheapside  and  Poultry 

King  William  street  and  Gracechurch  street 

Days  when  the  surface  of  the  pavements  was  damp  in  different  degrees 
'  Cheapside  and  Poultry 

King  William  street  and  Cannon  street 

King  William  street  and  Gracechurch  street 

Days  when  the  surface  of  pavements  was  wet : 

Cheapside  and  Poultry 

King  William  street  and  Gracechurch  street 

King  William  streetand  Cannon  street 


Description  of 
pavement 


Granite. 
Asphalt 

Wood  .. 

Asphalt 
Granite. 
Wood  .. 

Asphalt 
Wood  .. 
Granite. 


73 
223 
646 

125 
168 

193 


The  following  table  groups  the  results  in  a  different  order : 

Table  showing  the  degree  of  slipperiness  of  each  pavement  under  three  conditions  of  sur- 
face moisture,  beginning  in  each  case  ivith  that  condition  under  which  the  pavement 
was  the  most  slippery. 


Asphalt : 

1st.  When  pavement  was  damp  in  different  degrees 

2d.  When  pavement  was  wet , 

3d.  When  pavement  was  dry 

Granite: 

1st.  When  pavement  was  dry 

2d.  When  pavement  was  damp  in  different  degrees 
3d.  When  pavement  was  wet 

Wood: 

1st.  When  pavement  was  damp  in  different  degrees 

2d.  When  pavement  was  wet 

3d.  When  pavement  was  dry 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM. 


315 


Tbe  following  table  groups  tbe  results  in  anotber  order: 

Table  showing  the  slipper  in  ess  of  all  the  pavements  tinder  various  conditions  of  surface 
moisture  which  occurred  during  the  50  days'  observations,  beginning  with  the  most 
slippery. 


Description 
of  pave- 
ment 


Distance 
traveled 

be  ore  a 
horse  fell. 


Condition  of  sur- 
face as  regards 
moisture. 


King  "William  street  and  Cannon  street 

Cheapside  and  Poultry.. 

King  William  street  and  Cannon  street 

Cheapside  and  Poultry 

King  William  street  and  Gracechurch  street 

Cheapside  and  Poultry 

King  William  street  and  Gracechnrch  street 

King  William  street  and  Cannon  street 

King  William  street  and  Gracechurch  street 


Granite. 
Asphalt 
Granite. 
Asphalt 
Wood... 
Asphalt 
Wood... 
Granite. 
Wood... 


Miles. 
78 
125 
1(18 
192 
193 
223 
432 
537 


Pavement  dry. 
Pavement  damp. 

Do. 
Pavement  wet. 
Pavement  damp. 
Pavement  dry. 
Pavement  wet. 

Do. 
Pavement  dry. 


From  tbe  foregoing  summaries  it  appears — 

Tbat  aspbaib  was  most  slippery  wben  merely  damp,  and  safest  wben  perfectly  dry; 
tbat  a  horse  might  be  expected  to  travel  on  the  asphalt  without  an  accident  nearly 
twice  the  distance  when  the  pavement  was  dry  that  it  could  do  when  damp,  and  that 
the  difference  between  the  safety  of  asphalt  when  wet  and  dry  was  not  considerable. 

That  granite  was  most  slippery  when  dry,  and  safest  when  wet;  that  a  horse 
might  bo  expected  to  travel  on  granite  without  accident  nearly  seven  times  the  dis- 
tance when  the  pavement  was  wet  than  when  dry,  and  that  the  granite  was  about 
twice  as  safe  when  merely  damp  as  when  dry. 

That  wood  was  most  slippery  when  damp,  and  safest  when  dry  ;  that  a  horse  might 
be  expected  to  travel  on  the  wood  more  than  three  times  the  distance  when  the  pave- 
ment was  dry  than  when  damp,  and  that  the  wood  was  more  than  twice  as  safe  when 
wet  as  when  damp. 

Here  it  will  be  convenient  to  show  the  difference  between  the  slipperiness  of  the 
two  wood  pavements  under  observation 

About  1,394  feet  lineal,  or  94  per  cent,  of  the  entire  length  of  the  wood,  was  that  of 
the  improved  wood  pavement.  The  remaining  87  feet  lineal,  or  6  per  cent,  of  the 
whole,  was  the  ligno-miueral  pavement. 

It  will  be  seen  that  altogether  380  horses  fell  on  the  improved  wood  pavement,  and 
162  on  the  ligno-mineral  pavement.  Dealing  with  these  figures  in  the  same  manner 
as  before,  we  find  that  a  horse  might  be  expected  to  travel  before  it  met  with  an  ac- 
cident 44(3  miles  on  the  improved  wood  pavement,  and  58  miles  on  the  ligno-miueral 
pavement.  In  other  words,  the  improved  wood  was  nearly  eight  times  safer  than 
the  lio-no-mineral  under  such  conditions  of  weather  and  traffic  as  took  place  during 
the  50  days'  observations. 

The  ligno-miueral  pavement  had  a  gradient  of  1  in  49,  which  was  certainly  not  so 
good  as  a  considerable  length  of  the  other  pavement,  but  the  improved  wood  had  267 
feet  in  length  with  gradients  varying  from  1  in  30  to  1  in  37,  which  are  very  much 
worse  for  traction  than  1  in  49.  In  addition  to  this,  it  had  the  disadvantage  of  tho 
bad  cross  gradients,  and  it  is  evident,  therefore,  that  gradient  can  not  account  for 
the  large  proportion  of  falls  which  occurred  on  the  ligno-miueral  pavement. 

The  tratfic  on  both  of  the  pavements  was  much  the  same  in  character,  and  passed 
at  about  the  same  speed  j  and  as  the  surfaces  of  both  were  in  very  nearly  equally 
good  repair,  one  was  not  more,  disadvantageous^  placed  than  tho  other  in  these 
respects.  '  » 

Many  omnibuses  turn  round  on  tbe  ligno-mineral  pavement  to  take  up  their  station 
ob  the  eastern  side  of  Gracechnrch  a  reet,  and  it  was  at  first  imagined  that  accidents 
might  have  been -attributable  to  that  cause.  On  looking  into  tho  matter,  it  was 
found  that  the  omnibuses  were  for  tho  most  part  empty,  or  nearly  so,  aud  that  they 


316  STREETS    AND   HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

turned  rouud  slowly,  so  that  accidents  did  not  occur  to  their  horses  in  any  larger  pro- 
portion than  to  the  other  traffic.  Even  if  some  accidents  -were  caused  hy  this,  they 
wouM  not  account  for  the  excess. 

It  is  important  to  separate  these  accidents.  If  those  which  occurred  on  the  ligno- 
mineral  are  eliminated,  and  those  which  occurred  on  the  improved  wood  are  alone 
used  for  comparison  with  the  asphalt  and  granite,  it  will  be  seen  (as  shown  in  Table 
F  in  the  appendix)  that  a  horse  might  have  been  expected  to  travel  during  the  50 
days'  observations  44G  miles  on  the  improved  wood  pavement  before  it  met  with  an 
accident,  instead  of  330  miles  as  shown  by  the  summaries,  in  which  both  woods  are 
taken  together,  and  that  the  order  of  slipperiness  would  therofore  be — 

Miles. 

1.  Granite 132 

2.  Asphalt 191 

3.  Wood 446 

CONCLUDING   REMARKS. 

A  consideration  of  those  sections  of  the  report  in  which  the  pavements  are  referred 
to  under  the  various  conditions  that  affect  their  slipperiness  shows  how  wrong  it 
would  be  to  take  the  first  broad  results  of  the  observations  as  au  exact  measure  of 
the  relative  safety  of  the  pavements  at  all  times  and  seasons.  It  would  not,  how- 
ever, be  possible  to  substitute  for  the  results  now  placed  before  the  commission  any- 
thing in  a  similarly  exact  shape,  unless  observations  were  taken  over  the  three  classes 
of  pavements  in  other  seasons  of  the  year.  All  that  now  can  be  done  is  to- take  the 
figures  given  by  the  50  days'  observations,  and  after  studying  them  by  the  side  of 
those  modifying  circumstances  which  have  been  set  forth  in  the  various  sections  of 
the  report,  to  draw  such  general  conclusions  as  may  seem  to  be  warranted. 

The  first  thing,  therefore,  is  to  consider  the  effect  of  those  conditions  in  which  one 
pavement  was  more  favorably  placed  than  the  others.  Conclusions  ou  these  points 
have  been  given  in  the  sections  in  which  they  have  been  separately  treated  of,  and 
taking  them  in  the  order  of  the  report  their  general  results  are  as  follows  : 

As  regards  the  effect  of  the  speed  of  traffic,  the  wood  and  asphalt  were  as  nearly  as 
possible  under  similar  conditions.  The  granite,  having  at  one  place  a  higher  speed, 
and  the  pavement  there  not  being  in  so  good  condition  as  the  others,  was  placed  in 
less  favorable  circumstances. 

As  regards  gradient,  the  asphalt  was  the  most  favorably  placed,  the  granite  the 
next  so,  and  the  wood  the  least. 

As  regards  surface  repair,  the  asphalt  and  the  wood  were  in  equally  good  condi- 
tion, while  the  granite  was  in  a  very  inferior  condition. 

As  regards  cleanliness  of  surface,  all  three  pavemeuts  were  equal  so  far  as  the  mate- 
rials of  which  they  were  composed  enabled  them  to  be. 

As  regards  weather,  it  was  very  much  in  favor  of  the  asphalt,  was  generally  favor- 
able to  the  wood,  and  was  very  unfavorable  to  the  granite. 

Taking  the  whole  group  of  conditions  into  account,  the  asphalt  was  the  most  ad; 
vantageously  placed,  the  wood  was  the  next  so,  and  the  granite  was  the  worst  placed. 

On  the  average  of  the  whole  50  days'  observations  the  granite  was  found  to  be  the 
most  slippery,  the  asphalt  the  next  so,  and  the  wood  the  least. 

Separating  the  accidents  under  three  conditions  of  surface  as  regards  moisture,  it 
appears : 

That  asphalt  was  most  slippery  when  merely  damp  and  safest  when  dry. 

That  granite  was  most  slippery  when  dry  and  safest  when  wet. 

That  wood  was  most  slippery  when  damp  and  safest  when  dry. 

That  when  the  surface  of  the  pavements  was  generally  dry  granite  was  the  most 
slippery  and  wood  the  least  slippery. 

That  when  the  surface  o£  the  pavemeuts  was  damp  in  different  degrees  asphalt 
was  the  most  slippery  and  wood  the  least  slippery. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  317 

That,  when  the  surface  of  the  pavements  was  wot  asphalt  was  the  most  slippery 
and  granite  the  least  slippery. 

That  on  the  whole  wood  was  less  slippery  than  either  asphalt  or  granite. 

That  if  the  observations  on  the  ligno-mineral  paving  be  eliminated,  and  the  im- 
proved wood  pavement  alone  taken  for  comparison,  wood  was  on  the  whole  less  slip- 
pery than  either  asphalt  or  granite  in  a  marked  degree,  it  only  being  inferior  to 
granite  when  the  pavements  were  wet,  and  the  difference  then  between  the  wood 
and  the  granite  being  inconsiderable. 

That  of  those  accidents  which  are  most  obstructive  to  the  traffic  as  well  as  most 
injurious  to  the  horses,  asphalt  had  the  greatest  proportion,  granite  the  next,  and 
wood  the  least. 

That  the  greatest  proportion  of  accidents  on  all  the  pavements  was  to  horses  in 
vehicles  drawn  by  three  or  more  horses. 

That  had  the  granite  been  under  as  favorable  conditions  as  the  asphalt  and  the 
wood  the  results  would  have  been  more  in  favor  of  the  grauite,  although  to  what 
extent  can  not  be  stated. 

Finally,  I  beg  to  state  that  it  would  be  desirable  to  make  observations  at  a  differ 
ent  season  of  the  year  to  that  in  which  those  heroin  recorded  were  taken. 
I  have  the  honor  to  remain,  gentlemen,  your  most  obedient  servant, 

William  Haywood, 
-Engineer  and  Surveyor. 


ASPHALT  PAVEMENTS  IN  LONDON. 

Sewer  Office, 
Guildhall,  April  18,  1873. 
To  the  streets  committee  of  the  honorable  the  commissioners  of  sewers  of  the  city  of  London  : 

Gentlemen'  :  In  pursuance  of  your  instructions  I  have  carefully  inspected  the 
whole  of  the  asphalt  pavements  which  have  been  laid  within  the  city  of  London,  and 
beg  to  lay  before  you  my  report  upon  their  present  condition. 

I  have  put  my  report  in  the  shape  of  a  table,  which  gives  the  dates  when  the  pave- 
ments were  laid,  their  area,  first  cost,  the  traffic  which  passes  over  them,  and  other 
particulars  which  may  be  found  useful  in  considering  questions  relating  to  asphalt 
pavings  generally. 

Portions  of  some  of  the  pavements  have  been  cut  out  under  my  direction,  in  order 
to  ascertain  whether  they  had  lost  materially  in  thickness.  In  nearly  all  cases  a 
slight  diminution  in  thickness  was  found  to  have  taken  place,  and  in  one  instance  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  lead  to  the  inference  that  it  could  not  have  been  properly  com- 
pressed when  laid,  or  that  it  was  not  laid  of  the  depth  intended  ;  ir  one  or  two  in- 
stances, on  the  contrary,  the  thickness  was  found  to  be  the  same  or  even  greater  than 
that  at  which  they  were  nominally  laid.  Taking,  however,  into  account  the  position 
in  which  the  various  openings  were  made  for  examination,  and  the  circumstauces 
which  affect  the  consideration,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  asphalts  have  somewhat 
diminished  in  thickness  under  the  wear  of  the  traffic,  but  owing  to  inequalities  when 
they  were  first  laid,  and  to  the  compression  which  takes  place  in  all  those  laid  in  the 
shape  of  heated  powder,  it  would  be  difficult  to  ascertain  the  exact  loss  without  mak- 
ing a  very  large  number  of  openings. 

The  asphalt  companies  upon  application  to  them  have  given  some  account  of  the 
repairs  done  since  the  pavements  were  laid,  but  not  in  such  a  shape  as  it  would  be 
desirable  to  have  it ;  it  is,  however,  I  have  reason  to  believe,  the  best  account  that 
they  can  give. 

Reports  from  the  inspectors  of  pavements  have  also  been  made  to  me,  an  abstract 
of  which  report  is  given  in  the  table,  those  officers  having  long  since  beeu  directed 
by  mo  to  notice  carefully  the  repairs   which   were  made  to  the  pavements;  but  the 


318  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

compauies  beiug  bound  to  maintain  the  pavements  for  a  given  number  of  years,  can 
repair  them  whenever  they  thiuk  needful,  without  consulting  me,  provided  they  do 
not  interfere  with  the  traffic  in  tlieir  operations,  and  as  repairs  arc  generally  per- 
formed at  night,  or  very  early  in  the  morning,  it  is  possible  that  many  may  have 
escaped  the  notice  of  the  inspectors. 

Iu  considering  the  table,  the  following  explanations  should  be  held  in  view : 

Where  a  pavement  is  stated  to  be  in  a  generally  good  condition,  no  account  is 
taken  of  the  transverse  depressions  in  the  compressed  asphalts  or  of  the  lines  of  joint 
in  the  other  asphalts  consequent  upon  the  mode  of  laying  or  forming  the  pavements. 

In  compressed  asphalts  repairs  after  a  time  are  not  readily  noticeable,  whilst  those 
in  mastic  asphalts  are  more  easily  seen. 

Where  "holes"  or  "short  holes"  are  mentioned,  it  must  be  understood  that  the 
asphalts  are  not  worn  down  to  the  concrete  foundation. 

Minute  holes  are  noticeable  in  compressed  asphalts  short  ly  after  they  are  laid, 
which  holes  after  a  time  seem  to  close  up  or  disappear,  whilst  others  open  ;  the  cause 
of  this  (which  is  probably  due  to  foreign  substances)  has  never  been  satisfactorily 
explained,  but  no  account  is  taken  of  these  small  holes  in  my  report  as  to  condition. 

The  larger  holes  upon  compressed  asphalts  are  in  most  cases  depressions  caused  by 
the  traffic"  and  do  not  necessarily  indicate  surface  wear;  in  the  mastic  asphalts,  on 
the  contrary,  they  are  for  the  most  part  the  result  of  disintegration  and  wear  of  the 
surface. 

There  are  now  altogether  twenty-five  streets  or  portions  of  streets  in  the  city  of 
which  the  carriageways  have  been  paved  with  asphalt;  one  of  the   pavements  had 
been  down  3  years  and  9  mouths,  two  for  2  years  aud  2  mouths,  eighteen  under  2 
years,  four  uuder  1  year,  and  5  under  6  months,  at  the  time  of  my  inspection. 
I  have  the  honor  to  remain,  gentlemen,  your  most  obedient  servant, 

William  Haywood, 
Engineer  and  Surveyor. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM. 


319 


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l§2 


a-* 
«0^ 


h 

a  » 


o  a  g 

n 


320 


STREETS    AND   HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Engineer's  report  as  to  present  condi- 
tion and  general  results  of  examination 
into  loss  of   thickness  by  wear  and 
compression. 

In  good  condition. 

Its  nominal  thickness,  when  first  laid, 
was  2£  in.  The  sample  cut  out  aver- 
ages 1$  in.  thick,  and  weighs  16  lbs.  10 
oz.  to  the  square  foot,  or  149  lbs.  10  oz. 
per  superficial  yard.  The  surface  is 
somewhat  worn  at  the  northern  end, 
but  in  fair  condition  generally.  The 
southern  end  has  been  cut  about  and 
damaged  by  alterations  of  gullies  and 
pavements  consequent  upon  widening 
the  street. 

Surface  generally  in  good  condition. 

[There  are  numerous  small  holes  at  the 
southern  end,  especially  near  to  Feu- 
church  street;  numerous  depressions 
toward  the  northern  end  near  to  Corn- 

Ihill,  where  the  street  is  narrow.    The 
surlace  generally  is  in  good  condition, 
but  is  not  so  even  or  good  as  some 
other  of  the  pavements  of  this  com- 
pany. 
There  are  small  holes  over  the  surface  of 
this  pavement,  but  it  is  generally  in 
good  condition. 

in.    The  sample  cut  out  averages   ljg 
in.  thick,  and  weighs  21  lbs.  0J  oz.  per 
square  foot,  or  189  lbs.  4J  oz.  per  super- 
ficial yard.   There  are  but  few    small 
holes  in  this  pavement,  and  the  surface 
is  in  a  very  good  condition. 
There  is  wear  in  the  channels  through- 
out the    street,  and  a  few  small  holes, 
but  it  is  otherwise  in  good  condition. 

.    ,  i    . 

££■55 
jo  0  ft-3 

ocS.5'* 
bS-=S 

Repaired  in  one 
or  two  places 
during  yoar. 

None  of  any 
consequence. 

None 

Frequently 
repaired       at 
south  end. 

Trifling  repairs. 

| 

0 

i 

Returns  sup- 
plied by  com- 
panies as  tore- 
pairs  done  since 
pavement  was 
laid. 

s 

= 

1 

« 

i 

("Total  cost  of] 
'.     repairs 

over  whole 
J     surf  a  co.  ! 
)      2Jd.    perl 
1      square 

v  ard    i  n 
[     1872.            J 

1 

c 

■ 

1 

Time 
down,  to 
March  1, 

1873. 

jaS         0         •                             0                t-                «o         <o                        ia 

fl  ft 
■Rfl 

eS  0 
Hi  « 

Mar.  22, 1871 
Apr.  27, 1871 

May  2,  1871 

July  22, 1871 

Aug.  18, 1871 
...In 

"1 

i 

First  cost 
of  pave- 
ment in- 
cluding 
founda- 
tion, per 
yard  su- 
perficial. 

8.    d. 
16    0 

16    0 

16  0 

17  0 

16    0 
16    0 

16    0 

£ 

■4| 

Sup.  yds. 

80 
799 

402 

2659 

3861 
1028 

1493 

Total 

car- 
riage 
traffic 
from  8 
a.m.  to 
8  p.m. 

0          ci                                            0                a  tf*                 co          0                           00 

C)                                                                  OOOOCOO                                        Q> 
CM                                                                  CM                        ■*  •*                         O               tO 

1 

0 

April  1, 1873 
Feb.  7,1872 

Feb.  6,1872 

Apr.  3,1873 
....do  

Mar.  3,1873 
...do 

ft 
< 

1 

ft 

i 

£•« 
§1    1 

2^  i 

"a       c 

*      ft 

c 
J 

c 

f                            c 

Gracechurch  street: 

By  St.  Peter's  alley 

By  Ship  Tavern  passage. 

Finsbury       pavement     and 
Moorgate. 

* 

2 

EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM. 


321 


ill  I 


JMs.2  !«« •! 

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SJ5-* 


H  s  s  9 


33a- 


-21 


322 


STREETS    AND   HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Engineer's  report  as  to  present  condition 
and   general   results   of  examination 
into  loss  of  thickness  by  wear  and 
compression. 

Wear  in  the  channels  next  the  Mansion 
House,  and  generally  on  the  surface 
opposite  to  that  building.    The  surface 
is  otherwise  in  good  condition.    This 
pavement  has    been    added  to  once, 
owing  to  widening  the  street. 

In  good  v  uudition. 

Do. 

Small  depressions  over  the  surface,  but 

it  is  generally  in  good  condition. 
Nominal    thickness    when  laid  was  21 

inches.  Of  two  samples  taken  recently, 
thethicknesses  varied  from  IJ  to  2  in., 
a  square  foot  weighing  15  lbs.  Joz.,  or 
135  lbs.  44  oz.  per  superficial  yard.   The 
pavement  is  in  good  condition. 
Its  nominal  thickness  when  laid  was  _2J 
in.   and  its  present  thickness  varies 
from  2i  to  2f  in.,  a  square  foot  weigh- 
ins  25  lbs.  12  oz.,  or  231  lbs.  12  oz.  per 
superficial  yard.    The  surface  is  unus- 
ually wavy,  owing  probably  to  want  of 
skill  in  laying  it,  but  it  is  generally  in 
good  condition. 

•    .  4j 
©  ©  k"S 

t,*'  ©  oo 

o.si 

pi 

£ 

p. 
© 

«  © 

55                               £ 

....do 

No  repairs  done. 

i     ■ 

Eeturns  sup- 
plied by  compa- 
nies as  to  re- 
pairs done  since 
pavement  was 
laid. 

Total  c  o  s  t  o  f 
repairs  over 
whole    sur- 
face, id.  per 
square  yard. 

1  £ 

c 

F 

1 

o 
■9 

aba 

§5o                         m     oi                     jh                 to                     t- 
<* 

*  © 

F-g 

a  P< 

II 

i-3  u 

June  21, 1872 

Nov.  16, 1872 
Dec.  22, 1872 

Apr.    1,1871 
Aug.  14, 1872 

July  18,1872 

First  cost 
of  pave- 
ment, in- 
cluding 
founda- 
tion, per 
yard  su- 
ficial. 

•«0                           3?     3?                      o                   ©                       e» 

«s            ss          s        a          s 

t 

«1 

5iO                                        CO         CO                                  03                            CO                                  CO 

Total 
car- 
riage 
traffic 
from  8 
a.  m.  to 
8  p.m. 

13767 

5.C28 
5,628 

58 
5,628 

5,628 

© 

§ 
P 

« 

Feb.  15,1872 
....do 

Apr.    7,1873 
Feb.  15,1872 

....do 

I 
5 

i 

© 

"Is   * 

■H  i 

I J 

5*  1 

j 
a 

m 
8 
•a 

phalt. 
In   place  of  the  patent 
British  asphalt. 

Val  de  Travers  asphalt  (mas- 
tic). 

:    S 
8 

•      a   . 

i  If 
i  III 

>  3      [ 

3                  P 

Sociite  Francaise  des  asphaltes 
(compressed). 

Princes  street 

EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM. 


323 


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5  E 
o  o* 


-2  2  =  ~ 

-  s  m  £ 

.2  a  a  a 

3   C  —  g 


,J3    »   fc.    £ 


a„'5  > 
2  a  °  "3  - 


.§■£2*3-3 

h  «  ri  a   ■ 


s  s.2  -■?,  -fa  =-9  §  SfiSlSn.9w      ss-i~=. ~         »c5S 


*  a 
3p|'C 

§StS 


a  rt  ^  n  si  i  s' 


3? 


-H         O 


* a « a 

1    i  I  ill 

a       ;  •  .  =,       . 

\i  1  iff 

is  *  I     :  * 


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324 


STREETS    AND   HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Engineer's  report  as  to  present  condition 
and   general   results   of  examination 
into  loss  of  thickness  by   wear  and 
compression. 

There  are  numerous  holes  in  this  pave- 
ment and  many  indications   of  either 
looseness  of  structure  in  the  material 
itself  or  else  of  wear  of  the  surface,  and 
this  is  principally  in  the  center  of  the 
street.    The  eastern  half  of  this  street 
is  rough  and  in  such  condition  as>  indi- 
cates either  materials  of  inferior  quality 
to  that  in  other  portions  of  the  street, 
or  else  very  bad  laying.    During  nearly 
whole  time  this  pavement  was  in  hand 
the  weather  was  unusually  wet  and  un- 
favorable, and  this  may  in  a  degree  ac- 
count for  its  condition. 

0      8 
P.|  „  "g 

.9  8.3  a 

a 
1 

e 

Eeturns  sup- 
plied by  compa- 
nies as  to  re- 
pairs done  since 
pavement  was 
laid. 

1 

4 

•2f  • 

la 

5§ 

1 

6 

Pirst  cost 
of  pave- 
ment, in- 
cluding 
founda- 
tion, per 
yard  su- 
perficial. 

■8  to 
.0 

i 
3 

■S3 

St.""* 

Total 
car- 
riage 
traffic 
from  8 
a.m.  to 
8  p.m. 

1 

5 

n 

-4 

Name. 

1: 

II    « 

!    , 

j 

) 

II 

| 
n 

Q 

EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM. 


325 


25 


£3 


•9.2^1.-' 


9  3 


sill* 

~  W3g« 


•-•a  £  S-5-3  ° 

Sin  5®>  a  g-3  =  2 


«  s  .5  «  §  S  ft 


5    " 


1     3 
&    3 


i 

§1 

5" 


I  - 

a      Si 

•5  £ 


326  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

WOOD  AND  ASPHALT  PAVEMENTS  IN  LONDON. 


Sewers  Office, 
Guildhall,  March  17,  1874. 
To  the  Honorable  the  Commissioners  of  Sewers  of  the  City  of  London. 

Gentlemen  :  The  reference  to  me  upon  this  subject  is  as  follows: 

"  To  report  fully  as  to  the  relative  advantages  of  wood  and  asphalt  for  paving  pur- 
poses, together  with  the  probable  expense^and  durability  of  each." 

I  beg  iu  the  first  place  to  lay  before  the  commission  some  information  respecting 
the  wood  and  asphalt  carriage-way  pavements  laid  up  to  the  present  time  in  the  city. 

Wood—  Tbe  first  wood  pavement  was  laid  in  the  Old  Bailey  in  1839,  and  was  quickly 
followed  by  many  others;  they  were  of  considerable  variety,  some  being  simple  in 
structure,  others  very  complicated,  and  none  of  them  lasted  more  than  7  years.  Tbe 
streets  were  then  not  cleansed  as  well  as  they  now  are,  which  was  disadvantageous 
to  the  wood,  nor  was  the  mode  of  preserving  the  surface  of  the  wood  well  understood. 
Experience  in  the  cost  of  pavements  was  almost  entirely  confined  to  those  formed  of 
granite,  of  a  superior  quality  to  that  which  now  comes  to  London,  and  of  stones  more 
than  double  the  size  of  those  now  generally  used ;  and  as  the  duration  of  some  of  the 
wood  pavements  was  so  small,  and  their  cost  much  larger  than  granite,  a  prejudice 
appears  to  have  arisen  against  wood,  and  the  pavements  as  they  wore  out  were  for 
tbe  most  part  replaced  with  granite. 

Wood  was,  however,  retaiued  in  Mincing  Lane,  Gracecburch  street,  Cornhill,  Lom- 
bard street,  Bartholomew  Lane,  Lothbury,  and  in  part  of  the  Old  Bailey,  uutil  within 
tbe  last  3  years,  when,  with  tbe  exception  of  that  in  Bartholomew  Lane,  it  was  re- 
placed witb  asphalt. 

Tbe  wood  pavements  more  recently  laid,  and  existing  in  tbe  city  thoroughfares  at 
the  end  of  1873,  witb  other  information  respecting  them,  are  shown  by  the  following 
table : 


Table  No.  1. 


■Table  showing  the  lengths  and  areas  of  the  different  wood  pavements  in 
the  city  of  London  on  December  31,  1873. 


Pavement. 

Length. 

Super- 
ficial 
area. 

Yards. 
131 
701 
27 
171 
2C 

1,059 

Yards. 
946 

9,545 

410 

1,053 

284 

Total    

12, 238 

Asplialt.—  Tbe  first  pavement  was  laid  in  Threadueedle  street  in  May,  1869,  and 
was  formed  of  the  compressed  asphalt  of  the  Val  de  Travers  company.  Cbeapside  and 
the  Poultry  were  laid  with  similar  asphalt  in  the  autumn  of  1870,  and  many  thor- 
oughfares have  since  been  paved  witb  it  and  asphalts  of  other  kinds.  Those  in  the 
city  thoroughfares  at  the  end  of  1873,  with  other  information  respecting  them,  are 
shown  by  the  following  table: 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  327 

Table  No.  2.—  Table  show  hi  [/  Ihtflengtha  and  areas  of  the  different  asphalt  carriage-way 
pavements  in  the  city  of  London  on  December  31,  1873. 


Pavement. 

Length. 

Super- 
ficial 
area. 

Val  fie  Travers  (compressed) 

Yard's. 

4,185 

69 

1,446 

1,705 

39 

40 

Yards. 
34,  876 

Val  tie  Travers  (mastic) 

LimnitT  (mastic) 

8,477 
16,  544 

Barnett'8  (mastic) 

Societe  Francaise  (compressed) 

Mont ro tier  (compressed) 

346 

Total 

7,484 

80, 802 

No  two  pavements,  whether  of  asphalt  or  wood,  are  exactly  similar  in  their  quali- 
ties, nor  will  they  he  of  the  same  durability  or  cost.  It  may  he  necessary  specially 
to  refer  to  some,  although  for  the  most  part  the  remarks  in  this  report  will  he  appli- 
cable to  asphalt  and  wood  generally.  Nevertheless,  as  it  is  needful  to  make  direct 
comparison  upon  some  points,  I  select  for  that  purpose  the  compressed  asphalt  pave- 
ment of  the  Val  de  Travers  Company,  and  the  improved  wood  pavement,  as  being 
the  best  examples  of  their  several  kinds,  aud  of  which  there  are  the  largest  quanti- 
ties now  laid  jn  the  city,  and  elsewhere  in  the  metropolis.  The  following  is  a  brief 
description  of  them  : 

The  compressed  asphalt  pavement  of  the  Val  de  Travers  Company  is  formed  of  a 
natural  material,  procured  from  a  mine  in  Switzerland  ;  it  is  laid  upon  a  bed  of  ce- 
ment concrete,  in  a  state  of  heated  powder,  and  so  as  to  be,  when  compressed,  from  2 
to  2£  inches  in  thickness,  according  to  the  traffic  of  the  street. 

The  improved  wood  pavement  is  formed  of  fir  blacks,  3|  inches  wide,  10  inches  long, 
and  6  inches  deep,  laid  upon  a  foundation  of  two  thicknesses  of  fir  planks,  well 
pitched  and  nailed  together;  the  blocks  are  placed  close  together  at  their  short  ends, 
but  on  their  longer  sides  are  joints,  running  from  aide  to  side  of  the  street,  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  wide,  the  lines  of  joint  being  kept  by  fillets  nailed  to  the  planks  ; 
the  joints  are  filled  up  with  clean  small  pebbles,  rammed  in,  aud  then  run  with  a  com- 
position formed  of  pitch,  tar,  or  other  bituminous  substances. 

It  may  be  observed  with  regard  to  asphalt,  that  although  there  is  much  larger  ex- 
perience in  its  use  than  there  was  in  1871,  when  I  reported  upon  the  comparative 
merits  of  asphalt  aud  granite  pavements,  I  see  no  reason  upon  most  points  materi- 
ally to  alter  the  views  and  opinions  therein  expressed,  aud  much  then  said  will  be 
repeated  in  the  present  report. 

I  take  up  the  consideration  under  the  same  heads  adopted  in  the  report  of  1871  upon 
granite  and  asphalt,  varying  only  slightly  their  order,  which  will  here  be  :  (1)  Con- 
venience; (2)  Cleansing;  (3)  Construction  and  Repair;  (4)  Safety;  (5)  Durability 
and  Cost. 

CONVENIENCE. 

The  principal,  if  not  the  sole  object  in  London  of  employing  either  asphalt  or  wood 
foT  carriage-way  pavements  is  to  diminish  the  noise  of  the  traffic. 

Asphalt  is  less  noisy  than  granite,  for,  being  smooth  and  without  joints,  the 
wheels  of  vehicles  run  almost  as  easily  over  it  as  they  do  on  a  street  tramway,  and 
what  noise  is  caused  by  the  traffic  comes  almost  entirely  from  the  clatter  of  the 
horses'  feet  upon  the  asphalt. 

Wood  is  less  noisy  than  asphalt,  the  horses' feet  making  no  clatter  upon  it;  in 
fact,  wood  makes  the  most  quiet  of  all  known  pavements. 

Asphalt  can  not  be  suffered  to  get  materially  out  of  repair,  for  if  it  does  it  is  speedily 
knocked  to  pieces,  therefore,  the  quietness  and  the  comfort  it  affords  will  beat  all 
times  nearly  the  same. 


328  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Wood  pavements  being  composed  of  blocks  of  different  sizes  and  jointed  in  differ- 
ent manners,  are  in  the  course  of  time  worn  into  inequalities  of  surface,  and  when  in 
that  condition  carriages  are  more  jolted  and  there  is  more  noise  than  when  the  pave-* 
ments  are  new,  but  this  is  principally  experienced  by  those  inside  the  carriages. 

The  extent  to  which  this  irregularity  of  surface  takes  place  depends  much  upon 
the  care  taken  in  its  maintenance,  but  also  upon  the  nature  of  the  pavements  ;  those 
formed  of  large  blocks  with  wide  joints  wear  more  uueveuly  than  those  of  small 
blocks  with  close  joints.  The  owners  contend  that  their  improved  wood  pavement, 
having  no  short  joints,  and  the  blocks  reposing  upon  a  slightly  elastic  foundation,  will 
not  wear  unevenly,  and  probably  it  will  wear  more  evenly  and  last,  longer  than  any 
other  wood  pavement  yet  laid,  but  it  certainly  will  wear  somewhat  round  in  the 
direction  of  the  traffic. 

There  is  a  rumbling  noise  noticeable  when  inside  a  carriage  driven  quickly  over 
this  pavement  which  I  never  observed  upon  others,  and  is  thought  by  some  to  be  dis- 
agreeable. The  cause  is  probably  owing  to  the  compactness  of  its  structure,  its  ex- 
treme regularity  of  surface,  and  the  elasticity  of  the  foundation.  Should  the  extreme 
regularity  of  surface  disappear  the  noise  will,  I  think,  diminish.  This  noise,  how- 
ever, only  affects  those  inside  vehicles;  in  other  respects  it  is  as  quiet  as  other  wood 
pavements. 

Pedestrains,  where  the  carriage  traffic  admits  of  it,  walk  largely  upon  asphalt, 
owing  to  its  smoothnoss,  cleanliness,  and  dryness.  As  far  as  I  have  observed,  they 
do  not  walk  so  much  upon  the  wood. 

Asphalt  being  impervious  to  moisture,  water  runs  off  it  quickly  or  is  soon  evapo- 
rated. Dirt  lingers  in  the  joints  of  wood  pavements  and  is  worked  out  by  the  traffic, 
making  the  surface  dirty  for  some  time  after  rain.  Where  carriageways  are  dry  aud 
clean  the  footways  are  usually  clean,  for  in  narrow  streets  of  much  traffic  most  of  the 
dirt  upon  the  footways  comes  from  the  carriageways.  The  relative  advantages  of 
the  two  pavements  in  this  respect  depend,  however,  largely  upon  the  caro  taken  in 
cleaning. 

Wood  absorbs  moisture  and  is  frequently  damp  when  asphalt  is  dry;  but  if  it  be 
reasonably  clean,  the  dampness  does  not  affect  the  safety  or  comfort  of  the  traffic. 
When  dry  weather  ensues  after  rain,  dirt  clings  to  the  wood,  and  there  is  no  dust  for 
some  time. 

It  has  been  said  that  wood  pavements  at  times  smell  offensively,  and  may  be  un- 
healthy ;  but  although  some  city  streets  have  been  paved  with  wood  for  30  years,  no 
complaints  that  I  am  aware  of  have  been  made  to  the  commision  on  this  head,  and 
the  inhabitants  at  all  times  have  not  only  expressed  great  anxiety  lest  the  wood  should 
be  replaced  by  other  material,  but  have  subscribed  toward  the  cost  of  its  renewal. 
In  the  northern  towns  of  Europe  wood  pavement  is  much  used.  In  America  and 
Canada  many  of  the  largest  cities  are  paved  almost  entirely  with  wood,  and  it  is  not 
there  believed  to  be  unhealthy.  I  have  at  times  noticed  offensive  emanations  from  it 
near  cab  stands,  but  am  unable  to  find  other  evidence  of  its  unhealthiness.  These 
remarks  must  be  held  to  apply  only  to  public  streets  open  to  sun,  air,  aud  traffic ;  in 
confined  places,  and  under  some  conditions,  wood  might  be  objectionable.  I  have 
seen  it  decaying  in  confined  places  without  traffic. 

It  may  be  desirable  to  refer  to  the  question  whether  wood  pavements  are  likely  to 
be  the  means  of  spreading  a  conflagration.  It  was  found  by  experiments  made  by  me 
for  the  commission,  in  conjunction  with  Captain  Shaw,  chief  officer  of  the  fire  bri- 
gade, that  asphalt,  subject  to  a  more  severe  test  than  it  would  be  in  the  case  of  an  or-  • 
diuary  fire,  would  not  aid  in  spreading  a  conflagration,  aud  there  is  no  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  wood  would  be  more  likely  to  do  so,  laid,  as  it  is,  under  conditions  render- 
ing surface  ignition  improbable.  At  Chicago  the  foot  pavements  were,  in  many  cases, 
formed  of  planks  laid  on  wooden  joists,  the  whole  structure  being  1  or  2  feet  above 
the  carriageway,  and  subject  to  the  action  of  the  fire  on  both  sides,  but  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  the  fire  was  materially,  if  at  all,  increased  by  those  footway  pavements. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  329 

Asphalt  and  wood  have  therefore  each  in  some  respects  advantages  which  the 
other  does  not  possess  in  an  equal  degree.  On  the  average  of  its  life  asphalt  is  the 
smoothest,  the  dryest,  the  cleanest,  the  most  pleasing  to  the  eye,  aud  on  the  whole 
the  most  pleasant  to  travel  over  (apart  from  the  question  of  safety),  but  in  respect 
of  quietuess  to  the  inhabitants  and  street  traffic  wood  is  superior  to  asphalt. 

CLEANING. 

Both  asphalt  and  wood  should  be  kept  very  cleau  for  safety,  but  great  cleanliness 
is  more  important  to  asphalt  thau  it  is  to  wood. 

Asphalt  can  be  kept  cleaner  than  any  other  pavement,  for,  being  nonabsorbent 
and  without  joints,  the  broom,  the  scraper,  the  shovel,  or  water  can  be  applied  to  it 
most  effectively.  Wood  pavements  are  most  difficult  to  clean  on  account  of  the  joints 
and  the  absorheut  nature  of  the  material.  The  Improved  Wood  Pavement  Company 
has  recently  kept  the  carriageways  of  King  William  street  and  Ludgato  Hill  (tem- 
porarily committed  to  their  charge)  in  a  state  of  cleanliness  never  before  attained 
on  wood.     The  cost  of  this  work  I  am  unable  to  state. 

Experiments  made  under  my  direction  in  1857  and  in  1873  in  washing  granite  and 
asphalt  with  jet  and  hose  showed  that  asphalt  cost  slightly  less  thau  granite,  but 
that  a  higher  state  of  cleanliness  can  be  obtained  on  it.  It  is  probable  that  the  cost 
of  washing  wood  would  also  be  more  than  that  of  asphalt.  Washing  is  the  best  way 
of  cleansing  all  pavements,  and  it  is  desirable  that  an  experiment  be  made  on  wood 
at  an  early  opportunity. 

The  moisture  left  on  the  surface  of  asphalt  by  washing  makes  it  slippery,  the  dura- 
tion of  the  slippetiness  depending  upon  the  care  taken  in  drying  it  and  on  atmos- 
pheric conditions.  Moisture  does  not  leave  wood  slippery  if  it  be  clean.  Moisture, 
although  visible,  is  frequently  rather  in  the  wood  than  on  its  surface,  a  fact  to  be 
held  in  mind  when  considering  this  point. 

Watering  to  lay  the  dust  on  asphalt  is  not  done  in  the  city,  much  care  being  taken 
to  keep  the  pavements  clean  by  constant  removals  of  the  refuse.  Statements  have 
been  made  that  a  fine  dust  arises  from  it  which  is  obnoxious  to  traders  having  fine 
goods,  but  some  dust  is  unavoidable  in  streets  of  great  commerce  and  traffic,  what- 
ever may  be  the  pavement  or  the  mode  of  cleansing  adopted.  Watering  asphalt  is 
objectionable  on  account  of  the  temporary  slipperiness  it  creates,  aud  as  the  surface 
soon  dries  at  the  season  of  the  year  when  there  is  the  most  dust,  watering,  to  be 
useful,  should  be  almost  continuous. 

Wood  pavements  as  at  present  cleansed  require  watering,  for  dirt  clings  to  them 
more  than  to  the  asphalt.  If  washed  daily  a"ud  the  street-orderly  system  be  em- 
ployed during  the  day,  it  is  just  possible  watering  might  be  dispensed  with,  but  I 
am  by  no  means  sure  of  that. 

Asphalt,  when  laid  or  repaired,  is  fit  for  the  traffic  a  few  hours  afterward;  it  is 
left  clean  aud  causes  no  incouveuience  from  dirt  or  dust. 

Wood,  when  newly  laid  or  when  repaired,  is  covered  with  fine  gravel  or  grit  of 
some  sort,  which  should  he  upon  it  some  days.  This  grit  being  pressed  into  it  by 
the  traffic,  indurates  and  preserves  the  surface.  For  the  same  reason  it  is  desirable 
Beveral  times  a  year  to  strew  the  surface  for  a  day  or  two  iu  a  similar  manner,  and 
at  those  times  the  pavement  is  dirty.  It  is  not,  as  a  rule,  necessary  to  strew  wood 
with  gravel  to  prevent  slipperiness,  although  there  are  occasions  when  it  is  useful  to 
do  so.  With  present  experience  it  is  necessary  to  strew  asphalt  with  sand  when  the 
surface  is  slightly  damp  a  id  there  is  much  traffic  in  the  street. 

Upon  the  whole  I  c<  nsi  It  that  wood  may  be  kept  cleaner  than  it  hitherto  has 
been,  but  that  whatever  be  the  process  adopted  it  will  be  more  difficult  and  ex- 
pensive to  keep  cleau  than  asphalt  that  the  moiatnre  from  watering,  which  leaves 
asphalt  slippery,  affects  wood  less  objectionably  (as  will  be  seen  when  the  qnestion 
of  safety  i.s  dealt  with)  ;  that  there  is  necessity  upon  oooasiona  for  strewing  the  sur- 
faces both  of  asphalt  .and  wood  with  sand  or  gravel;  that  the  sanding  of  asphalt 


330  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

must  be  more  frequent  than  the  graveling  of  wood;  that  the  graveling  of  wood  for 
the  time  renders  the  streets  more  dirty  than  the  sanding  of  asphalt  does,  hut  that 
the  degree  of  inconvenience  from  both  these  operations  depends  upon  the  care  with 
which  they  are  performed. 

CONSTRUCTION  AND   REPAIR. 

Cheapside  and  the  Poultry  were  laid  with  compressed  asphalt,  together  with  the 
concrete  foundation,  at  the  rate  of  129  yards  per  day;  Ludgate  Hill  was  laid  with 
the  improved  wood  pavement,  including  the  removal  of  earth  for  the  plank  founda- 
tion, at  the  rate  of  125  yards  per  day  ;  other  wood  and  asphalt  pavements  can  be  laid 
as  expeditiously.  These  remarks  apply  to  fine  weather.  In  wet  weather  neither  the 
concrete  foundation  nor  the  asphalt  can  be  laid.  Wood  blocks,  if  not  requiring  a 
concrete  foundation,  can  be  laid  in  most  weathers,  but  the  grouting  of  the  joints, 
whether  with  lime  or  asphalt,  cannot  be  properly  done  unless  the  weather  be  reason- 
ably dry.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  repairs  both  to  asphalt  and  wood  in  respect 
to  weather. 

Very  small  surface  repairs  can  be  made  with  facility  in  all  asphalts.  In  com- 
pressed asphalt  they  can  be  made  so  neatly  as  not  to  be  noticeable  after  a  short  time 
but  in  the  mastic  asphalts  the  joints  remain  visible. 

The  ease  with  which  repairs  can  be  made  to  a  wood  pavement  depends  upon  it, 
character.  Ordinarily  they  can  be  done  with  the  same  facility,  and  are  executed  in 
much  the  same  manuer  as  to  granite.  Repairs  to  the  improved  wood  pavement  are 
differently  performed  and  require  some  descr  iption.  The  plank  foundation  is  cu 
through,  the  line  of  cut  in  the  two  layers  being  at  different  places;  a  third  board  is 
then  first  laid  beueath  the  lowest  planking  so  as  to  break  the  joint ;  the  two  layers  of 
planking  are  then  relaid  and  spiked  together,  the  fillets  and  blocks  being  replaced 
and  grouted  in  the  usual  manner.  Although  the  continuity  of  the  original  planks  is 
thus  destroyed  the  repair  seems  to  be  done  with  ease,  and  as  far  as  experience  goes 
is  sufficient  for  all  practical  purposes  ;  but  I  think  the  repairs  take  a  somewhat  longer 
time  than  the  ordinary  wood  pavements. 

Repairs  have  been  made  over  pipe  trenches  in  King  William  street,  Great  Tower 
street,  and  Bartholomew  lane,  the  surface  in  all  cases  has  been  well  restored,  and  the 
work  was  done  quickly.  This  pavement  is  referred  to  at  some  length,  it  being  in 
structure  different  from  any  others  yet  laid  in  the  city,  and,  therefore,  needingexpla- 
nation. 

Taking  seasons  and  wreather  generally  into  account,  asphalt  and  wood  can  be  laid 
and  repaired  with  equal  expedition,  but  repairs  to  wood  pavements  generally  are  not 
so  permanent  as  those  to  asphalts,  usually  also  it  is  necessary  to  take  up  a  much 
larger  surface  in  wood  to  make  a  good  repair  than  it  is  in  asphalt,  wThich  can  be  cut  out 
to  the  exact  size  needed.     In  this  respect  asphalt  has  a  decided  superiority  over  woe 


The  safety  of  a  pavement  is  a  matter  of  importance  everywhere,  but  especially! 
in  narrow  thoroughfares  of  great  traffic,  where  accidents  also  cause  inconvenience 
to  the  general  traffic. 

Observations  made  at  Paris  some  years  ago  in  two  streets,  one  paved  with  the  hare 
sandstone,  much  used  in  that  capital,  and  the  other  with  asphalt,  showed  that  in  tl 
street  paved  with  stone  one  out  of  every  1,308  horses  fell,  and  in  that  paved  witl 
asphalt  one  out  of  every  1,409  horses  fell. 

The  city  police  in  1871  made  observations,  from  which  it  was  found  that  about  sb 
horses  fell  daily  in  the  length  of  Cheapside  and  the  Poultry,  or  at  the  rate  of  one  out 
of  every  2,323  passing  along  those  thoroughfares.  The  same  year  I  made  inquiries 
into  the  slipperioess  of  asphalt,  and  took  the  opinions  of  various  persons  who  fron 
their  occupations  had  special  opportuuities  for  forming  correct  judgment  upon  the 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  331 

point,  and  on  consideration  of  the  information  then  obtained  there  appeared  to  be 
good  reason  for  believing  that  on  the  average  of  the  year  asphalt  was  not  more 
slippery  than  granite. 

There  were,  however,  at  that  time  but  two  or  three  streets  paved  with  asphalt,  and 
alternate  routes  paved  with  other  material  were  open  to  the  traffic.  Complaints  of 
the  slipperiness  of  asphalt  have  increased  since  its  use  has  been  extended,  and  al- 
though allowance  must  be  made  for  the  prejudice  which  generally  exists  against  any 
new  class  of  pavement  (there  was  a  time  when  loud  complaints  were  made  of  wood 
being  much  more  slippery  aud  dangerous  than  grauite),  some  of  the  statements 
made  to  f.bo  commission  are  entitled  to  consideration. 

Among  them  was  a  petition  presented  in  July  last  signed  by  twenty -four  horse 
owners,  including  the  London  General  Omnibus  Company,  two  of  the  largest  English 
carriers,  the  managers  of  three  railways,  aud  cab  and  omnibus  proprietors.  Sixteen 
of  the  petitioners  stated  that  they  owned  amongst  them  13,448  horses,  of  which  the 
London  General  Omnibus  Company  owued  8,000;  the  remaining  fifteen  owned  5,448, 
or  an  average  of  363  horses  each.  The  petitioners,  after  stating  that  in  their  opinion 
asphalt  pavement  was  objectionable  as  compared  with  grauite,  and  that  horses  were 
quickly  deteriorated  by  traveli  ng  over  it,  prayed  the  commission  "  that  no  more  of 
such  paving  shall  be  laid  down  in  the  principal  thoroughfares,"  and  further,  "that 
effective  measures  should  be  taken  to  render  the  asphalt  pavement  now  existing  less 
dangerous  to  horses  in  damp  weather." 

To  obtain  exact  information  on  the  point  the  co  mmission  in  the  spring  of  last  year 
directed  observations  to  be  made  of  the  accidents  occurring  upon  asphalt,  granite, 
and  wood  pavemeuts.  These  observations  (the  most  ex  tensive,  I  believe,  ever  made) 
were  taken  by  the  city  police  and  reportod  on  by  me  on  the  16th  December  last ;  to 
that  report  it  will  be  now  necessary  to  refer. 

The  streets  selected  for  observation  were:  Cheapside  and  the  Poultry,  paved  with 
compressed  asphalt  of  the  Val  de  Travers  Company ;  part  of  King  William  street 
and  Gracechurch  street,  paved  with  the  improved  wood  pavement  aud  the  ligno- 
mineral  pavement,  and  parts  of  King  William  street  and  Cauuon  street,  paved  with 
3  inch  Aberdeen  granite.  All  the  streets  had  a  large  [and  varied  traffic.  The  ob- 
servations were  continu  ed  for  50  days  of  12  hours  daily,  and  represeuted  an  aggre- 
gate distance  traveled  by  the  horses  of  478,523  miles. 

The  observations  on  asphalt  aud  wood  are  alone  dealt  with  here.  Both  pavements 
were  in  excellent  surface  condition ;  on  both  the  gradients  were  for  the  most  part 
good,  those  of  the  wood  being  the  wo  rst ;  both  were  cleaused  every  morning  aud 
also  throughout  the  day  by  street  orderlies.  The  asphalt  was  occasionally  washed, 
and  when  damp  strewed  with  sand.  The  wood  pavemeut  was  four  times  slightly 
strewed  with  tine  gravel.  The  asphalt  was  not  watered  to  lay  the  dust ;  the  wood 
was.  The  aggregate  distance  traveled  by  the  horses  during  the  observations  was, 
on  the  asphalt  203,805  miles,  aud  on  the  wood  179,151  miles,  making  together  332,956 
miles. 

During  the  50  days'  observations  the  weather  was  for  the  most  part  dry  aud  cold! 
There  was  an  absence  of  that  weather  which,  creating  a  damp  surface,  causes  as- 
phalt to  be  in  its  most  slippery  state.  The  weather  was  also  decidedly  favorable  to 
wood.  On  the  whole  it  may  be  said  that  the  two  pavements  were  under  conditions 
as  nearly  similar  as  are  likely  to  bo  obtained  unless  a  street  be  specially  selected  and 
paved  for  the  purpose  of  observations. 

A  short  length  of  the  wood  was  the  ligno-mineral  pavement,  formed  of  beech,  miner- 
alized, the  blocks  being  of  small  size,  with  chamfered  odges.  The  accidents  upon 
this  pavement  were  very  much  greater  proportionally  than  those  on  the  other  woodi 
a  circumstance  probably  duo  mainly  to  the  description  of  the  wood,  and  to  its  chem- 
ical treatment.  Fir  is  almost  exclusively  used  in  the  formation  of  wood  pavements, 
but  the  accidents  which  took  place  on  the  ligno-mineral  are  included  in  all  the  aver- 
ages given  of  accidents  and  mileage. 


332 


STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


On  the  average  of  the  50  days'  observations  it  was  shown  that  a  horse  might  he  ex- 
pected to  travel  before  it  fell — 

Miles. 

On  the  asphalt 191 

On  the  wood 330 

The  accidents  were  afterwards  separated  under  three  heads,  namely,  those  which 
occurred  when  the  pavements  were  dry,  those  which  occurred  when  they  were  damp, 
as  during  or  after  a  slight  rain  and  after  the  streets  had  been  watered,  and  those 
which  took  place  whilst  rain  was  falling,  or  whilst  the  surfaces  were  quite  wet,  and 
the  following  results  were  shown  : 
Days  when  surface  of  pavement  was  generally  dry  :  Miles. 

Asphalt * , 223 

Wood 646 

Days  when  surface  of  pavement  was  damp  in  different  degrees,  including  that  aris- 
ing from  surface  watering  : 

Asphalt 125 

Wood 193 

Days  when  surface  of  pavement  was  wet :  Miles. 

Asphalt 192 

Wood 432 

Thus,  under  every  conditiou  of  surface  moisture,  and  includiug  nearly  every  con- 
dition of  weather,  frost  excepted,  the  wood  was  less  slippery  than  the  asphalt. 

For  32  days  the  accidents  were  recorded  under  the  respective  heads  of  falls  on  knees, 
falls  on  haunches,  and  complete  falls,  with  the  following  results: 

Table  No.  3. 


Accidents  du  ring  32  days'  observa- 
tions. 


On  knees.     haunche8_     Complete. 


Asphalt . 
Wood  ... 


Per  cent. 

24.48 
3.07 


Per  cent. 
43.48 
11.96 


Accidents  which  are  the  least  inconvenient  to  the  traffic  and  the  least  injurious  to 
horses  are  falls  on  knees,  the  next  in  order  are  falls  on  haunches,  complete  falls  aro 
the  worst  of  all ;  and  the  table  shows  therefore  that  in  this  respect  wood  was  supe- 
rior to  asphalt,  the  largest  proportion  of  falls  on  it  being  on  knees. 

It  is  by  some  considered  that  the  only  accidents  of  importance,  or  that  need  be  re- 
ferred to  when  the  safety  of  a  pavement  is  under  consideration,  are  complete  falls. 
Adopting  for  the  time  this  view,  dismissing  the  other  classes  of  accidents,  and  mak- 
ing the  calculations  iu  reference  to  complete  falls  only,  the  results  of  the  32  days' 
observations  were  that  a  horse  might  be  expected  to  travel  before  it  fell  down  on  its 
side — 

Miles. 

On  the  asphalt 686 

On  the  wood 2,939 

Extending  the  comparison  by  distributing  complete  falls  only  to  the  miles  trav- 
eled, under  different  conditions  of  surface  as  regards  moisture,  the  results  were  : 
Days  when  the  surface  of  pavement  was  generally  dry :  Miles. 

Asphalt 1,101 

Wood 4,180 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  333 

Days  when  surface  of  pavement  was  damp  in  different  degrees,  including  that 
arising  from  surface  watering:  Mile*. 

Asphalt 335 

Wood 1,592 

Days  when  the  surface  of  pavement  was  wet: 

Aspbalt 568 

Wood "...3,583 

Thus,  the  obervations  show  conclusively  the  wood  to  he  safer  than  asphalt,  and 
the  accidents  on  it  to  be  of  a  less  objectionable  character. 

Mastic  and  compound  asphalts  are  somewhat  less  slippery  to  the  human  foot  than 
compressed  asphalts.  How  far  the  difference  is  perceptible  to  horses,  shod  as  they 
are,  I  can  not  say,  but  that  which  causes  this  superiority  in  respect  of  slipperiness 
leads  to  their  being  more  speedily  worn  out  under  heavy  traffic.  There  are  wood 
pavements  more  slippery  than  the  improved  wood  pavement,  which  is,  perhaps,  the 
least  slippery  of  its  class;  and  had  it  been  out  of  repair,  more  accidents,  proportion- 
ately, would  have  occurred  upon  it  than  actually  took  place,  and  all  wood  pavements 
get  out  of  repair  iu  time.  But  whatever  asphalt  or  wood  (fir  being  only  meant)  had 
been  selected  for  comparison,  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the  relative  values  of 
the  two  materials,  as  regards  safety,  wonld  have  been  reversed,  and  for  comparison  it 
was,  of  course,  necessary  to  take  the  two  which  are  the  best  representatives  of  their 
classes  for  the  general  purposes  of  street  traffic. 

Slight  rain  makes  both  asphalt  and  wood  more  slippery  than  it  is  at  other  times. 
On  asphalt  the  slipperiness  begins  almost  immediately  the  rain  commences  ;  wood 
requires  more  rain  before  its  worst  condition  ensues.  The  slipperiness  lasts  longer 
upon  the  wood,  on  account  of  its  absorbent  nature,  than  it  does  upon  the  asphalt 
when  dry  weather  ensues  after  the  rain. 

When  asphalt  is  in  its  most  slippery  state  the  horses  at  times  fall  on  it  very  sud- 
denly; on  wood  their  efforts  to  save  themselves  are  more  effectual.  Wood  also  is 
frequently  in  that  peculiar  condition  of  surface  in  which  horses  slip  or  glide  alone-  it 
without  falling.  A  small  quantity  of  dirt  on  asphalt  makes  it  very  slippery  ;  wood 
requires  a  large  quantity.  These  are  general  statements,  subject  to  modifications 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  wood  or  asphalt,  their  condition  of  repair,  and  clean- 
liness. 

Slipperiness  can  be  temporarily  cured  on  both  pavements,  on  the  asphalt  by  sprin- 
kling it  with  sand,  on  the  wood  by  sprinkling  it  with  gravel.  The  result  in  both 
cases  is  dirt.  The  difficulty  of  cleaning  wood  as  compared  with  asphalt  has  already 
been  referred  to.  The  sand  thrown  on  asphalt  helps  to  wear  it  out ;  the  grave- 
thrown  on  wood  tends  to  preserve  it.  Watering  or  washing  asphalt  to  prevent  slips 
periness  has  been  tried,  and  no  doubt  for  the  time  cures  it,  but  sloppy  streets  are  a 
great  nuisance,  and  not  likely  to  be  submitted  to.  Sand  must,  with  present  experi- 
ence, be  the  remedy,  and  when  applied  is  certainly  effectual.  Sanding  is  the  remedy 
applied  at  Paris. 

When  a  horse  falls  upon  asphalt,  it  has  difficulty  in  getting  up.  On  wood  it  rises 
more  easily.  The  difficulty  in  rising  from  asphalt  can,  however,  be  largely  remedied 
by  throwing  down  a  little  sand,  or  a  horse-cloth,  a  care  which  does  not  often  seem  to 
be  bestowed  by  the  drivers. 

The  effect  of  frost  must  be  referred  to.  In  times  of  snow  there  is  but  little,  if 
any,  difference  between  the  safety  of  asphalt  aud  wood.  Iu  times  of  sharp  frost 
asphalt  is  usually  dry  and  safe ;  wood  retaining  moisture  is  very  slippery.  The 
effects  of  frost  on  pavements  in  the  heart  of  London  should  not,  however,  have 
undue  weight  in  these  considerations,  two  or  three  winters  sometimes  passing  with- 
out snow  lying  for  an  entire  day  in  the  city  streets,  or  frost  rendering  the  surface  of 
any  pavement  slippery  for  more  than  a  few  hours  at  a  time.  The  cure  for  slipperi- 
ness in  all  cases  is  sanding  or  graveling. 


334  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

As  regards  speed  of  travel—When  asphalt  is  dry  and  the  road  unimpeded,  vehicles 
can  be  driven  over  it  as  quickly  and  as  safely  as  on  other  pavements,  but  in  streets 
of  much  traffic  it  is  not  wise  to  drive  quickly  because  of  tbe  difficulty  of  stopping  a 
horse;  on  wood  it  is  easier  to  stop  a  horse,  times  of  frost  excepted. 

As  to  gradient.— A.  short  length  of  asphalt  in  the  city  has  a  gradient  of  1  in  46, 
another  1  in  57  ;  nearly  the  whole  length  has  much  better  gradients.  The  commis- 
sion in  1871  determined  not  to  lay  asphalt  upon  a  steeper  gradient  than  1  in  60,  and  it 
is  a  safe  gradient  at  which  to  draw  the  line. 

The  two  wood  pavements  in  Bartholomew  lane  (Carey's,  aud  the  improved  wood) 
have  gradients  of  1  in  34  ;  in  King  William  street  there  are  gradients  of  from  1  in  30 
to  1  in  37,  with  cross  gradients  at  the  same  spots  of  from  1  in  20  to  1  in  38  ;  part  of 
Ludgate  Hill  has  a  gradient  of  1  in  26,  and  all  these  are  safe.  Wood,  therefore,  cau 
be  laid  with  safety  at  a  far  steeper  gradient  than  asphalt. 

Generally,  therefore,  whether  the  questiou  of  safety  be  considered  in  reference  to 
the  distance  which  ahorse  may  travel  before  it  meets  with  an  accident,  or  the  nature 
of  the  accidents  which  occur,  the  facility  with  which  a  horse  can  recover  itself  when 
it  falls,  the  speed  at  which  it  is  safe  to  travel,  or  the  gradient  at  which  the  material 
can  be  laid,  wood  is  superior  to  asphalt. 

DURABILITY  AND  COST. 

Durability  is  an  element  in  the  cost  of  all  pavements,  and  it  is  desirable  therefore  in 
the  first  place  to  see  what  has  hitherto  been  the  life  of  asphalt  aud  wood  in  carriage 


Asphalt.—  Experience  iu  London  in  the  use  of  asphalt  for  carriageway  pavements 
dates  from  May,  1869;  at  the  end  of  1870  there  were  but  3  streets  paved  with  it  in  the 
city,  the  great  bulk  of  the  work  having  been  done  in  the  last  3  years.  During  that 
time  eleven  different  sorts  have  been  tried,  five  of  which  have  failed,  and  there  are 
others  in  an  unsatisfactory  condition,  some  showing  unmistakable  signs  of  decay,  and 
the  necessity  for  a  not  far  distant  renewal  or  extensive  reparation.  Compressed 
asphalts  have  hitherto  proved  themselves  the  most  durable  ;  those  which  had  been 
the  longest  down  were  examined  carefully  last  year,  and  the  loss  on  them  by  wear 
found  to  be  small,  and  they  were  generally  in  good  surface  condition. 

At  Paris  it  has  heen  used  longer  and  more  extensively  than  in  any  other  city,  the 
first  street  having  been  laid  with  it  in  1854.  In  most  of  the  streets  so  paved  the  traffic 
is  small,  but  there  are  some,  such  as  the  Rue  de  Richelieu  and  the  Rue  Neuve  St. 
Augustin,  in  which  it  is  considerable.  I  have  been  unable  to  ascertain  the  actual 
life  of  the  pavements  at  Paris,  for  the  system  adopted  is  to  repair  them  immediately 
they  need  it,  and  as  each  repair  is  so  much  new  material  laid,  the  whole  surface  is 
really  renewed  in  the  course  of  years.  The  same  system  is  and  must  be  adopted  in 
London.  Statements  given  to  me  by  the  companies  of  the  extent  of  repair  done  to 
the  various  pavements  since  they  were  laid  do  not  well  agree  with  my  own  observa- 
tions, and  the  payments  agreed  to  be  made  for  maintaining  the  pavements  must  be 
based  upon  the  assumption  of  considerable  renewal  of  surface  beiDg  needed.  After 
full  consideration  of  all  circumstances,  I  think  that  without  much  repair  none  of  the 
asphalts  would  last  more  than  from  4  to  6  years,  a,nd  that  in  the  course  of  from  6  to 
10  years  the  entire  surface  of  all  will  have  been  renewed. 

There  not  being,  however,  sufficient  experience  to  determine  the  durability  of 
asphalt  in  this  city,  all  that  can  be  done  is  to  take  the  contracts  entered  into  for 
maintaining  the  pavements  as  giviug  both  the  measure  of  their  life  and  their  cost. 
This  mode  was  taken  iu  the  comparison  between  the  cost  of  asphalt  and  granite  in 
my  report  of  1871.  The  following  table  gives  the  agreed  costs  of  asphalt  in  some 
leading  thoroughfares : 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM. 


335 


Table  No.  4. — Asphalt  pavements. — Table  showing  the  agreed  cost  per  annum  of  certain 
asphalt  carriage-way  pavements  in  the  city  of  London. 


Total 

Tears 

cost  of 

Aver- 

to be 

First 
cost  per 
square 

yard. 

pave- 

age  cost 

Situation. 

Description  of 
asphalt. 

main- 
tained 

Agreed  cost  of  mainte- 
nance per  square  yard  for 

ments 
durinc 

per 
square 

by  con- 
tract- 

the contract  term. 

contract 
term  per 

yard 
per 

ors. 

square 
yard. 

annum. 

s.    d. 

£.  s.  d. 

*.   d. 

Cheap  side    and 

Poultry. 

Val    do    Travels 

17 

18    0 

2  years  free ;  15  years  at 

2    0    6 

2    4J 

(compressed). 

U.5d.  =  £l2s.6d. 

Gracechurch  street 

....do  

17 

17    0 

2  years  free;  15  years  at 
1*.  0d.=15*.  ()(/. 

1  12    0 

1  10* 

Finsbury  pavement 

...do 

17 

16    0 

3  years  free  ;  16  years  at 
9d.=U*.  3d. 

1     7    3 

i  n 

Moorgate  street  ... 

....do 

17 

16    0 

2  years  free;  15  years  at 
9d.=lls.  3d. 

1    7    3 

1     7J 

Do 

Limmer  (maotic) . . 

2  years  free ,  15  years  at 
9d.=lls.  3d.       ' 

17    3 

1    7i 

Lombard  street 

....do 

17 

16    0 

2  years  free;  15  years  at 
9d.=lls.  3d. 

17    3 

i  n 

Oornhill 

...do 

17 

15    0 

2  years  free :  15  years  at 
9d.=lls.  3d. 

16    3 

1     6i 

Mincing  lane 

...do  

17 

12    0 

2  vears  free ;  15  years  at 
9d.=ll*.  3d. 

1     3    3 

1    41 

Foundations  are  included  in  these  estimates,  but  no  exoavation.  Tho  pavements  are  to  be  left  as 
good  as  new  at  the  expiration  of  the  contracts. 

Wood. — Counting  size  of  block  as  constituting  a  difference,  there  must  have  been 
more  than  two  dozen  differeut  kinds  of  wood  pavements  tried  in  the  city.  They 
have  been  laid  in  streets  both  of  large  and  small  traffic,  and  subjected  to  almost 
every  condition  which  destroys  a  pavement.  The  commission  has,  therefore,  experi- 
ence of  its  own  both  in  the  durability  and  the  cost  of  wood. 

Last  year  a  report  was  obtained  by  the  commission  from  New  York  respecting  the 
wood  pavements  in  that  city,  from  which  it  appeared  that  its  average  duration  did 
not  exceed  5  years.  The  information  is  not,  however,  of  that  precise  character  which 
would  make  it  of  use  for  comparison  here ;  and  the  climatic  conditions  at  New  York 
are  so  different  to  those  in  London  that  it  might  be  but  of  little  use  even  if  the  infor- 
mation were  fuller,  for  climate  affects  the  safety,  durability,  and  other  conditions 
of  both  asphalt  and  wood,  and  as  there  is  large  experience  in  wood  pavement  in  this 
metropolis  I  confiue  myself  to  that  experience. 

The  table  appended  shows  the  duration  and  cost  of  wood  pavements  in  six  city 
thoroughfares,  all  the  pavements  having  been  replaced  by  asphalt  except  one. 

Table  No.  5.— Wood  pavements— Table  showing  the  actual  duration  and  cost  of  certain 
wood  pavements  in  the  city  of  London. 


Date  when 
laid  new. 


First  cost 

per  square 

yard. 


Total  cost  of 
repairs  per 

square  yard 
during  life. 


Average  cost 

per  square 

yard  pet 

annum. 


Cornhill 

Gracechurch  street 

Lombard  street 

Lothbury 

Mincing  lane 

Bartholomew  lane.. 


May,  1855 
July,  1865 
Nov.,  1853 
•Tune,  1865 
Mav,   1851 

! 

Mas,  1854 
Aug.,  1*00 

July,  1*41 
Aug.,  I860 

Aug.,  I860 


«.  d. 

12  2 

11  6 

12  8 

11  6 
9  6 
9  2 

12  6 
12  6 
14  4 

9  2 

12  6 

12  6 


«.    d. 
2    11 


Foundations  are  included,  but  no  excavation. 
The  average  life  of  the  pavements  in  the  three  streets  with  the  largest  traffic  was 
about  9  years,  that  of   tho    threo  streots  with  the  least  traffic    about   Hi  years. 


336 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Nearly  all  before  they  were  removed  had  been  relaid  over  their  entire  surface  and  I 
some  new  wood  introduced  from  time  to  time  iu  lieu  of  that  found  too  defective  to 
relay. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  wood  pavements  last  removed  had  a  shorter  life  than 
the  previous  pavemeats.  There  is  more  than  one  reason  for  this,  but  it  should  be 
stated  that  nearly  all  would,  by  relay  aud  the  introduction  of  some  new  wood,  have 
endured  a  few  years  longer.  It  was,  however,  thought  by  the  commission  expedient 
to  replace  them  with  asphalt,  with  the  exception  of  that  in  Bartholomew  lane. 

The  mean  of  the  three  streets  of  largest  traffic  gives  a  cost  of  2s.  l%d.  per  square 
yard  per  annum ;  the  mean  of  the  streets  of  little  traffic  a  cost  of  2s.  4} d.  per  square 
yard  per  annum.  The  cost  of  the  wood  pavements  which  have  been  removed  has, 
therefore,  been  higher  than  the  cost  of  asphalt  will  be  under  the  existing  contracts. 

In  a  previous  report  I  have  stated  that  much  of  the  expense  of  granite  pavements 
in  the  city  is  attributable  to  their  being  too  much  patched  and  not  being  relaid  over 
their  whole  surface  at  sufficiently  early  periods.  (There  were  reasons  given  why  this 
is  the  case.)  The  same  remarks,  in  a  degree,  apply  to  wood,  the  blocks  of  which  are 
not  so  convertible,  nor  as  a  refuse  material  so  valuable  as  old  grauite.  If  they  were 
relaid  when  it  was  best  for  the  pavement  and  most  economical  to  do  so,  their  dura- 
tion would  be  increased  and  their  cost  diminished. 

Under  present  contracts  both  the  wood  and  asphalt  contractors  mast  be  permit- 
ted to  relay  and  repair  the  pavements  when  it  will  be  best  to  do  such  work,  and  for 
comparison  it  is  therefore  better  to  take  the  tendered  prices  for  the  wood  pavements 
recently  laid  as  the  measure  of  their  life  and  cost,  contrasting  them  with  the  tendered 
prices  for  maintaining  the  asphalt.  The  comparison  is  not  expensive,  the  commis- 
sion having  in  some  cases  accepted  tenders  involving  the  maintenance  of  wood  pave- 
ments for  short  terms  only. 

Table  No.  6.—  Wood  pavements— Table  showing  first  cost  and  tendered  cost  per  annum  for 
maintaining  certain  wood  carriageway  pavements  in  the  city  of  London. 


Situation. 

Date  when 
laid. 

Name  of  con- 
tractor. 

Tears 
to  be 

main- 
tained 
by  con- 
tractor. 

First 
cost 
per 
square 
yard. 

Agreed  cost  of 
maintenance  per 
square  yard  lor 
contract  term. 

Total 
cost  dur- 
ing con- 
tract 
term,  per 
square 
yard. 

Aver- 

age  cost 
per 

square 
yard 

per  an- 
num. 

King    William 
street. 

LudgateHill 

Feb.,  1873 
Nov  ,  1873 
Sept.,  1873 

Jan.,  1872 
Dec,  18*1 

May,  1873 
(§) 

Impr  o  ved 
Wood    Pav- 
ing Co. 
do 

do 

16 
16 
16 

t3 

ft  5 

t}7 

ft  7 

s.    d. 

18    0 

18    0 
16    0 

-12    6 

16  0 

15    3 

17  0 

13    6 

1    year    free;    15 

years,  at  ls.Gd.  — 

£1  2s.  6d. 
1     year    free ;    15 

years,  at  ls.Sd.  = 

£1  2s.  6d. 
1    year   free;    15 

years,  at  Is.  3d.  = 

18s.  9d. 

&   s.  d. 
2    0    6 

2    0    6 

1  14    9 

».    d. 
2    6J 

2    6i 

2    2 

Tower   street 
and     Seething 
Lane. 
Bartho  lomew 
lane. 
Do 

Ira  proved 
Wood   Pav- 
ing Co. 

Mowleni  &Co. 

....do  

3  years  free 

2    years    free;    3 

years,  at  ls=3s. 
2  *  years    free  ;    5 

vears,   at    9d.  = 

3s.  9d. 
2    years   free;    5 

years,  at  Is.  =  5*. 

16    0 

Duke  street 

Houndsditch 

*  No  agreement. 

t  These  pavements  will  no  doubt  last  some  years  longer  than  the  contract  term  of  maintenance. 

IThe  Ligno-Mineral  Paving  Company  and  the  Improved  Wood  Paving  Company  offered  to  main 
tain  their  pavements,  if  laid,  for  terms  of  10  years  aud  14  years,  respectively  ;  their  tenders  were  no 
accepted. 

§  Not  yet  laid. 

In  the  wood  pavements  the  cost  of  the  foundation  is  included,  but  not  excavation. 

The  pavements  at  the  end  of  each  financial  year  aro  to  be  in  a  good  sound  condition. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM. 
The  following  table  is  drawn  up  from  tables  Nos.  4  and  6 : 


337 


-Table  No.  7. — Table  showing  the  duration  andcostof  certain  asphalt  and  wood  carriageway 
pavements,  according  to  tenders  made  by  the  respective  contractors. 


Situation. 

Description. 

Years  to 
be  main- 
tained by 
contractor. 

Average 
cost  per 

sqnare 
yard  per 

annum. 

Asphalt: 

Val  de  Travers  (compressed). 

17 
17 
17 
.17 
17 

1G 
16 
16 

«.    d. 
2    4J 
1  10* 
1    7J 
1    7J 

1  OJ 

2  6J 
2    GJ 
2    2 

...do 

Cornhill 

Wood: 

...do 

ing  lane. 

Pavements  cost  more  or  less  according  to  the  width  and  traffic  of  the  streets;  exact 
comparison  is,  therefore,  unattainable,  bat  from  tables  Nos.  4,  6,  and  7  it  appears 
generally  that  the  improved  wood  pavement  will  be  dearer  than  compressed  asphalt, 
and  still  dearer  if  contrasted  with  limmer.  There  are  other  asphalt  and  wood  pave- 
ments nominally  cheaper,  but  it  is  expedient  to  keep  to  the  best  of  the  two  classes 
for  comparison. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

My  general  conclusions  upon  the  subject  matter  of  the  report  are : 

Firstly,  as  regards  convenience:  That  asphalt  is  the  smoothest,  driest,  cleanest, 
most  pleasing  to  the  eye,  and  most  agreeable  pavement  for  general  purposes,  but  wood 
the  most  quiet. 

Secondly,  as  regards  cleansing :  That  wood  may  be  kept  cleaner  than  it  hitherto 
has  been,  but  will  be  more  difficult  and  expensive  to  cleanse  effectually  than  asphalt; 
that  as  both  pavements  require  occasionally  strewing  either  with  sand  or  gravel, 
there  is  not  much  difference  between  them  in  that  respect. 

Thirdly,  as  regards  construction  and  repair :  That  asphalt  and  wood,  taking  all 
seasons  and  weathers  into  account,  can  be  laid  and  repaired  with  about  equal  facil- 
ity, but  that  the  smallest,  neatest,  cleanest,  and  most  durable  repairs  can  be  made  in 
asphalt. 

Fourthly,  as  regards  safety  :  That  whether  considered  in  reference  to  the  distance 
which  a  horse  may  travel  before  it  meets  with  an  accident,  or  the  nature  of  the  acci- 
dent, or  the  facility  with  which  a  horse  can  recover  its  footing,  or  the  speed  at  which 
it  is  safe  to  travel,  or  the  gradient  at  which  the  material  can  belaid,  wood  is  superior 
to  asphalt. 

Fifthly,  as  regards  durability  and  cost:  That  wood  pavements,  with  repairs,  have 
in  this  city  had  a  life  varying  from  6  to  19  years,  and  that  with  repairs  au  average 
life  of  about  10  years  may  be  obtained;  that  the  durability  of  tho  asphalts  is  not 
known,  but  that  under  the  system  of  mainteuance  adopted  they  may  last  as  long  as 
wood  ;  that  contrasting  the  tenders  for  laying  and  maintaining  for  a  term  of  years 
the  two  best  pavements  of  their  kinds,  wood  will  be  the  dearest. 

To  avoid  misapprehension  it  may  be  well  again  to  state  that  these  remarks  apply, 
in  most  cases,  to  asphalt  and  wood  pavements  generally,  but  are  more  strictly  appli- 
cable to  the  compressed  asphalt  of  tho  Val  de  Travers  Company  and  to  the  improved 
wood  pavement.  Also  that  they  apply  to  streets  of  much  traffic  and  in  London,  for 
where  the  climate  and  other  conditions  are  widely  different,  different  results,  as  re- 
gards Bafety  and  cost,  etc.,  may  be  expected. 

I  have  the  honor  to  remain,  gentlemen,  your  most  obedient  servant, 

William  Haywood, 
33A 22  Engineer  and  Surveyor. 


338 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Table  No.  8. —  Wood  pavements. — Table  showing  the  situation,  description,  area,  and  dale 
of  completion  of  the  ivood  pavements  in  the  city  of  London. 


Situation. 

Name  of  pavement. 

Length. 

Super 
ficial 
area. 

When  com- 
pleted. 

Description  of  pavement. 

Yards. 

Yards. 

Bartholomew  lane. 

Carey's  wood  pave- 
ment. 

40 

468 

Jan.,       1872 

Fine  ballast  foundation  ;  pav- 
ing blocks  varying  in  width 
from  6J  in.  to  7J  in.,  and  in 
length  from  ]3  in.  to  15  in., 

6  in.  deep  ;  f-in.   longitudi- 

nal    and     J-in.    transverse 

joints,   grouted   with   lime 

and  sand. 

Birchinlane 

...do 

28 

77 

June,      1866 

Do. 

Jewry  street 

...  do 

42 

253 

Feb.,      1872 

Do. 

Little  George  street 
Bartholomew  lane  . 

...do 

24 

148 

do 

Do. 

Improved  wood 

48 

392 

Dec,      1871 

Plank    foundation;   blocks  3 

pavement. 

in.  by  9  in.,  5  in.  deep  ;  }-in. 
transverse  joints    filled   in 

with  pebbles  and  tar  or  other 

bituminous  substances. 

Great  Tower  street 

....do 

76 

448 

Aug.  4,1873 

Plank    foundation ;    blocks  3 

and   Seething 

in.  by  9  in.,  6  in.  deep  j  Jin. 
transverse  joints    filled  in 

lane. 

with  pebbles  and  tar  or  other 

bituminous  substances. 

King    "William 

....do 

164 

3,446 

Aug.  13, 1872 

Plank  foundation;  blocks  3J 

street,     from 

in.  by  10  in.,  6  in.  deep  ;  J-in. 

Gracechurch 

transverse  joints    filled  in 

street  and  Can- 

with pebbles  and  tar  or  other 

non  street  to  Ar- 

bituminous substances. 

thur  street. 

King   "William 

-...do 

147 

2,620 

Jan.  25,1873 

Do. 

street  (south  of 

Arthur     street) 

and  Adelaide 

place. 

1 

LndgateHill 

....do  

266 

2,639 

Nov.   8,1873 

Do. 

Gracechurch  street. 

Ligno-mineral 

pavement. 

27 

210 

Aug.,      1872 

Concrete  foundation;  blocks 
3i  in.  by  6  in.,  4£  in.  deep; 
ends  cut  obliquely ;  J-in. 
joints,  grouted  with  Port- 
land cement. 

Cannon  street 

Mowlem's     wood 
pavement. 

37 

377 

Sept.   5,1873 

Concrete  foundation ;  blocks 
3  in.  by  9  in.,  7  in.  deep; 
J-in.  joints,  grouted  withlia3 
lime  and  washed  sand. 

Duke  street,  Smith- 
field. 
King     "William 

....do 

134 

676 

June   7,1873 

Do. 

Stone's    patent 

26 

284 

July  15, 1873 

Concrete     foundation,     with 

street   (north  of 

wood  pavement. 

grooves  in  surface  1J  in.  by 
£  in.,  3  in.  apart;    blocks  4 

Cannon  street). 

in.  by  6  in.,  4  in.  deep  ;    the 

bottoms    shaped    to    fit    in 

grooves;      £-in.    transverse 

joints,    filled    in    with    tar 

composition. 

March  17,  1874. 


"Wm.  Haywood. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM. 


339 


Table  No.  9.— Asphalt  pavements.— Table  showing  the  situation,  description,  area,  and 
date  of  completion  of  the  asphalt  pavements  in  the  city  of  London. 


Situation. 


Name  of  pavement.  Length 


Super- 
ficial 
area. 


completed. 


Description  of  pavement. 


Bow  Lane,  from 
Cannon  street  to 
Clieapside. 

Cheap  side  and 
Poultry. 

Finsbury  pave- 
ment and  Moor- 
gate. 

George  yard,  Lom- 
bard street. 

Gracechurch  street. 

King  William 
street  (westend). 

London  wall  from 
Moorgate  to  Old 
Broad  street. 

Mansell  street 

Mansion  House 
street. 

Milk  street 


Moorgate  street 

(north  end). 

Old  Bailey 

Old  and  New  Broad 

streets. 
Queen  street 


Val    de    Travera 
asphalt 


.do. 


.do 

-do 

.do 

.do 


Yards. 
1G4 


Yards 

425    Sept.  22, 1873 


Russia  row  .... 

St.  Ann's  lane  - 
Threadneedle  street 
(westend). 

Thread  needle  street 

(east  end). 
Throgmorton 

street. 
Wood  street,  from 

London  Wall  to 

Gresham  street. 
Wood  street,  iiOffl 

Gresham    stieet 

to  Cheapside. 
Castle  street,  Hol- 

born. 

Clement's  lane 

Cornhill 

Finch  lane 


Lombard  street. 
Mincing  lane 


Moorgate      street 

(central). 
Old  Jewry 


Bishopsgate  street 

within. 
Carter    lane,  from 

Creed    lane     to 

Paul's  Chain. 
Fenchurch  stieet. 
Leadenhall  street. 

Lothbury 

Moorgate      street 

(south  end). 
Princes  street 


Limmer  asphalt 


...do 

...do  

...do 

...do 

...do 

Bamett's  asphalt . 
...do 


Do. 


Threadneedle 
stieet.* 


...do 

...do 

...do 

...do 

Societe  Franchise 
dea  Asphaltes. 

Montiotier  as- 
phalt. 

Maest.  asphalt .. 


7,938 
3,861 

232 
2,650 
1,439 
3,164 


73 1 
3,043 


297 
1,027 


402 
3,671 


Dec.  9,1870 
Aug.  18, 1871 

Apr.  1,1871 
July  22, 1871 
Nov.  12, 1873 
Oct,   18,1871 

Oct.  22,1871 
June  21, 1872 

Mar.  22, 1871 

Aug.  18, 1871 

May  2,1871 
Mar.  25, 1871 

Apr.  27, 1871 

Mar.  22, 1871 

Oct.  18,1873 
June  5,1869 

Dec.  22, 1871 
Mar.  30, 1871 


1,492    Sept.  7,1871 


Sept.  13, 1873 


Oct.   23,1873 
Mar.    6,1872 


227 
1,153 

955 
1,038 

761 

757 


8,  809 
4,  189 

2.381 
1,057 

327 


Sept.  23, 1873 
May  18, 1871 
Aug.  23, 1873 
Sept.  6,1871 
Oct.  18,1873 
Dec.  21,1872 
Sept.  7,1872 

June  11, 1873 
Apr.  11,1873 
Oct.  10,1872 
Oct.   14,1871 

July  18, 1872 

Aug.  14, 1872 

Jan.  26, 1872 


Concrete     foundation     6    in. 

thick;  compressed  asphalt 

2  in.  thick. 
Concrete    loundation    9    in., 

asphalt  2£  in. 
Concrete    foundation    6    in., 

asphalt  2  in. 

Coucrete    foundation    6    in., 

mastic  asphalt.  1J  in. 
Concrete    foundation    9    in., 

compressed  asphalt  2j  in. 
Concrete    foundation    6    in., 

compressed  asphalt  2  iu. 
Do. 


Do. 

Concrete    foundation    6    in., 

compressed  asphalt  2  in- 
Concrete    foundation    9    in., 
compressed  asphalt  2  in. 
Do. 

Do. 
Do. 

Concrete  foundation  9  in.,  com- 
pressed  asphalt  2J  in. 

Concrete  foundation  6in.,  com- 
pressed asphalt  2  in. 
Do. 

Concrete  foundation  8  in.,  com- 
pressed asphalt  2  in.;  on 
mastic  J  in. 

Coucrete  foundation  9iu.,  com- 
pressed asphalt  2  in. 

Concrete  foundation  6 in.,  com- 
pressed asphalt  2  in. 
Do. 


Concrete  foundation  6in.,  mas- 
tic, asphalt  2  in. 
Do. 

Concrete  foundation 6 in.,  mas- 
tic asphalt  2  iu. 

Concrete  fouudationGin.,  mas- 
tie  asphalt  2  in. 

Coucrete, foundation 9in.,  mas- 
tic asphalt  2  in. 

Concrete  foundation  6  in.,  mas- 
tic asphalt  2  iu. 

Concrete  foundation 'Jin.,  mas- 
tic asphalt  2  in. 

Concrete  foundatiou6iu.,  mas- 
tie  asphalt  2  in. 

Concrete  fmindationOin.,  mas- 
tic asphalt  2£  in. 
Do. 


Do. 
IK.. 
Do. 
Do. 

Concrete  foundation  Din.,  com- 
pressed asphalt  2j  in. 

Concrete  foundation  12  in., 
oompi eased  asphalt  2  in. 

Concrete  foundation  9  in.,  as- 
phalt 2  in. 


Removed  January  26, 1872,  and  Val  de  Tiavers  compressed  asphalt  laid  in  its  placo. 


340 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Table  No.  9. — Asphalt  pavements. — Table  showing  the  situation,  description,  area,  and 
date  of  completion  of  the  asphalt  pavements  in  the  city  of  London — Continued. 


Situation. 

Nameof  pavement. 

Length. 

Super- 
ficial 
area. 

When  com- 
pleted. 

Description  of  pavement. 

Princes  street* 

Do.t 

Trinidad  asphalt.. 

Patent  British  as- 
phalt. 

Stone's  slipless 
asphalt. 

Foothold  metallic 
asphalt. 

Yards. 
29 

39 

33 

28 

Yards. 
340 

371 

358 

299 

June  19, 1872 
July    6,1872 
Jul>  28, 1873 

Oct.  27,1873 

Concrete  foundation  9  in.,  as- 
phalt 2  in. 
Do. 

King      William 
street.  X 

Do.§ 

Concrete  foundation  6  in.  thick, 
asphalt  2J  in.  thick,  com- 
posed of  tar,  cement,  sand, 
and  lead  ore,  compressed  by 
machinery. 

asphalt  4  in.  thick,  viz,  3 
in.  of  English  upon  1  in.  of 
foreign  manufacture,  fused 
together. 

Removed  November  16, 1872,  and  Val  de  Travers  compressed  asphalt  laid  in  its  place. 
Removed  December  22,  1872,  and  Val  de  Travers  compressed  asphalt  laid  in  its  place. 
Removed  September  12, 1873,  and  Val  de  Travers  compressed  asphalt  laid  in  its  place. 
Removed  February  21, 1874,  and  Val  de  Travers  compressed  asphalt  laid  in  its  place. 


The  statements  as  to  the  composition  of  some  of  the  factitious  asphalts  are  as  given 
by  the  patentees  or  proprietors. 

Wm.  Haywood. 

March  17,  1874. 


COST  OF  MAINTAINING  LONDON  PAVEMENTS. 

Engineer  and  Surveyor's  Department, 

Seivers  Office,  Guildhall,  January  24,  1882. 
To  the  honorable  the  Commissioners  of  Sewers  of  the  City  of  London  : 

Gentlemen:  In  pursuance  of  your  reference  I  beg  to  lay  before  you  a  tahle  giving 
the  annual  cost  of  maintaining  in  good  condition  certain  of  the  principal  asphalt, 
wood,  and  granite  carriage-way  pavements  in  the  city  of  London. 

The  following  information  is  given  to  enable  their  relative  costs  to  be  properly 
considered: 

ASPHALT  PAVEMENTS. 

Asphalt  pavements  are  as  a  rule  maintained  by  the  contractors,  subject  to  the 
following  conditions: 

The  contracts  are  for  a  term  of  17  years. 

For  the  first  2  years  the  pavements  are  maintained  at  the  cost  of  the  contractors, 
and  for  the  remaining  15  at  the  cost  of  the  commission  at  contract  prices  per  square 
yard  per  annum,  measured  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  pavements,  for  which  the 
contractors  are  bound  to  keep  the  pavements  in  a  good  state  of  repair.  At  the  ter- 
mination of  the  contracts  the  pavements  are  to  be  left  in  a  good  condition  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  engineer,  and  so  that  a  square  yard  of  the  asphalt  is  not  to  weigh 
less  than  a  specified  weight. 

WOOD  PAVEMENTS. 

The  contracts  for  maintaining  these  are  also  for  17  years,  for  the  first  2  of  which 
they  are  maintained  at  the  cost  of  the  contractor,  aud  subsequently,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  asphalt,  at  the  cost  of  the  commission  at  a  tendered  price  per  square  yard  per 
annum,  measured  over  the  whole  surface,  the  pavements  at  the  expiration  of  the 
term  to  be  in  good  condition  and  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  engineer. 

There  are  a  few  exceptions,  however,  both  in  asphalt  and  wood,  to  the  mode  of 
contracting  for  maintenance. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM. 


341 


GIIAXITE    PAVEMENTS. 

The  commission  has  never  contracted  for  maintaining  granite  pavements  upon  the 
same  hasis  as  they  have  thoso  of  wood  and  asphalt,  hut  the  necessary  work  to  the 
granite  has  been  executed  when  needed,  and  paid  for  according  to  a  schedule  of 
prices  contracted  for.     As  far  as  practicable  all  the  work  is  measured  up. 

As  almost  every  main  thoroughfare  in  the  city  has  now  for  years  heen  paved  with 
wood  or  asphalt,  the  best  thing  is  to  lay  before  the  commission  the  estimates  of  the 
cost  of  certain  main  thoroughfares  which  were  made  when  they  were  paved  with 
granite,  and  just  before  wood  and  asphalt  were  introduced. 

The  mode  of  maintaining  the  granite  pavemeuts  must  also  be  explained. 

It  was  the  custom  to  lay  new  granite  almost  exclusively  in  main  thoroughfares, 
and  when  a  pavement  was  so  worn  as  to  need  a  general  relay,  to  remove  it  altogether 
and  lay  a  new  one  in  its  place.  The  pavements  in  main  thoroughfares  were,  there- 
fore, nearly  always  removed  long  before  they  were  worn  out ;  this  was  done  so  that 
those  streets  where  the  traffic  was  the  greatest  might  have  the  best  pavements,  as 
well  as  for  other  reasons. 

The  old  stones  were  removed  to  the  stone  yard,  mixed  with  the  general  stock,  re- 
dressed, sorted  into  sizes,  aud  theu  laid  iu  secondary  or  third-class  streets. 

Thus  it  most  frequently  happened  that  granite  paving  stones,  first  laid  in  a  main 
thoroughfare,  passed,  when  redressed,  into  a  second-class  thoroughfare,  and  ulti- 
mately into  one  of  but  little  traffic;  owing  to  this  system,  although  the  cost  of  the 
small  repairs  of  a  granite  pavement  made  yearly  could  readily  bo  arrived  at,  the  total 
cost  of  the  maintenance  over  long  periods  could  only  be  estimated. 

I  have  the  honor  to  remain,  gentlemen,  your  most  obedient  servant, 

W.  Haywood, 
Engineer  and  Surveyor. 

Return  showing  the  annual  cost  of  maintaining  the  carriage-way  pavements  in  some  of  the 
principal  thoroughfares  of  the  city  of  London. 


ASPHALT  PAVEMENTS. 


Name  of  thoroughfare. 

Description  of  pavement. 

Annual 
Cent  of 
mainten- 
ance per 
yard  super- 
ficial. 

s.  d. 

....do 

1    C 

Railway  place. 

....do 

....do 

....do 

...do 

....do 

0    9 

Mooigate  street,  between  Coleman  street  buildings  and 

London  wall. 
Moor»ate   street,  between  Lothbury  and    Telegraph 

■treet. 

,i,. 

....do 

1     0 

....do 

0    9 

do 

....do 

Bomd   street, between  Pancias  lane  aud    Queen  Vic- 
toria street. 

..   do 

....do 

1     3 

....do 

0    G 

■treet. 
Aldeate .  

Berabil] 

0    9 

...do  ... 

...do  ... 

Moor  gate  street,  from  Telegraph  street  to  Coleman 

etreet  buildings. 
Newgate  street 

...do 

0    9 

...do 

0    9 

342 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Return  showing  the  annual  cost  of  maintaining  the  carriage-way  pavements,  etc. — Cont'd. 
ASPHALT  PAVEMENTS— Continued. 


Name  of  thoroughfare. 


Fenchnrch  street  (eastern  end). 

King  street,  Cheapside  

Princes  street  (part  of) 

Philpotlane 

Milton  street 


Description  of  pavements. 


Societ6  Francaise  des  asphaltes. 
...do  


Annual 
cost  of 
mainten- 
ance per 
yard  super- 
ficial. 


WOOD  PAVEMENTS. 

1    0 

..    do 

1    0 

....do 

1    0 

1    0 

..  do 

0  10 

...do 

1     6 

do 

1     0 

do 

1     3 

....do  

0    9 

1    9 

do 

1    0 

1     0 

....do 

1    6 

....do  

1     6 

1     0 

Queen    street,    between    Cannon    street    and 
Thames  street. 

Upper 

0  10 

1 

C 

GRANITE  PAVEMENTS. 


Cheapside  

Poultry 

Old  Broad  street. 
Moorgate  street  . 
Lombard  street.. 


Aberdeen  grauite  3  bv  9  inches. 

...do 

..do 

...do 

...do 


0  61 

0  9J 

0  3 

0  3| 

0  3J 


These  are  the  suras  actually  paid  for  jobbing,  repairs,  and  maintaining  tbe  pave- 
ments generally  in  a  good  condition  until  a  relay  of  tbe  entire  surface  was  needed, 
when,  as  stated  in  tbe  report,  page  6,  tbe  pavements  were  replaced  by  new. 

In  1871  I  estimated  tbe  total  cost  per  square  yard  of  grauite  pavements  in  tbese 
thoroughfares,  assuming  that  tbe  grauite  bad  remained  in  them  until  thoroughly  worn 
out,  and  distributing  the  first  cost  of  the  pavements  over  their  duration,  was  as 
follows : 


Situation. 

Average  cost 
per  square 
yard  per  an- 
num, includ- 
ing first  cost 
and  mainte- 
nance. 

t.  d. 
1    74 

2    9i 

1    04 

1    44 

1    0} 

W.  Haywood, 
Engineer  and  Surveyor. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  343 

LIVERPOOL  DISTRICT. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  SHERMAN. 
STREETS. 

For  particulars  of  the  best  class  of  city  street  pavement  I  refer  to 
the  report  published  in  Consular  Reports  No.  117.     [Inserted  herein]. 

A  more  common  method  where  the  traffic  is  heavy  is  as  follows  :  On 
a  bed  of  ashes  or  broken  stone,  rolled  and  consolidated,  is  placed  a 
layer  of  1  inch  to  1£  inches  of  sand,  and  on  this  Welsh  granite  sets  from 
8  to  12  inches  long  by  6  inches  deep  and  3  inches  wide  are  laid  and  the 
joints  run  with  asphalt.  Where  the  traffic  is  lighter  grit-stone  sets  8 
to  12  inches  long,  8  inches  deep,  and  6  inches  wide  are  used.  These 
are  laid  as  above,  but  the  joints  are  simply  filled  with  sand  or  gravel. 

STREETS  AND  SEWERS  OF  LIVERPOOL.- 

STREET  PAVEMENTS. 

After  many  years  of  experiment  and  the  expenditure  of  vast  sums  of  money  in 
pavements  the  corporation  of  Liverpool  now  poiuts  with  justifiable  pride  to  its  250 
miles  of  the  best  paved  streets  in  the  world. 

The  policy  adopted  by  this  corporation  in  the  execution  of  public  works  in  the 
best  possible  manner,  and  generally  by  their  own  workmen,  has  proved  successful 
in  every  way;  and,  by  a  judicious  capital  expenditure,  the  cost  of  maintenance  of 
the  roads,  sewers,  and  other  public  works  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  the  greatest 
economy  is  thereby  attained. 

The  laying  of  the  impervious  pavement  which  was  adopted  in  1872  for  the  car- 
riage-ways of  the  city  has  been  continued  up  to  date  without  intermission,  and  is 
still  in  progress,  resulting  in  nearly  1,750,000  yards  superficial  of  impervious  carriage- 
way pavements  and  a  saving  by  the  execution  of  this  class  of  work  unprecedented 
in  municipal  experience. 

The  financial  result  can  best  be  shown  by  the  following  :  Dealing  with  the  year 
1879,  under  the  present  city  engineer  (Mr.  Clement  Dunscombe,  M.  A.,  M.  Inst.  C.  E.  ), 
the  estimated  expenditure  for  the  general  repairs  to  the  roads  in  this  city  was 
£J3,000  (§136,080),  the  mileage  of  adopted  roads  at  that  time  being  226  miles.  *  Con- 
currently with  the  extension  of  the  impervious  carriage-way  pavements,  the  expend- 
iture under  this  head  has  been  reduced  year  by  year  till  the  estimated  cost  for  the 
current  year  (1889)  is  only  £8,400  ($40,824),  with  a  street  mileage  under  repair  of  254 
miles.  This  reduction  has  not  been  eil'ectod,  as  might  at  first  sight  be  supposed,  by 
an  increased  rate  under  this  head,  duo  to  an  augmented  capital  expenditure  requir- 
ing the  provision  of  additional  interest  and  sinking  fund  to  redeem  the  original  debt 
for  paving  and  like  works  within  23  years  (from  1870,  when  the  loan  was  effected,  to 
1893,  when  it  will  bo  paid),  as  the  amount  raised  on  paving  rate  account  in  the 
year  1879  was,  approximately,  £17,000  ($32,620)  more  than  in  the  year  1889,  al- 
though the  interest  and  sinking  fund  on  the  debt  had  increased  from  about  £13,000 
(£6.5,180)  per  annum  in  the  year  1879  to  about  £47,000  ($228,420)  per  annum  in  the 
year  1889. 

Appended  hereto  are  the  specifications  for  paving  first,  second,  and  third  class 
Streets. 

Pavement  designated  as  first  class  is  usually  laid  down  in  the  main  streets  of 
heavy  traffic  in  the  central  parts  of  the  city. 


*  From  Consular  Reports,  No.  117,  for  Juuo,  1890. 


344  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Permission  is  never  given  to  private  companies  or  persons  to  cut  through  the 
pavement  in  any  street  for  any  purpose.  When  such  work  is  necessary,  the  corpora- 
tion will  do  it  in  its  own  thorough  way,  and  the  interested  parties  must  pay  the  en- 
tire cost— a  regulation  worth  noting. 

PAVING  SPECIFICATIONS. 

First-class  streets. — Excavate  or  fill  in  the  ground,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  the  requi- 
site level,  and  remove  all  surplus  material.  Properly  form  and  trim  off  the  surface 
and  thoroughly  consolidate  the  same,  and  then  lay  a  foundation  of  not  less  than  6 
inches  of  Portland  cement  concrete,  corporation  standard.  The  paving  shall  consist 
of  granite  or  syenite  sets,  3J  inches  wide  by  (>£  inches  deep,  from  North  Wales  or 
other  approved  quarries,  laid  in  regular,  straight,  and  properly  bonded  courses, 
with  close  joints,  and  to  be  evenly  bedded  on  a  layer  of  fine  gravel  half  an  inch  in 
thickness.  After  the  paving  is  laid  the  joints  shall  be  filled  with  hard,  clean,  dry 
shingle;  the  sets  shall  then  be  thoroughly  rammed  and  additional  shingle  added 
until  the  joints  are  perfectly  full.  The  joints  shall  then  be  carefully  grouted  until 
completely  filled  with  hot  asphalt, composed  of  coal  pitch  and  creosote  oil,  and  finally 
the  paving  is  to  be  covered  with  half  an  inch  of  sharp  gravel. 

The  crossings  shall  consist  of  three  rows  of  16  by  8  inch  granite  crossing  stones,  and 
the  remaining  space  shall  be  paved  on  each  side  of  the  crossing  stones  to  the  full 
width  of  the  footway,  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  carriage  way.  The  crossing  stones 
shall  be  of  granite  of  a  quality  to  be  approved  by  the  engineer,  dressed  perfectly 
true,  and  out  of  winding  on  the  face  ;  the  sides  and  joints  to  be  perfectly  square  and 
accurately  dressed  throughout  their  entire  depth  ;  the  stones  to  be  bedded  on  cement 
concrete,  the  joints  to  be  filled  with  shingle  and  grouted  with  hot  asphalt.  A  tri- 
angular groove  an  inch  wide  by  three-fourths  of  an  inch  deep  to  be  run  along  the 
upper  surface  of  each  stone.    No  stone  to  be  less  than  3  feet  in  length. 

The  footways  shall  be  paved  with  Yorkshire  or  Lancashire  flags  of  the  best  qual- 
ity, not  less  than  3  inches  thick.  No  flag  to  measure  less  than  2  feet  in  width  or  to 
be  of  less  area  than  6  feet;  to  be  solid,  free  from  laminations,  the  upper  surface  to  be 
true  and  free  from  windings  or  hollows  ;  the  joints  to  be  squared  the  whole  thickness. 
The  flags  to  be  laid  on  a  bed  of  fine  gravel,  with  close,  neat  joints  flushed  in  mortar, 
and  in  uniform  courses  breaking  bond.  The  joints  to  be  dressed  after  laying,  where 
necessary. 

The  channel  stones  to  be  of  granite  or  syenite,  of  a  quality  to  be  approved  by  the 
engineer,  and  to  be  not  less  than  3  feet  in  length.  The  upper  surface,  if  not  self-face 
and  perfectly  true,  must  be  accurately  worked  out  of  winding,  the  bed  even  an< 
parallel  to  the  face,  the  sides  and  ends  truly  square  ;  the  stones  to  be  bedded  or 
cement  concrete,  and  the  joints  to  be  filled  with  clean  shingle  and  grouted  with  he 
asphalt. 

The  curbstones  to  be  granite  or  syenite,  straight  or  circular  as  required,  6  inche 
thick  at  top,  7  inches  thick  at  5  inches  below,  and  not  less  than  that  thickuess  for  the 
remainder  of  the  depth  ;  to  be  not  less  than  12  inches  deep  nor  less  than  3  feet  it 
length ;  to  be  carefully  dressed  on  top,  8  inches  down  the  face,  and  3  inches  down  the 
back;  the  remainder  of  each  stone  to  be  hammer  dressed;  the  heading  joints  to 
neatly  and  accurately  squared  throughout  the  entire  depth. 

Second-class  streets. — Excavate  or  fill  in  the  ground,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  the  requi- 
site level,  and  remove  all  surplus  material ;  properly  form  and  trim  off  the  surface; 
and  thoroughly  consolidate  the  same,  and  then  lay  a  foundation  of  (a)  not  less  thar 
G  inches  of  Portland  cement  concrete,  corporation  standard,  or  (6)  not  less  than  i 
inches  of  bituminous  concrete,  consisting  of  clean  And  angular  broken  stone,  groute 
with  hot  asphalt  composed  of  coal  pitch  and  creosote  oil,  covered  with  chipping 
and  thoroughly  consolidated  by  rolling  with  a  roller  of  sufficient  weight.  The  pai) 
iug  shall  consist  of  granite  or  syenite  sets  3  inches  wide  by  5  inches  deep,  or  of  granit 
or  syenite  4  by  4  inch  cubes  from  North  Wales  or  other  approved  quarries,  laid 


EUROPE UNITED   KINGDOM.  345 

regular,  straight,  and  properly  bonded  courses,  with  close  joints,  and  to  be  evenly 
bedded  on  a  layer  of  fine  gravel  half  an  iucb  iu  thickness.  After  the  paving  is  laid 
the  joints  shall  be  filled  with  cleau,  hard,  dry  shingle;  the  sets  shall  then  be  thor- 
oughly rammed,  and  additional  shingle  added  until  the  joints  are  perfectly  full.  The 
joints  shall  then  be  carefully  grouted  until  completely  filled  with  hot  asphalt  com- 
posed of  coal  pitch  and  creosote  oil,  and,  finally,  the  paving  shall  be  covered  with 
half  an  inch  of  sharp  gravel. 

The  crossings,  footways,  channels,  and  curbs  shall  be  the  same  as  specified  for  first- 
class  streets. 

Third-class  streets. — Excavate  or  fill  iu  the  ground,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  the  requi- 
site level,  and  remove  all  surplus  material;  properly  form  and  trim  off  the  surface 
and  thoroughly  consolidate  the  same,  and  then  lay  a  foundation  of  hand-pitched  rock 
C  inches  in  depth,  set  on  edge  in  the  manner  of  a  rough  pavement.  Over  this  a  coat- 
ing of  gravel  is  to  be  laid  of  sufficient  thickness  to  fill  in  the  interstices  and  to  form 
a  smooth  surface  to  the  foundation,  which  must  be  thoroughly  consolidated  by  rolling 
with  a  steam  roller  before  the  paving  is  laid.  The  paving  shall  consist  of  4  by  4  inch 
granite  or  syenite  cubes  from  North  Wales  or  other  approved  quarries,  laid  in  regular, 
straight,  and  properly  bonded  courses,  with  close  joints,  and  to  be  evenly  bedded  on 
a  layer  of  fine  gravel  half  an  inch  in  thickness.  After  the  paving  is  laid  the  joints 
shall  be  filled  with  cleau,  hard,  dry  shingle;  the  sets  shall  then  be  thoroughly  rammed 
and  additional  shingle  added  until  the  joints  are  perfectly  full.  The  joints  shall 
then  be  carefully  grouted,  until  completely  filled  up,  with  hot  asphalt  composed  of 
coal  pitch  and  creosote  oil,  and,  finally,  the  paving  shall  be  covered  with  half  an  inch 
of  sharp  gravel. 

The  crossings,  footways,  channels,  and  curbs  shall  be  the  same  as  specified  for  first- 
class  streets. 

Street  Railways. 

All  the  street  railway  tracks  (tramways)  are  laid  and  owned  and  kept  in  condition 
by  the  corporation,  and  the  company  leasing  them  for  traffic  pays  an  annual  reutal 
of  10  per  cent,  on  their  cost. 

The  superb  manner  in  which  these  rails  are  placed  is  fully  shown  in  an  illustrated 
report  of  the  city  engineer,  from  which  I  quote : 

"The  Liverpool  city  lines  as  now  laid  •  *  »  are  conclusive  proof  that  when 
tramways  are  well  designed  and  properly  constructed  they  do  not  form  the  slightest 
impediment  even  to  the  narrowest  wheeled  Vehicles." 

Sewers. 

During  the  past  17  years  the  corporation  has  expended  for  sewerage  works  approx- 
imately £350,000  (§1,703,000),  and  this  outlay  has  been  thoroughly  reproductive  from 
a  sanitary  point  of  view  in  a  lessened  mortality  rate.  Interesting  details  on  this  sub- 
ject are  given  in  the  illustrated  report  of  the  city  engineer  which  is  inclosed  here- 
with. 

SEWERS  OF  LIVERPOOL. 

[Extracts  from  the  annual  report  of  the  city  engineer,  Mr.  Danscombe.] 

Ventilation  of  setvers. 

Prior  to  1871  there  we  re  noventilators  fixed  upon  the  main  sewers  in  the  city.  At 
that  date  1,046  Archimedean  screw  ventilators,  6  inches  in  diameter,  were  connected 
with  the  branch  sewers  from  courts,  the  G-iuch  pipe  being  attached  to  the  side  of  one 
of  the  court  houses  wherever  permission  could  be  obtained.  Of  this  number  there 
are  at  the  present  time  076  remaining,  which  includes  a  few  shaft  ventilators  added 
eince  1871,  mainly  in  confined  situations  where  open  grid  ventilation  was  found  to  be 


346  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

objectionable,  tbe  demolition  of  insanitary  court  bouses  and  of  property  for  railway 
and  other  improvements  having  reduced  the  number  that  were  originally  fixed.* 

The  cost  of  these  ventilators,  including  fixing,  is  stated  to  be  £10  each,  and  the 
annual  cost  of  maintenance  about  5s.  each. 

Ventilating  grids  or  ventilating  manhole  covers,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  clear  open- 
ing in  each  being  not  less  than  63  square  inches,  have  been  fixed  along  the  main  sewers 
at  a  distance  apart  of  80  yards  approximately. 

Drawing  No.  1,  figure  1,  shows  the  arrangement  adopted  where  the  ventilating 
grating  is  fixed  over  a  chamber  constructed  at  the  side  of  a  manhole. 

Drawing  No.  1,  figure  2,  shows  a  manhole  cover  and  ventilator  combined. 

Where  the  distance  between  the  manholes  is  more  than  the  specified  distance  apart 
of  80  yards,  ventilating  grids,  as  shown  in  drawing  No.  1,  Fig.  4,  have  been  fixed 
on  special  shafts  over  the  sewer,  so  that  this  uniform  distance  is  maintained  through- 
out. 

Prior  to  1876  detail  records  do  not  seem  to  have  been  kept  in  the  engineer's  depart- 
ment of  the  rate  of  progress  of  this  work,  but  it  appears  that  up  to  that  year  28  miles 
of  main  sewers  had  been  ventilated. 

With  the  exception  of  those  sewers  into  which  hot  water  is  discharged  or  steam 

injected,  and  which  are  few  in  number,  the  ventilation  of  the  whole  of  the  Liverpool 

.  main  sewers  was  completed  in  1882,  embracing  the  following  mileage,  viz  : 

Miles 

Up  to  1876 

1876 


1877 
1878 
1879 


1881 


188* I 

Length  of  sewers  ventilated  to  year  1882 177 

New  sewers  constructed  and  old  sewers  reconstructed  from  1876  to  1885  inclusive.     72 

Total  mileage  of  brick  and  pipe  sewers  ventilated  to  year  1 885 249 

All  new  sewers  are  now  ventilated  in  a  similar  manner,  as  their  construction  pro- 
ceeds. 
The  total  cost  of  ventilation  has  been  £12,000,  or  Id.  per  yard  rua  of  sewer. 

Reconstruction  and  alteration  of  gullies. 

The  records  of  the  progress  of  this  work  up  to  1880  appear  to  be  incomplete.  Since 
that  year  all  defective  gullies  have  been  altered,  improved,  or  reconstructed  practi- 
cally in  accordauce  with  drawing  No.  1,  Fig.  3,  and  all  new  gullies  have  been  built  in 
accordance  with  this  drawing. 

This  form  of  gully  combines  the  essentials  requisite  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the 
quantity  of  detritus  entering  the  sewers. 

Up  to  date  5,219  gullies  have  been  constructed  or  reconstructed. 

Cleansing  of  sewers. 

No  systematic  cleansing  of  the  sewers  appears  to  have  obtained  prior  to  1871,  but 

from  that  year  systematic  cleansing  of  the  main  sewers  in  the  lower  districts  of  the 

city  and  tide-locked  sewers  has  been  carried  out,  in  addition  to  the  cleansing  which 

takes  place  previous  to  the  execution  of  repairs. 

*  As  regards  the  Archimedean  screw  ventilators,  Dps.  Parkes  and  Sanderson  state 
in  their  report  as  their  opinion  that,  notwithstanding  the  mechanical  efficiency  of 
the  Archimedean  screw  ventilators,  they  exercise  no  practical  influence  iu  preventing 
the  escape  of  sewer  air  into  the  streets  and  houses. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  347 

The  necessity  for  cleansing  the  sewers  which  have  been  repaired  and  the  gullies 
emptying  into  same  rehnilt  has  heen  in  a  great  measure  obviated  owing  to — 

(1)  The  improved  construction  of  the  gullies,  by  which  less  detritus  enters  the 
sewers,  the  extension  of  impervious  pavements  of  slow-wearing  material,  and  the  re- 
duction in  the  area  of  macadamized  roads. 

(2)  The  generally  self-cleansing  condition  of  the  sewers  as  repaired,  and  their  sys- 
tematic flushing. 

The  cost  of  this  work  for  the  parish  is  £1,302  per  annum,  and  for  the  out  town- 
ships £1,730  per  annum. 

Repairs  on  rates  account. 

Preparatory  to  executing  any  repairs  in  a  sewer  it  is  thoroughly  cleansed,  and  then 
inspected  to  ascertain  what  repairs  are  necessary,  in  order  to  put  it  into  perfect  con- 
dition and  make  it,  in  the  future,  as  far  as  possible  self-cleansing. 

The  repairs  executed  to  the  sewers  are  :  (1)  Repairs  dependent  upon  the  defective 
junction  of  branch  sewers  with  main  sewers,  either  in  plan  or  section;  (2)  repairs 
required  consequent  upon  the  natural  decay  or  wearing  away  of  the  materials  form- 
ing the  sewer. 

(1)  Defective  junction  of  branch  sewers  with  main  sewers. — Where  a  branch  sewer 
meets  a  main  brick  sewer  at  the  same  invert  level,  this  has  been  altered,  wherever  the 
gradient  would  admit  of  it,  by  raising  the  invert  level  so  that  it  outlets  into  the 
main  at  its  proper  relative  level  and  running  the  gradient  out  to  meet  the  ordinary 
gradient  of  the  branch  sewer — the  work  being  executed  in  Portland  cement  concrete. 
Where  a  branch  meets  the  main  sewer  at  right  angles,  the  junction  is  altered  to  a 
curve  of  moderate  radius. 

(2)  Sewers  decayed  and  worn. — In  the  case  of  repairs  consequent  upon  the  natural 
decay  of  wearing  away  of  the  materials  forming  the  sewer,  the  mode  of  procedure  is 
as  follows: 

(a)  Pointing. — After  cleansing  and  examination  the  class  of  repairs  required  is  de- 
cided upon.  In  some  cases  the  raking  out  of  the  joints  of  the  brickwork,  washing  it, 
and  repointing  in  Portland  cement  mortar  mixed  in  the  proportions  of  1  of  cement  to 
1  of  sand  will  meet  the  case. 

(6)  Pointing  and  reinver ling. —In  some  instances  the  invert  of  the  sewer  is  found  to 
be  worn  away,  or  constructed  so  unevenly  as  to  assist  the  formation  of  deposit.  In 
this  case,  in  addition  to  the  pointing  already  described,  the  invert  of  the  sewer  is  im- 
proved in  cross-section  and  gradient,  the  mode  of  procedure  being  as  follows: 

The  sewer  being  cleansed,  the  joints  are  raked  out,  as  before  stated,  and  the  sewer 
isreinverted  with  Portland  cement  concrete  averaging  2  parts  of  river  gravel  to  1 
part  of  cement,  the  surface  being  finished  in  the  proportion  of  1  part  of  cement  to  1 
part  of  gravel. 

This  mode  of  treatment  constitutes  the  work  executed  in  the  majority  of  the  old 
Bewers  dealt  with  in  the  parish  of  Liverpool. 

Owing  to  the  large  dimensions  of  the  main  sewers,  the  whole  of  the  operations  in 
connection  with  their  repair  are  conducted  without  in  any  way  disturbing  the  pave- 
ments; the  work  is  executed  between  manhole  and  manhole,  the  sewage  in  the 
sewer  operated  upon  being  dammed  back  at  the  point  under  repair  and  provision 
made  for  the  discharge  of  the  sewage  through  pipes  or  open  troughs  suspended  from 
the  portion  of  6ewer  undergoing  repairs.  After  the  lapse  of  about  4  days  from  com- 
pletion of  the  respective  repairs  the  sewage  is  again  allowed  to  flow  through  the 
Bower. 

Reconstruction  on  capital  account. 

(1)  Defective  construction  or  workmanship. — (a)  These  consist  generally  of  sewers 
driven  in  headings  prepared  for  9-inoh  work.  The  sewers  have  only  been  executed 
in  44-inch  work,  except  at  the  termination  of  each  center  length,  the  space  between 


348 


STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


the  brick  arch  and  the  rock  roof,  including  the  space  for  the  4^-iuch  ring  of  brick- 
work omitted,  not  being  filled  in  with  any  material. 

(ft)  Sewers  for  which  the  headings  have  been  taken  out  considerably  larger  than 
actually  required  for  the  size  of  the  sewer  and  thickness  of  hrickwork,  and  this  ex- 
tra space  in  the  heading  abovo  the  9-inch  brickwork  has  not  been  filled  in. 

These  sewers  are  practically  the  same  as  shown  in  drawing  No.  4,  Figs.  1  and  2, 
with  the  exception  that  the  thickness  of  the  brickwork  of  the  arch  is  9  inches 
throughout. 

In  heavy  storms  they  will  probably  run  full  aud  under  considerable  pressure,  and 
when  these  defects  exist  the  crown  of  the  sewer  is  lifted  and  the  arch  fractured. 
Their  reconstruction  consists  in  re-arching  and  fitting  in  the  headings  solid.  The  in- 
verts of  many  of  these  sewers  are,  in  addition,  found  to  have  worn  away  considera- 
bly, aud  advantage  is  taken,  when  executing  the  work  of  re-arching,  to  reline  the  in- 
vert with  radiating  blue  bricks. 

Examples  of  defects  a  and  b  have  occurred  as  follows,  viz:  Bankhall  relieving 
sewer,  from  Stanley  road  to  the  canal,  is  a  type  of  the  class  a;  in  1863  tho  arch  of 
this  sewer  was  reconstructed  and  the  invert  lined  with  blue  bricks.  Sandhills  lai 
outfall  sewer,  which  is  6  feet  by  4  feet,  is  an  example  of  b  as  described ;  the  portion 
passing  under  Great  Homer  street  and  Smith  street  has  already  been  completed,  and 
the  length  passing  under  Lambeth  road  and  Sandhills  lane  has  been  receutly  com- 
menced. 

(2)  Sewers  driven  in  the  sandstone  rock. — The  next  description  of  sewers  which  re- 
quire reconstruction  are  those  which  are  found  on  examination  to  hh  simply  headings 
driven  through  the  sandstone  rock  neither  in  line  nor  level.  New  brick  sewers  were 
constructed  within  these  headings  in  proper  direction  and  level,  the  remaining  por- 
tion of  the  heading  being  carefully  filled  in.  Types  of  sewers  which  have  been  re- 
cently dealt  with  were  situated  in  Catharine  street,  Canning  street,  Percy  street, 
Huskisson  street,  etc. 

(3)  Brick  sewers  past  repair. — Sewers  past  repair,  owing  to  natural  decay  of  the 
materials  of  which  they  are  formed,  and  therefore  require  to  be  constructed  auew. 
When  these  sewers  are  reconstructed  advautage  is  taken,  wherever  possible,  to  im- 
prove their  level,  gradient,  and  cross-section.  Types  of  sewers  recently  dealt  with 
were  Waterloo  road,  Bath  street,  Grundy  street,  Errington  street,  Haigh  street,  and 
Dingle  outfall  sewers. 

(4)  Pipe-passage  sewers. — These  sewers,  when  found  to  be  defective,  are  recon- 
structed. Generally,  those  dealt  with  have  been  laid  for  many  years,  and  thr  de- 
fects in  them  consist  principally  in  the  quality  of  the  pipes  and  mode  of  jointing .  In 
many  cases,  owing  to  the  ground  being  filled-in  ground,  its  subsequent  settlement 
has  caused  inequalities  in  the  line  of  sewer  and  breakages  of  the  pipes,  resulting  in 
stoppages  and  rendering  anything  short  of  reconstruction  unsatisfactory.  Such 
sewers  have  generally  been  found  in  the  older  residential  parts  of  the  city. 

Since  1879,  14  miles  of  main  sewers,  mostly  of  large  capacity,  have  been  recon- 
structed at  a  cost  of  £51,739. 

New  brick  sewers, 


All  new  brick  sewers  are  generally  constructed  in  accordance  with  drawing  No.  4, 
Fig.  4.  with  bricks  molded  to  the  respective  radii,  and  in  certain  cases  the  invert  is 
lined  with  best  radiating  blue  bricks. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  349 

Progress  of  repairs. 
The  following  table  shows  the  areas  dealt  with  from  1873  to  1885,  inclusive: 


Tears. 

Acres. 

Miles  of 
sewers 
repaired. 

1873-75 

206 
781 
C57 

13 
28 
37* 

1876-79 

1880-'85 

The  results  from  these  repairs  have  been  most  satisfactory,  both  on  sanitary  and 
economical  grounds. 

(1)  Freedom  from  deposits  in  the  sewers  and  a  quicker  discharge  of  the  sewage  to 
the  respective  outfalls,  and  consequent  lessened  impurity  of  the  sewer  air,  which  can 
thus  be  more  readily  reudered  perfectly  innocuous  by  dilution  with  fresh  air  through 
the  open  gratings  fixed  over  the  sewers.  When  the  main  causes  of  the  impurity  of 
the  sewer  air,  viz,  deposits  in  the  sewers,  are  removed,  open  grid  ventilation,  as 
adopted  iu  Liverpool,  by  which  means  the  sewer  air  is  diluted,  is  an  effective  system 
which  can  be  carried  out  at  a  moderate  cost. 

(2)  On  economical  grounds  the  repairs  have  been  satisfactory, by  diminished-cleans- 
ing  of  the  sewers  repaired,  and  preventing  the  necessity  of  reconstructing  the  sewers 
bo  dealt  with  at  some  future  time  at  considerable  cost. 

When  large  volumes  of  hot  water  discharge  into  a  sewer  and  can  not  be  prevented, 
and  where  wastes  from  chemical  or  other  works  empty  into  it,  special  means  of  ven- 
tilation other  than  by  open  grids  is  necessary,  and  in  certain  cases  it  may  be  prefera- 
ble to  construct  a  special  drain  for  these  discharges. 

Permanency  of  repairs. 

in  order  to  ascertain  the  permanency  of  repairs  executed  as  already  described,  the 
engineer  has  caused  a  careful  examination  to  be  made  of  eighty  of  the  sewers,  selected 
at  random,  which  were  repaired  between  1873  and  the  present  time. 

The  selected  sewers  in  which  repairs  have  been  executed  during  the  years  1873'-75, 
and  which  may  be  taken  as  representative  ones  for  those  years,  have  evidently  had 
little  done  to  them,  the  principal  work  being  cementing  the  invert  and  rough  point- 
ipg.  Some  of  these  sewers  may  probably  require  to  be  again  repaired  within  a 
period  of  from  10  to  15  years.  The  amount  expended  in  these  sewers  has  evidently 
been  small,  and  consequently  the  repairs  in  them  can  not  be  expected  to  last  so  long 
as  those  done  at  subsequent  periods.  The  expenditure,  however,  has  been  more  than 
recouped  by  the  saving  effected  in  cleansing  them  and  their  increased  efficiency. 
From  1876  to  1878  the  repairs  executed  have  been  of  a  far  more  substantial  character, 
and  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  last  many  years.  From  1879  to  date,  the  repairs 
have  been  executed  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  methods  previously  described, 
and  the  quality  of  the  work  can  not  well  be  improvod;  the  sewers  as  now  repaired 
are  practically  equal  to  new  ones. 

The  superiority  of  the  work  in  recent  years  is  readily  accounted  for— all  the  men 
now  engaged  upon  the  work  are  well  trained  in  the  various  classes  of  repairs  requi- 
site. Skilled  bricklayers  are  employed  to  execute  the  work,  which,  in  addition,  is 
carefully  supervised.    Portland  cement  concrete  or  mortar  only  is  used. 

House-drainage  regulations. 

In  1882  the  engineer  prepared  draft  by-laws  with  respect  to  the  drainage  of  build- 
ings. They  were  duly  approved  by  the  health  committee,  and  were  subsequently 
confirmed  by  the  local  government  board  in  November,  1883.  From  this  date  all  now 
buildings  orccted  in  the  city  have  been  drained  iu  conformity  with  these  regulations, 
which  are  found  to  work  satisfactorily. 


350  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Except  in  the  center  of  the  parish  of  Liverpool,  the  houses  are  drained  ou  what 
may  be  termed  the  "  back  drainage  "  system,  the  drains  discharging  into  the  passing 
sewer  at  the  rear  of  the  premises,  avoiding  the  necessity  of  any  of  them  passing 
under  the  buildings,  and  admitting  of  the  houses  being  drained  on  the  best  sanitary 
principles,  aud  affording  easy  means  for  their  periodical  inspection. 

The  estimated  cost  of  executing  the  drainage  of  a  cottage  house  in  Liverpool  under 
these  regulations,  inclusive  of  closet-pan  and  siphon,  siphon-trap  and  waste  from 
sink,  also  bath  waste,  is,  in  the  case  of  a  cottage  house  with  an  external  water-closet, 
£3  10s.,  and,  with  an  internal  water-closet  in  addition,  £4  5s. 

With  such  additional  appliances  and  fittings  as  may  be  requisite  the  system  of 
draiuage  adopted  for  the  cottage  house  is  equally  applicable  in  degree  to  the  largest 
houses  in  the  city,  The  highest  sanitary  standard  of  house  drainage  is  extremely 
simple  in  arrangement  and  need  not  necessarily  be  expensive,  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
can  in  ordinary  cases  be  carried  out  at  such  a  moderate  expenditure  as  should  encour- 
age owners  of  house  property  to  reconstruct  the  drainage  of  same  where  it  is  not  in 
accordance  with  the  most  modern  practice  as  defined  by  these  drainage  regulations. 

Flushing  of  seioers  and  private  drains. 

All  main  sewers  that  are  not  self-cleansing  are  periodically  flushed  by  large  mova- 
ble tanks  placed  over  a  manhole  on  the  sewer.  These  tanks  contain  1,800  gallons  of 
water,  and  discharge  their  contents  into  the  sewer  through  a  valve  at  the  bottom  of 
the  tank  in  28  seconds.  The  cost  of  this  work  is  about  £1,200  per  annum.  All  pas- 
sage sewers  are  flushed  four  times  annually  by  special  gaugs,  either  from  chambers 
at  the  head  of  each  sewer  or  by  hose  connected  with  hydrants  fixed  in  convenient 
positions,  and,  in  addition,  they  are  indirectly  flushed  twice  annually  by  the  private 
drains  flushing  gang.     The  cost  of  this  work  is  about  £1,100  per  annum. 

In  December,  1880,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  engineer,  the  health  committee 
resolved  to  flush  all  private  drains  twice  annually,  free  of  cost  to  the  occupiers,  and 
oftener  on  payment  of  a  small  fee,  regulated  according  to  the  ratable  value  of  the 
premises,  and  this  work  has  since  been  regularly  carried  out.  It  is  so  arranged  that 
a  flushing  pang  visits  each  house  iu  the  city  once  every  six  months. 

The  staff  for  this  work  comprises  one  flushing  inspector,  one  foreman,  and  sixteen 
gaugs  of  three  men  each. 

The  drains,  water-closets,  and  soil-pipes  within  the  curtilage  of  all  premises  are 
flushed  by  hose  attached  to  hydrants  fixed  at  convenient  distances  in  the  passages  or 
adjacent  streets. 

The  occupiers  of  the  houses  willingly  cooperate  and  afford  every  facility  for  exe- 
cuting this  important  sanitary  work,  and  although  107,000  houses,  exclusive  of  ware- 
houses, stores,  offices,  etc.,  are  visited  twice  annually,  few  complaints  reach  the 
department  relative  to  the  manner  in  which  any  of  the  operations  are  conducted. 

The  cost  of  this  work  is  £5,000  per  annum,  or  under  6d.  per  house  for  each  fluish- 
ing.  In  all  cases  the  water  is  supplied  free  of  cost  by  the  water  committee  of  the 
corporation. 

Inspection  of  main  sewers  by  special  gangs. 

This  work  has  only  been  carried  out  systematically  since  October,  18S5.  Previous 
to  that  date,  however,  all  sewers  were  examined  wherever  connections  were  made 
with  them  for  the  drainage  of  property,  also  prior  to  cleansing  or  executing  repairs 
or  other  work,  and  reports  made  as  to  their  condition  either  by  the  sewer  inspectors 
or  workmen  engaged,  so  that  practically  the  inspectors  aud  workmen  were  con- 
versant generally  with  the  condition  of  the  sewers.  The  periodical  inspection  of  all 
the  sewersis,  however,  preferable. 

So  far  as  the  inspection  has  gone,  which  in  the  future  will  be  a  continuous  one,  it 
has  been  ascertained  that  the  remaining  sewers  in  Liverpool  will  in  every  case 
require  to  be  dealt  with  as  already  described. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM. 

Expenditure. 


351 


From  the  table  annexed  it  will  be  seen  that  the  majority  of  tbe  repairs  up  to  the 
present  date  have  been  carried  out  within  the  parish.  The  engineer  estimates  that 
the  corporation  has  expended,  from  1873  to  date,  the  following  sums  in  repairs  and 
cleansing  consequent  on  repairs  : 


Years. 

Parish  of 
Liverpool. 

Township 

of  Kirk- 
dale. 

Township 
of  Everton. 

Township 
of  West 
Derby. 

Towuship 
of  Toxteth 

Park. 

1873-79 

£19,  520 
59, 486 

79,  006 

£600 
3,795 

£200 
4,269 

£1,  270 
3,650 

1880  -'85 „ 

£1,  955 

Total 

1,955 

4,395 

4,469 

4,920 

During  this  period  7d£  miles  of  main  sewers  have  been  repaired  at  a  total  cost  of 
£94,745.     Of  this  mileage  G'2|  miles  are  in  the  parish. 


Ffy.8. 


Sect/on  of  Manhole 
show/ng 
Sol/o  Cover  and  Venti latino  Chamber. 


Section  of  Manhole 

with 
Venti latino  Coven. 


Fit*.  3. 


Section  of  Water-trapped  Qjlly. 
Settle. 


INCHES  13      e        0 

iHHiiHHK 


DliAWlNO  £[0.  1. 


352 


STREETS   AND   HIGHWAYS   IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Drawing  No.  2.—  Cross-section  showing  Portland  cement  concrete  invert. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM. 


353 


33a- 


23 


354  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM. 


355 


M^Zr  N°'  5'-piai,8,'owiu«,",',1),"1"1''','''l|i"^vit!1  014  rook  headings  wWcfa  have  !„.,,,  us,,) 


356  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

HIGHWAYS. 

I  am  informed  that  some  of  the  country  roads  in  this  vicinity  have 
only  the  natural  foundation,  which  means  no  foundation  at  all,  are 
poorly  drained,  and  have  been  much  neglected,  but  are  now  being  more 
carefully  treated.  Such  roads,  however,  are  rarely  seen,  and  in  the 
main  the  roads  are  thoroughly  made  and  maintaiued  in  good  condition. 
There  is  but  little  of  the  common  "dirt  road,"  and  this  is  made  here 
as  everywhere  else  of  the  material  nearest  at  hand,  the  expense  being 
entirely  for  labor.  In  the  vicinity  of  works  and  mines  where  the  traf- 
fic is  heavy  more  care  is  taken,  and  granite  is  brought  by  rail  for  re- 
pairing. Where  the  traffic  is  lighter  the  local  stone,  whatever  it  may 
be,  is  used.  In  some  localities  slag  and  other  refuse  from  works  and 
mines  are  largely  used  for  country  roads  and  for  streets  in  towns.  Such 
cheap  roads  being  the  exception,  it  is  difficult  here,  where  macadam  is 
almost  universally  adopted,  to  draw  the  line  between  city  streets  and 
country  roads.  Hence  what  follows  in  many  cases  necessarily  relates 
to  both. 

In  a  residential  district  in  Cheshire  where  the  traffic  is  comparatively 
light  all  the  roads  except  along  the  route  of  the  tramway  are  macad- 
amized. The  macadam  ii  6  inches  thick  upon  a  foundation  of  pitching 
or  rough  blocks  of  sandstone  8  inches  thick.  The  macadam  is  rolled 
with  a  steam  roller  10  tous  in  weight  uutil  thoroughly  consolidated,  a 
very  small  quautity  of  selected  road  detritus  being  used  with  plenty  of 
water  during  the  final  operations  on  the  roller. 

The  surface  of  the  road  then  receives  a  liberal  sprinkling  of  granite 
chippingsand  the  roller  again  passes  over  it  several  times.  The  mac- 
adam is  of  granite  from  Peumaenmawr,  or  from  Port  Nant,  iu  Nortfii 
Wales,  about  100  miles  distant,  and  the  rock  pitching  is  obtained  from 
local  quarries.  A  channel  at  each  side  of  the  carriageway  is  formed 
of  grit  channel  stones  10  inches  wide  by  5  inches  deep,  laid  upon  a 
foundation  similar  to  that  for  the  macadam,  except  in  main  thorough- 
fares, where  6  inches  of  concrete  is  used  instead.  The  channels  are  in 
all  cases  backed  np  by  the  curb,  which  is  laid  at  an  average  height  of 
4  inches  above  the  channel.  The  cost  of  the  macadam  delivered  on  to 
the  works  averages  about  9s.  ($2.19)  per  ton,  and  the  pitching  abont 
3s.  ($0.73)  per  ton,  and  the  channel  stones  about  2s.  (48  cents)  per  yard. 
The  cost  of  constructing  such  a  road  with  only  the  ordinary  amount  of 
excavation  is  about  5,s.  ($121)  per  square  yard,  and  the  average  cost  of 
maintaining  it  in  this  district  is  at  the  rate  of  about  6d.  (12  cents)  per 
square  yard  per  annum  (including  scavenging  and  watering). 

The  local  board  of  Great  Crosby,  near  Liverpool,  generally  specifies 
for  10  inches  of  hard  rock  to  be  properly  set  on  edge,  the  stones  not  to 
exceed  4  inches  iu  breadth,  and  the  interstices  closely  packed  by  hand. 
The  average  cost  of  laying  the  foundation  is  40  cents  per  square  yard. 
The  macadam,  cubically  hand  broken  to  pass  through  a  2  inch  ring, 
costs  $2.30  per  ton  delivered,  and  is  laid  on  in  two  coats  properly  watered 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  357 

and  rolled  with  a  steam  roller,  and  finished  off  to  a  smooth  surface  by 
adding  fine  drippings.  This  class  of  roadway  costs  about  05  cents  per 
square  yard,  exclusive  of  foundation.  For  roads  of  tar  macadam  the 
same  quantity  ot  macadam  is  used  and  mixed  with  due  proportions  of 
pitch  and  tar,  forming  one  homogeneous  mass.  This  is  rolled  with  the 
steam  roller,  and  finished  off  with  fine  chippings,  no  water  being  used. 
Average  cost  90  cents  per  square  yard,  exclusive  of  foundation.  The 
tar  macadam  is  found  to  be  well  adapted  to  a  sandy  district,  owing  to 
the  liability  of  drift  sand  to  disintegrate  an  ordinary  macadamized  road- 
way. It  makes  a  capital  roadway,  causes  a  minimum  of  dust,  and  is 
most  rapidly  scavenged,  but  it  is  very  slippery  in  frosty  weather. 

In  Carnarvonshire,  Wales,  the  best  roads  have  a  handset  pavement 
for  a  foundation  (the  ground  first  of  all  being  well  drained),  covered 
with  about  0  inches  of  metaling  broken  to  a  2-inch  gauge,  costing 
$1.50  per  ton  at  the  quarry  and  about  $2.25  per  ton  on  the  road.  The 
cost  of  constructing  such  a  road  is  about  $1  per  square  yard. 

In  the  Wavertree  district,  near  Liverpool,  macadamized  roads  are 
preferred  and  the  first  cost  is  estimated  at  about  $1.50  per  superficial 
yard,  exclusive  of  sewering.     (See  specification  herewith.) 


WAVERTREE  DISTRICT. 

Specification  of  works  required  to  be  performed  and  materials  io  be  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  roads  situate  in  the  local  government  district  of  Wavertree. 

In  this  specification  the  following  words  shall  have  the  meanings  hereinafter  set 
forth,  namely : 

"The  contractor"  shall  mean  and  include  the  person  or  persons  agreeing  to  execute 
the  works  described  in  this  specification,  and  shall  also  mean  aud  include  the  execu- 
tors and  administrators  of  such  person  or  persons  and  the  words  in  siugnlar  number 
shall  include  the  plural. 

"The  local  board"  shall  meau  the  local  board  of  health  for  the  local  government 
district  of  Wavertree. 

"The  surveyor"  shall  mean  the  surveyor  for  the  time  being,  of  the  local  board,  or 
other  person  or  persons  for  the  time  being,  appointed  by  the  said  local  board,  to  super- 
intend the  execution  of  the  said  works. 

"The  works"  shall  mean  the  several  works,  matters,  and  things,  comprised  or  re- 
ferred to  in  and  by  this  specification,  or  intended  so  to  be,  and  by  the  contractor  to 
be  executed  and  performed. 

Excavation.— Excavate  or  fill  in  the  carriage  way  to  a  depth  of  16  inches  below  the 
finished  cross-sectional  line  of  street,  which  will  be  calculated  at  the  rate  of  five- 
eighth  inches  to  every  foot  of  half  tbe  width  of  the  carriage  way. 

Gullies.—  The  gullies  for  the  surface  drainage  to  be  placed  as  shown  on  plan,  and 
encased  with  4|  inch  brickwork  built  in  cement  to  the  height  required,  and  covered 
with  existing  cast-iron  gratings,  and  the  connections  to  gully  drains  to  be  made  good 
with  Portland  cement. 

Pitching.— The  carriage  way  to  be  pitched  with  9-inch  hard  rock  pitching  or  other 
approved  material,  set  on  edge  with  the  widest  ed^e  downwards,  all  projecting  edges 
to  be  broken  off  and  the  interstices  to  be  filled  in  with  stones  of  equal  quality  to 
form  a  smooth  surface,  which  must  be  thoroughly  consolidated. 


358  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Macadam.—  The  whole  of  the  carriage  way  to  be  covered  with  7  inches  of  consoli- 
dated Penmaennjaur  or  Port  Nant  macadam  in  two  coverings,  broken  so  that  the 
largest  dimensions  of  any  piece  shall  not  exceed  2  inches.  The  first  coat  to  be  uni- 
formly spread,  immediately  after  the  pitching  is  pronounced  to  be  satisfactory  by  the 
surveyor,  and  to  be  well  rolled  with  a  steam  roller.  The  second  coat  to  be  uniformly 
applied  and  well  rolled  with  a  steam  roller  without  any  blinding,  so  as  to  fix  each 
stone  in  its  place,  after  which  the  whole  surface  to  be  very  lightly  blinded  with  mac- 
adam chippings  and  well  watered  and  rolled. 

Channels. — To  be  hard,  gray,  best  quality  Haslingden  stone  from  the  lower  beds  15 
inches  by  7  inches  thick  and  not  less  than  3  feet  in  length,  and  to  be  firmly  and  sol- 
idly bedded  on  gravel  or  cinders  laid  on  rock  pitching,  the  upper  surface  if  not  self 
faced  and  perfectly  true,  must  be  accurately  worked  out  of  winding,  the  bed  even 
and  parallel  to  the  face,  one  side  and  ends  truly  jointed  and  the  macadam  side  pitched 
off  to  line  and  the  joints  racked  with  pea  gravel  and  boiling  asphalt,  all  turns  to 
have  granite  channels  15  inches  by  7  inches  worked  to  the  required  radii. 

Passage  crossings.— All  crossings  to  have  four  courses  of  hard,  gray,  best  quality 
Hasliugden  stone  12  inches  by  7  inches  thick,  truly  faced,  and  square  jointed  through 
ends  and  sides,  and  in  not  less  than  2  feet  6  inch  lengths.  Pave  between  the  courses 
with  single  runs  of  Clee  Hill  sets,  and  make  out  the  full  width  of  crossing  with  sim- 
ilar paviug,  and  rack  the  joints  with  clean  pea  gravel  and  Portland  cement. 

Curbstones.—  To  be  best  quality  hard,  gray,  Haslingden  stone  12  inches  by  6  inches 
dressed  on  top  splazed  face  and  3  inches  down  the  back,  the  remainder  to  be  hammer 
dressed,  the  joints  to  be  neatly  and  accurately  squared  throughout  the  entire  depth, 
and  no  stone  to  be  less  than  3  feet  in  length.  All  turns  to  be  granite  12  by  6  from 
approved  quarries  and  to  the  required  radii. 

Foundation  of  footways.*—  The  footways  to  be  carefully  leveled  and  formed  by  ex- 
cavating or  filling  in  the  ground  for  the  site  (care  being  taken  to  reserve  theold  wood 
fence  on  west  side  for  re-erection)  in  accordance  with  the  drawings,  and  a  foundation 
formed  of  a  bed  of  cinders  or  gravel  3  inches  deep,  well  pommed. 

Flagging. — The  footpaths  to  be  laid  with  3-inch  hard,  gray,  best  quality  Haslingden 
flags,  taken  out  of  winding.  No  flag  to  be  less  than  4  feet  superficial,  and  not  less 
than  1  foot  9  inches  wide.  The  joints  to  be  well  squared  (not  pitched  off),  and  jointed 
with  hydraulic  lime  mortar  in  the  proportions  of  one  of  lime  to  two  of  clean,  sharp 
sand,  and  to  be  well  bedded  and  driven  close  to  joint,  and  when  necessary  the  flags 
shall  be  cut  to  the  steps  or  other  projections  and  all  holes  cut  for  pins,  gas  columns 
and  water  boxes.  The  flagging  when  complete  shall  have  a  fall  towards  the  chan- 
nel of  $  inch  to  the  foot. 

Lamp  columns. — Provide  and  fix  where  shown  on  plan  extra  lamp  columns  and 
heads  equal  to  sample,  and  allow  £15  Os.  Od.  for  gas  company's  charges. 

Isaac  Dixon, 

Surveyor. 

July,  1890. 

In  the  Garston  local  district,  adjoining  Liverpool,  macadamized  and 
"bituminous  concrete "  carriageways  are  favorites.  Official  specifica- 
tions for  each  are  annexed. 


*  Street  crossings.  To  have  three  courses  of  granite  16  inches  by  8  inches  grooved, 
truly  faced  and  square  jointed  through  ends  and  sides,  and  in  not  less  than  3  feet 
lengths  and  paved  to  full  width  of  adjoining  footpath  with  granite  sets  racked  with 
pea  gravel  and  boiling  asphalt.  Street  curbstones:  To  be  hard,  gray,  Haslingden 
stone  12  inches  by  K  by  5  and  all  turns  to  be  granite  12  by  6  by  5  from  approved  quar- 
ries and  to  the  required  radii. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  359 

DISTRICT  OF  GARSTON. 
Description  ok  Works  (No.  1). 


Excavation.—  The  contractor  shall  carry  out  all  the  excavations  required,  and 
shall  excavate  the  trenches  to  such  lengths,  breadths,  and  depths  as  the  engineer  may 
direct,  and  shall  form  the  bottoms  of  the  same  as  hereinafter  specified.  In  no  case 
shall  the  trench  bo  less  than  12  inches  wider  than  the  external  diameter  of  the 
sewer  to  be  laid  therein.  The  contractor  must  be  careful  in  opening  the  trenches  not 
to  remove  more  of  the  road  surface  than,  in  the  opinion  of  the  eugineer,  is  necessary 
for  the  proper  execution  of  the  work,  and  must  not  resort  to  blasting  without  the 
permission  of  the  engineer. 

Refilling. — The  contractor  shall,  after  the  sewers  have  been  laid  in  the  manner  here- 
inafter described,  till  in  the  earth  in  ti-incn  layers,  and  well  water  and  pun  the  same 
until  thoroughly  consolidated. 

Reinstatement. — The  contractor  shall  in  all  cases  reinstate  and  make  good  the  roads, 
footpaths,  and  other  surfaces  affected  by  his  operations. 

Surplus  earth. — All  surplus  earth  and  superfluous  rubbish  shall  be  removed  and 
carted  away  by  and  at  the  expense  of  the  contractor,  who  shall  find  a  place  of  deposit 
for  the  same. 

Pipe  sewers. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  lay  in  the  respective  positions  shown 
on  plan,  and  at  the  respective  depths  shown  on  sections,  the  requisite  lengths  of  pipe 
sewers  of  the  following  sizes  : 

Fifteen  inches  diameter  at  least  1£  inches  thick. 

Twelve  inches  diameter  at  least  lyV  inches  thick. 

Nine  inches  diameter  at  least  seven-eighths  inch  thick. 

Six  inches  diameter  at  least  three-fourths  inch  thick. 

Mode  of  laying  sewers. — In  all  cases  where  practicable  the  sewers  shall  be  laid  in 
open  trenches,  and  no  heading  or  tuunel  will  be  permitted  except  with  the  written 
sanction  of  the  engineer,  and  where  such  permission  is  given,  the  heading  or  tunnel 
shall  be  open  from  end  to  end  before  any  portion  of  the  sewer  is  laid.  The  pipes 
.shall  be  laid  singly,  and  joint  holes  to  receive  the  sockets  must  in  all  cases  be  made 
in  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  so  that  the  full  length  of  each  pipe  between  joint  aud 
joint  may  have  a  bearing  on  the  solid  ground. 

Mode  of  jointing  pipes. — All  pipes  shall  be  jointed  with  tarred  yarn,  calked  into 
the  sockets,  and  flushed  up  with  well  puddled  clay. 

Junctions. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  iu  the  positions  shown  on  the  plan 
or  where  required,  properly  formed  V  junction  pipes  as  under,  for  connecting  gullies 
and  private  drains  with  the  main  sewers. 

Number ,  15  inches  diameter. 

Number ,  12  inches  diameter. 

Number ,  9  inches  diameter. 

Number ,  G  inches  diameter. 

It  is  to  be  particularly  noted  that  in  no  case  will  right-angle  junctions  be  allowed, 
*nd  that  no  connection  will  be  permitted  to  be  made  by  cutting  into  the  pipes. 

Stoneware  disks. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  stoneware  disks,  as  under: 

Number ,  12  inches  diameter. 

Number ,  9  inches  diameter. 

Number ,  ti  inches  diameter. 

The  disks  must  be  carefully  fitted  and  securely  clayed  into  the  branches  of  the  junc- 
tion pipes. 

Galvanized  iron  indicators. — The  contractor  shall  provide  number galvanized 

iron  indicators,  of  form  and  dimensions  shown  oik  drawing  for  pointing  out  the  posi- 


360  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

tions  of  the  junctions,  and  shall  fix  them  as  directed  by  the  engineer,  either  for  the 
walls,  fences,  or  to  stakes  3  inches  by  2  inches,  driven  2  feet  into  the  ground. 

Manholes.— The  contractor  shall  build  manholes  in  the  situations  shown  on  plan, 
in  9-inch  brickwork  set  in  Portland  cement  to  top  of  pipe  sewer,  and  best  lias  linio 
mortar  the  remainder,  and  of  the  respective  forms  and  dimensions  shown  on  sections 
and  detail  drawings. 

Manhole  covers. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  on  the  tops  of  the  manholes, 
cast-iron  covers  of  form,  size,  and  weight,  and  similar  in  every  respect  to  the  covers 
used  by  the  Garston  local  board. 

Foot  irons. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  the  requisite  number  of  foot  irons 
of  galvanized  wrought-iron  bar  of  the  form,  size,  and  similar  in  every  respect  to  those 
used  by  the  local  board.  They  are  to  he  placed  four  courses  of  brickwork  apart, 
vertically,  flattened  through  the  thickness  of  the  walls,  and  the  ends  turned  up  1£ 
inches. 

Gullies, — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  in  the  position  shown  on  plan,  or 
where  required,  9-inch  brick  gullies,  built  in  Pcrtland  cement,  of  the  form  and  dimen 
sions  shown  on  detail  drawing.  Each  gully  shall  have  the  brickwork  carried  to  the 
top  for  the  reception  of  iron  gratings,  and  be  connected  to  the  sewers  by  6-inch  diam- 
eter glazed  stoneware  socket  pipes,  with  syphon  blocks  laid  at  one  inclination 
throughout. 

Gully  gratings. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  on  the  top  of  each  gully  a 
cast-iron  gratiug  of  form,  size,  and  weight  and  in  every  respect  similar  to  those  used 
by  the  local  board.  Each  grating  must  be  firmly  bedded  on  the  brickwork  in  best 
blue  lias  lime  mortar. 

ROADS. 

Surface  excavation.— The  contractor  shall  remove  all  obstructions  and  shall  exca- 
vate the  carriageway  to  a  line  18  inches  below  the  sectional  line  on  drawing  No. . 

Filling,— The  contractor  shall  fill  in  the  ground  where  required  to  the  level  pre- 
scribed in  the  preceding  clause  (No.  48)  with  approved  material. 

Foundation  of  carriageways.— The  contractor  shall  properly  form,  roll  with  horse 
roUer,  and  water  the  surfaces  for  the  reception  of  the  road  material,  and  shall  hand 
pitch  the  whole  area  of  the  intended  carriageway  to  a  depth  of  10  inches  with  hard 
rock  pitching  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  engineer,  the  interstices  to  be  well  racked  up 
with  rock  broken,  small  and  well  rolled  with  the  steam  roller. 

Superstructure  of  carriageways. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  lay  two  coats  of 
macadam  over  the  whole  area  of  the  carriageway  of  a  total  thickness  of  6  inches. 
The  first  layer,  3  inches  thick,  shall  be  composed  of  good,  hard  rock  stone,  broken 
by  hand,  small  enough  to  pass  through  a  2^-iuch  ring  in  every  direction,  blinded  with 
one-half  inch  of  gravel  sand  of  quality  specified,  and  rolled  with  the  local  board 
steam  roller  until,  in  the  opinion  of  the  engineer,  it  is  sufficiently  consolidated  to 
receive  the  second  layer.  The  contractor  shall,  on  receipt  of  notice  in  writing  from 
the  engineer,  spread  a  second  layer  3  inches  thick  composed  of  Penmaenmawr  stone, 
broken  by  hand,  small  enough  to  pass  through  a  lf-inch  ring  in  every  direction ; 
blind  the  same  throughout  with  1  inch  of  gravel  sand  of  quality  specified,  and  roll 
the  whole  area  with  the  steam  roller,  and  water  and  sweep  the  same  until  it  is,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  engineer,  thoroughly  consolidated. 

Rollers.—  The  local  board  steam  roller  may  be  hired  from  the  works  committee  at 
a  charge  of  30s.  per  day  (including  fuel  and  water),  and  the  horse  roller  at  a  charge 
of  5s.  per  day  (excluding  horses). 

Channels.—  The  channels  shall  consist  of  hard-tooled  York  stone  channel  blocks  12 
by  6  inches,  each  stone  to  be  at  least  2  feet  long,  laid  to  the  inclinations  longitudinal 

and  transverse,  shown  on  drawing  No.  .     They  shall  be  bedded  on  2  inches  of 

gravel  sand  on  a  hard  rock  foundation  3  inches  deep,  and  well  cramped  and  bedded 
solid. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  301 

Curbing.— The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  the  requisite  lengths  of  straight, 
hard  York  stone-tooled  cnrbiug,  5  inches  thick  and  12  inches  deep.  The  curbing 
throughout  to  be  in  not  less  than  3  feet  lengths,  to  be  well  bedded  on  2  inches  of 
gravel  sand  on  a  hard  rock  foundation  3  inches  deep,  and  truly  laid  and  close-jointed. 
The  radiated  corners  to  consist  of  granite  curbs,  5  inches  thick  and  12  inches  deep, 
laid  in  the  same  manner  as  the  York  curbs. 

Street  crossings. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  lay  crossings  where  shown  on 
drawing,  formed  of  three  rows  of  hard  machine-faced  squared  York  stone  crossing 
blocks,  1G  by  7  inches,  with  V  grooves  1  inch  wide  by  three-quarters  inch  deep  in 
center,  and  nine  rows  of  Clee  Hill  sets  7  by  6  by  3  inches,  the  blocks  and  sets  to  be 
laid  on  beds  of  good  lias  lime  and  rock  concrete  6-inches  deep,  in  2  inches  of  good 
gravel  sand,  aud  all  the  joints  to  be  racked  with  asphalt,  coal  pitch,  and  creosote 
oil,  to  be  used  while  hot,  and  limestone  clippings. 

Footways. — The  contractor  shall  excavate  or  fill  up  the  ground  as  may  be  required 

to  a  line  G  inches  below  the  sectional  line  on  drawing  No. ,  and  shall  form  the 

ground  w^h  good  hara*  material  to  the  profile  shown  on  cross-sections,  and  consoli- 
date the  same  by  horse  rolling,  watering,  or  otherwise,  as  may  be  required.  The 
footways  throughout  shall  be  paved  with  patent  Victoria  stone  on  beds  of  engine 
ashes  3  inches  deep,  and  good  mortar  beds  close-jointed  with  good  fine  mortar  of  the 
requisite  fluidity,  the  radiated  corners  to  be  worked  according  to  details,  all  the 
stones  to  be  well  and  solidly  bedded. 

Old  materials. — The  contractor  must  value  the  old  materials  (if  any)  at  present  on 
the  ground,  and  must  state  in  his  tender  the  amount  he  will  allow  for  the  same. 

QUALITY   OF   MATERIALS. 

Stoneware  drain  pipes.— The  whole  of  the  pipes  shall  be  approved  salt-glazed  stone- 
ware socket  pipes  of  the  best  manufacture,  sound  and  thoroughly  burnt  throughout 
their  whole  substance,  and  the  internal  aud  external  surfaces  smooth  and  well-glazed. 
They  shall  be  cylindrical  in  bore,  and  internally  of  the  full  specified  diameter,  and 
uhall  have  whole  socket-joints  forming  a  component  part  of  the  pipe.  The  thickness 
shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  entire  body  of  the  pipe. 

No  square  junctions  shall  be  used. 

All  pipes  shall  be  made  to  fit  without  being  chipped. 

Lime — The  lime  shall  be  blue  lias  or  other  approved  hydraulic  lime,  fresh  burnt, 
aud  until  used  in  mortar,  shall  be  protected  from  wet,  and  as  much  as  possible  from 
the  atmosphere. 

Portland  cement. — The  cement  used  in  the  works  of  this  contract  shall  be  fresh-burnt 
Portland  cement  (obtained  from  the  Rugby  Portland  Cement  Company),  of  such  fine- 
ness that  samples  sifted  through  a  No.  50  gauge  wire  sieve  shall  not  leave  a  residue  of 
more  than  10  percent.,  and  of  such  quality  aud  strength  that  samples  of  pure  cement, 
when  gauged  neat  in  the  ordinary  brass  moulds  shall  not  become  firm  in  less  than  3 
hours,  and  shall,  after  7  days'  immersion  in  water,  be  capable  of  bearing  a  tensile 
strain  of  400  pounds  on  the  sectional  area  of  1  square  inch. 

Sand. — The  sand  for  mortar  shall  be  clean  and  sharp,  free  from  all  foreign  matter, 
and  screened  if  required  by  the  engineer. 

The  sand  for  blinding  macadam  shall  be  beach-gravel  sand,  of  quality  approved 
by  the  engineer,  a  sample  of  which  may  be  seen  at  his  office. 

Lime  mortar. — The  lime  mortar  shall  be  composed  of  two  parts  of  best  building  sand, 
of  approved  quality,  to  one  part  of  lime. 

Portland  cement  mortar. — Portland  cement  mortar  shall  bo  composed  of  two  parts  of 
best  building  sand,  of  approved  quality,  to  one  part  of  Portland  cement. 

Brickwoik. — The  whole  of  the  brickwork  shall  be  built  in  Old  English  bond,  unless 
otherwise  directed,  lineable,  plumb,  and  solid  throughout,  carried  up  uniformly  with 
the  facework,  and  closely  bedded  in  mortar,  so  that  in  no  case  shall  four  courses,  when 
built,  exceed  in  height  four  like  courses  sec  dry,  by  more  than  If  inches,  aud  in  order 


362  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

that  every  joint  may  be  filled,  the  brickwork  must  be  completely  flushed  with  mor- 
tar of  the  requisite  fluidity.    No  broken  bricks  will  be  allowed  except  for  closers. 

The  whole  of  the  bricks,  except  where  otherwise  specified,  shall  be  best  commou 
bricks,  hard,  sound,  and  well  burnt,  of  approved  quality. 

Henry  T.  Wakelam, 
Assoc.  M.  Inst.,  C.  E.,  Engineer  and  Surveyor. 


Description  of  Works  (No.  2). 

SEWERS. 

Excavation.—  The  contractor  shall  carry  out  all  the  excavations  required,  and  shall 
excavate  the  trenches  to  such  lengths,  breadths,  and  depths  as  the  engineer  may 
direct,  and  shall  form  the  bottoms  of  the  same  as  hereinafter  specified.  In  no  case 
shall  the  trench  be  less  than  12  inches  wider  than  the  external  diameter  «f  the  sewer 
to  be  laid  therein.  The  contractor  must  be  careful  in  opening  the  trenches  not  to 
remove  more  of  the  road  surface.than  in  the  opinion  of  the  engineer  is  necessary  for 
the  proper  execution  of  the  work,  and  must  not  resort  to  blasting  without  the  per- 
mission of  the  engineer. 

Refilling.— The  contractor  shall,  after  the  sewers  have  been  laid  in  the  maner  here- 
inafter described,  fill  in  the  earth  in  6-inch  layers,  and  well  water  and  pound  the  same- 
until  thoroughly  consolidated. 

Reinstatement  of  streets,  footpaths,  etc.— Tire  contractor  shall  in  all  cases  reinstate 
and  make  good  the  roads,  footpaths,  and  other  surfaces  affected  by  his  operations 

Surplus  earth. — All  surplus  earth  and  superfluous  rubbish  shall  be  removed  and  cart 
away  by  and  at  the  expense  of  the  contractor,  who  shall  find  a  place  of  deposit  fo 
the  same. 

Pipe  sewers. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  lay  in  the  respective  position 
shown  on  plan,  and  at  the  respective  depths  shown  on  sections,  the  requisite  leugtl 
of  pipe  sewers,  of  the  following  sizes  : 

Fifteen  inches  diameter  at  least  1±  inches  thick. 

Twelve  inches  diameter  at  least  1&  inches  thick. 

Nine  inches  diameter  at  least  £  inch  thick. 

Six  inches  diameter  at  least  £  inch  thick. 

Mode  of  laying  sewers.— Iu  all  cases  where  practicable  the  sewers  shall  be  laid 
open  trenches,  and  no  heading  or  tunnel  will  be  permitted  except  with  the  writtei 
sanction  of  the  engineer,  and  where  such  permission  is  given  the  heading  or  tuni 
shall  be  open  from  end  to  eud  before  auy  portion  of  the  sewer  is  laid.  The  pipe 
shall  be  laid  singly,  and  joint  holes  to  receive  the  sockets  must  in  all  cases  be  ins 
in  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  so  that  the  full  length  of  each  pipe  between  joint  ar 
joint  may  have  a  bearing  on  the  solid  ground. 

Mode  of  jointing  pipes.— All  pipes  shall  be  jointed  with  tarred  yarn,  calked  int 
the  sockets,  and  flushed  up  with  well  puddled  clay. 

Junctions. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  in  the  positions  shown  on  the  pli 
or  where  required,  properly  formed  V  junction  pipes  as  under,  for  connecting  gullic 
and  private  drains  with  the  main  sewers. 

Number ,  15  inches  diameter. 

Number ,  12  inches  diameter. 

Number ,  9  inches  diameter. 

Number ,  6  inches  diameter. 

It  is  to  be  particularly  noted  that  in  no  case  will  right  angle  junctions  be  allow* 
and  that  no  connection  will  be  permitted  to  be  made  by  cutting  into  the  pipes. 

Stoneware  disks. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  stoneware  disks,  as  under- 

Number ,  12  inches  diameter. 


EUROPE — UNlTiD    KINGDOM.  363 

Nnml»er ,  9  inches  diameter. 

Number ,  6  inches  diameter. 

The  disks  mast  be  carefully  fitted  and  securely  clayed  into  the  branches  of  the 
junction  pipes. 

Galvanized  iron  indicators. — The  contractor  shall  provide  number galvanized 

iron  indicators  of  form  and  dimensions  shown  on  drawiug  for  pointing  out  the  posi- 
tions of  the  junctions,  and  shall  fix  them  as  directed  by  the  engineer  either  to  the 
walls,  fences,  or  to  stakes  3  inches  by  2  inches,  driven  2  feet  into  the  ground. 

Manholes. — Tbe  contractor  shall  build  manholes  in  the  situations  shown  on  plan  in 
9-inch  brickwork  set  in  Portland  cement  to  top  of  pipe  sewer,  and  best  lias  lime  mor- 
tar the  remainder,  and  of  the  respective  forms  and  dimensions  shown  on  sections  and 
detail  drawings. 

Manhole  covers.—  The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  on  the  tops  of  the  manholes 
cast-iron  covers  of  form,  size,  and  weight,  and  similar  in  every  respect  to  the  covers 
used  by  the  Garston  local  board. 

Fool  iron's. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  the  requisite  number  of  foot  irons, 
of  galvanized  wrought-iron  bar,  of  the  form,  size,  and  similar  in  every  respect  to 
those  used  by  the  local  board.  They  are  to  be  placed  four  courses  of  brick  apart 
vertically,  flattened  through  the  thickness  of  the  walls,  and  the  ends  turned  up  1$ 
inches. 

Gullies. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  in  the  position  shown  on  plan,  or 
where  required,  9-inch  brick  gullies,  built  in  Portland  cement,  of  the  form  and  di- 
mensions shown  on  detail  drawiug.  Each  gully  shall  have  the  brickwork  carried  to 
the  top  for  the  reception  of  iron  gratings,  and  be  connected  to  the  sewers  by  6-inch 
diameter  glazed  stoneware  socket  pipes,  with  syphon  blocks  laid  at  one  inclination 
throughout. 

Gully  gratings. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  on  the  top  of  each  gully  a 
cast-iron  grating,  of  form,  size,  and  weight  and  in  every  respect  similar  to  those  used 
by  the  local  board.  Each  grating  must  be  firmly  bedded  on  the  brickwork  in  the 
best  blue  lias  lime  mortar. 


Surface  excavation. — The  contractor  shall  remove  all  obstructions,  and  shall  exca- 
vate the  carriageway  to  a  line  18  inches  below  the  sectioual  line  on  drawiug  No. . 

Filling. — The  contractor  shall  fill  in  the  ground,  where  required,  to  the  level  pre- 
scribed in  the  preceding  clause  (No.  48)  with  approved  material. 

Foundation  of  carriageways. — The  contractor  shall  properly  form,  roll  with  horse 
roller,  and  water  the  surface  for  the|  receptiou  of  the  road  material,  and  shall  hand 
pitch  the  whole  area  of  the  intended  carriageway  to  a  depth  of  10  inches  with  hard 
rock  pitching  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  engineer,  the  interstices  to  be  well  racked  up 
with  rock  broken  small,  and  well  rolled  with  the  steam  roller. 

Superstructure  of  carriageways. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  lay  two  coats  of 
macadam  over  the  whole  of  the  carriageway  to  a  total  thickness  of  6  inches.  The 
first  layer,  3  inches  thick,  shall  be  composed  of  good  hard  rock  stone,  broken  by  hand 
small  enough  to  pass  through  a  2^-inch  ring  in  every  direction,  blinded  with  \  an 
inch  of  gravel  sand  of  quality  specified,  and  rolled  with  the  local  board  steam  roller 
until,  in  the  opinion  of  the  engineer,  it  is  sufficiently  consolidated  to  receive  the 
second  layer.  The  contractor  shall,  on  receipt  of  notice  in  writing  from  the  engi- 
neer, spread  the  second  layer  3  inches  thick,  composed  of  Penmaenmawr  stone, 
broken  by  hand  small  enough  to  pass  through  a  lj-inch  ring  in  every  direction  ;  the 
stone  to  be  first  well  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  hot  boiled  tar  aud  pitch,  and  then 
evenly  spread  and  rolled  with  the  steam  roller,  aud  then  blind  the  same  with  an 
inch  of  limestone  chippiugs,  to  pass  through  a  J-inch  riddle,  and  not  smaller  than 
will  pass  through  a  i-inch  riddle,  well  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  hot  boiled  pitch 
and  tar,  evenly  spread,  and  afterward   blinded  with  a  coating  of  fine  dry  chipping* 


364  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

.uiil  rolled  with  the  steam  roller  until  it  is,  in  the  opinion  of  the  engineer,  thoroughly' 
consolidated. 

Rollers.— The  local  hoard  steam  roller  may  he  hired  from  the  works  committee  at 
at  a  charge  of  30s.  per  day  (excluding  fuel  and  water),  and  the  horse  roller  at  a 
charge  of  5s.  per  day  (excluding  horses). 

Channels.—  The  channels  shall  consist  of  hard-tooled  York  stone  channel  hlocks  12 
hy6  inches,  each  stone  to  he  at  least  2  feet  long,  laid  to  the  iuclinations  longitudinal 

and  transverse  shown  on  drawing  No. •     They  shall  he  bedded  on  2  inches  of 

gravel  sand,  on  a  hard  rock  foundation  3  inches  deep,  and  well  cramped  and  hedded 

Curbing.— The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  the  requisite  lengths  of  straight 
hard  York  stone  tooled  curbing,  5  inches  thick  and  12  inches  deep.  The  curbiug 
throughout  to  be  in  not  less  than  3-feet  lengths,  to  he  well  bedded  on  2  inches  of 
gravel  sand  on  a  hard  rock  foundation  3  inches  deep,  and  truly  laid  and  close-jointed. 
The  radiated  corners  to  consist  of  granite  curbs  5  inches  thick  and  12  inches  deep, 
laid  in  the  same  manner  as  the  York  curbs. 

Street  crossings.— The  contractor  shall  provide  and  lay  crossings  where  shown  on 
drawing,  formed  of  three  rows  of  hard  machine-faced  squared  York  stone  crossing 
blocks,  16  inches  by  7  inches,  with  V  grooves  1  iuch  wide  by  £  inch  deep  in  center, 
and  nine  rows  of  Clee  Hill  sets  7  inches  by  6  inches  by  3  inches,  the  blocks  and  sets 
to  be  laid  on  beds  of  good  lias  lime  and  rock  concrete  6  inches  deep  in  2  inches  of  good 
gravel  sand,  and  all  the  joints  to  be  racked  with  asphalt,  coal  pitch,  and  creosote  oil, 
to  be  used  whilst hot,  and  limestone  chippings. 

Footways.— The  contractor  shall  excavate  or  fill  up  the  ground  as  may  be  required 

to  a  line  6  inches  below  the  sectional  line  on  drawing  No. ,  and  shall  form  the 

ground  with  good  hard  material  to  the  profile  shown  on  cross-sections,  and  consoli- 
date the  same  by  horse  rolling,  watering,  or  otherwise,  as  may  be  required.  The  foot- 
ways throughout  shall  be  paved  with  patent  Victoria  stone  on  beds  of  engine  asbes 
3  inches  deep,  and  good  mortar  beds  close-jointed  with  good  fine  mortar  of  the  requi- 
site fluidity,  the  radiated  corners  to  be  worked  accordiug  to  details,  all  the  stones  to 
be  well  and  solidly  bedded. 

Old  materials— -The  contractor  must  value  the  old  materials  (if  any)  at  present  on 
the  ground,  and  must  state  in  his  tender  the  amount  he  will  allow  for  the  same. 

QUALITY   OF   MATERIALS. 

Stoneware  drain  pipes.— The  whole  of  the  pipes  shall  be  approved  salt  glazed  stone 
ware  socket  pipes  of  the  best  manufacture,  sound,  and  thoroughly  burnt  throughoi 
their  whole  substance,  and  the  internal  and  external  surfaces  smooth  and  well  glazec 
They  shall  be  cylindrical  in  bore,  and  internally  of  the  full  specified  diameter,  an 
shall  have  whole  socket  joints  forming  a  component  part  of  the  pipe.  The  thickne 
shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  entire  body  of  the  pipe. 

No  square  junctions  shall  be  used. 

All  pipes  shall  be  made  to  fit  without  being  chipped. 

Lime.— The  lime  shall  be  blue  lias  or  other  approved  hydraulic  lime,  frrsh  burnt 
and  until  used  in  mortar,  shall  be  protected  from  wet,  and  as  much  as  possible  fror 
the  atmosphere. 

Portland  cement. — The  cement  used  in  the  works  of  this  contract  shall  be  fresh-bui 
Portland  cement  (obtained  from  the  Rugby  Portland  Cement  Company),  of  such  fine 
ne«  that  samples  sifted  through  a  No.  50  gauge  wire  sieve,  shall  not  leave  a  residn 
of  more  than  10  per  cent.,  and  of  such  quality  and  strength  that  samples  of  pui 
cement,  when  gauged  neat  in  the  ordinary  brass  molds,  shall  not  become  firm 
less  than  3  hours,  and  shall,  after  7  days'  immersion  in  water,  be  capable  of  bearing 
a  tensile  strain  of  400  pounds  on  the  sectional  area  of  1  square  inch. 

Sand.— The  sand  for  mortar  shall  be  clean  and  sharp,  free  from  all  foreign  matt 
and  screened,  if  required,  by  the  engineer. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  365 

The  sand  for  blinding  macadam,  shall  be  beach-gravel  sand,  of  quality  approved 
by  the  engineer,  a  sample  of  which  may  be  seen  at  his  office. 

Lime  mortar.— The  lime  mortar  shall  be  composed  of  two  parts  of  best  building 
sand  of  approved  quality  to  one  part  of  lime. 

Portland  cement  mortar.— Portland  cement  mortar  shall  be  composed  of  two  parts  of 
best  building  sand  of  approved  quality  to  one  part  of  Portland  cement. 

Brickwork. — The  whole  of  the  brickwork  shall  be  built  in  old  English  bond,  unless 
otherwise  directed,  lineable,  plumb,  and  solid  throughout,  carried  up  uniformly  with 
the  facework,  and  closely  bedded  in  mortar,  so  that  in  no  case  shall  four  courses,  when 
built,  exceed  in  height  four  like  courses  set  dry,  by  more  than  1J  inches,  and  in  order 
that  every  joint  may  be  filled,  the  brickwork  must  be  completely  flushed  with  mortar 
of  the  requisite  fluidity.     No  broken  bricks  will  be  allowed  except  for  closers. 

The  whole  of  the  bricks,  except  where  otherwise  specified,  shall  be  best  common 
bricks,  hard,  sound,  and  well  burnt,  of  approved  quality. 

Henry  T.  Wakelam, 
Assoc.  M.  Inst.  C.  E.,  Engineer  and  Surveyor, 


DESCRIPTION  OF  WORKS   (NO.  3). 
SEWERS. 

Excavation. — The  contractor  shall  carry  out  all  the  excavations  required,  and  shall 
excavate  the  trenches  to  such  lengths,  breadths,  and  depths  as  the  engineer  may 
direct,  and  shall  form  the  bottoms  of  the  same  as  hereinafter  specified.  In  no  case 
Bhall  the  trench  be  less  than  12  inches  wider  than  the  external  diameter  of  the-sewer 
to  be  laid  therein.  The  contractor  must  be  careful  in  opening  the  trenches  not  to 
remove  more  of  the  road  surface  than  in  the  opinion  of  the  engineer  is  necessary  for 
the  proper  execution  of  the  work,  and  must  not  resort  to  blasting  without  the  per- 
mission of  the  engineer. 

Refilling. — The  contractor  shall,  after  the  sewers  have  been  laid  in  the  manner 
hereinafter  described,  fill  in  the  earth  in  6-inch  layers,  and  well  water  and  pound  the 
same  until  thoroughly  consolidated. 

Reinstatement. — The  contractor  shall  in  all  cases  reinstate  and  make  good  the  roads, 
footpaths,  and  other  surfaces  affected  by  his  operations. 

Surjilus  earth. — All  surplus  earth  and  superfluous  rubbish  shall  be  removed  and 
carted  away  by  and  at  the  expense  of  the  contractor,  who  shall  find  a  place  of  deposit 
for  the  same. 

Pipe  sewers. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  lay  in  the  respective  positions  shown 
on  plan,  and  at  the  respective  depths  shown  on  sections,  the  requisite  lengths  of 
pipe  sowers  of  the  following  sizes: 

15  inches  diameter  at  least  1£  iuches  thick. 

12  inches  diameter  at  least  1,^  iuches  thick. 

9  inches  diameter  at  least  $  inch  thick. 

6  inches  diameter  at  least  i  inch  thick. 

Mode  of  laying  sewers.  —  In  all  cases  where  practicable  the  sowers  shall  belaid  in 
open  trenches,  and  no  heading  or  tunnel  will  be  permitted  except  with  the  written 
sanction  of  the  engineer,  and  where  such  permission  is  given  the  heading  or  tunnel 
shall  be  open  from  end  to  end  before  any  portion  of  the  sewer  is  laid.  The  pipes 
shall  be  laid  singly,  and  joint  holes  to  receive  the  sockets  must  in  all  cases  be  made 
in  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  so  that  the  full  length  of  each  pipe  between  joint  and 
joint  may  have  a  bearing  on  the  solid  ground. 

Mode  of  jointing  pipes. — All  pipes  shall  be  jointed  with  tarred  yarn,  caulked  into 
the  sockets,  and  Hushed  up  with  well  puddled  clay. 


366  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Junctions.— The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fax  in  the  positions  shown  on  the  plan 
or  where  required,  properly  formed  V  junction  pipes  as  under,  for  connecting  gullies 
and  private  drains  with  the  main  sewers. 

Number 15  inches  diameter. 

Number 12  inches  diameter. 

Number 9  inches  diameter. 

Nnmber 6  inches  diameter. 

It  is  to  be  particularly  noted  that  in  no  case  will  right  angle  junctions  be  allowed, 
and  that  no  connection  will  be  permitted  to  be  made  by  cutting  into  the  pipes. 

Stoneware  disks. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  stoneware  disks,  as  under : 

Number 12  inches  diameter. 

Number 9  inches  diameter. 

Number 6  inches  diameter. 

The  disks  must  be  carefully  fitted  and  securely  clayed  into  the  branches  of  the  junc- 
tion pipes. 

Galvanized  iron  indicators. — The  contractor  shall  provide  number galvanized 

iron  indicators,  of  form  and  dimensions  shown  on  drawing  for  pointing  out  the  posi- 
tions of  the  junctions,  and  shall  fix  them  as  directed  by  the  engineer,  either  to  the 
walls,  fences,  or  to  stakes  3  inches  by  2  inches,  driven  2  feet  into  the  ground. 

Manholes. — The  contractor  shall  build  manholes  in  the  situations  shown  on  plan, 
in  9-inch  brickwork,  set  in  Portland  cement  to  top  of  pipe  sewer,  and  best  lias  lime 
mortar  the  remainder,  and  of  the  respective  forms  and  dimensions  shown  on  sections 
and  detail  drawings. 

Manhole  covers.— The  contractor  6hall  provide  and  fix  on  the  tops  of  the  manholes 
cast-iron  covers  of  form,  size,  and  weight,  and  similar  in  every  respect  to  the  covers 
used  by  the  Garston  local  board. 

Foot  irons. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  the  requisite  number  of  foot  irons, 
of  galranized  wrought-iron  bar,  of  the  form,  size,  and  similar  in  every  respect  to 
those  used  by  the  local  board.  They  are  to  be  placed  four  courses  of  brickwork  apart 
vertically,  flattened  through  the  thickness  of  the  walls,  and  the  ends  turned  up  1£ 
inches. 

Gullies. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  in  the  position  shown  on  plan,  or 
where  required,  9-inch  brick  gullies,  built  in  Portland  cement,  of  the  form  and  di- 
mensions shown  on  detail  drawing.  Each  gully  shall  have  the  brickwork  carried  to 
the  top  for  the  reception  of  iron  gratings,  and  be  connected  to  the  sewers  by  6-inch 
diameter  glazed  stoneware  socket  pipes,  with  siphon  blocks  laid  at  one  inclination 
throughout. 

Gully  gratings. — The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  on  the  top  of  each  gully  I 
cast-iron  grating,  of  form,  size,  and  weight,  and  in  every  respect  similar  to  those 
used  by  the  local  board.  Each  grating  must  be  firmly  bedded  on  the  brickwork  in 
best  blue  lias  lime  mortar. 

ROADS. 

Surface  excavation. — The  contractor  shall  remove  all  obstructions,  and  shall  exc 
vate  the  carriageway  to  a  line  12  inches  below  the  sectional  line  on  drawing  No.- 

Filling. — The  contractor  shall  fill  in  the  ground  where  required  to  the  level  pr 
scribed  in  the  preceding  clause  (No.  48)  with  approved  material. 

Construction.—  The  contractor  shall  provide  and  lay  over  the  whole  of  the  carriage- 
way good  concrete,  spread  to  a  depth  of  6  inches,  laid  to  the  curvature  of  road;  the 
concrete  to  be  composed  of  two  part6  of  good  hard  rock,  or  other  approved  stone, 
broken  to  pass  a  2-inch  ring,  two  parts  good  clean  gravel  sand  and  one  part  good 
Portlaud  cement,  and  shall  afterwards  provide  and  lay  over  the  whole  surface 
inches  by  4  inches  by  4  inches  Clee  Hill  sets  (second  quality),  laid  in  a  bed  of  gravel 
sand  2  inches  deep ;  all  the  joints  to  be  racked  with  coal  pitch,  creosote  oil,  and  boiled 
coal  tar  asphalt  used  whilst  hot,  and  limestone  chippings ;  and  the  whole  surfat 
of  the  carriageway  shall  afterwards  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  asphalt  at  least  one- 
quarter  of  an  inoh  in  thickness  composed  as  above. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  367 

Channels.— The  channels  shall  cousist  of  hard-tooled  York  stone  channel  blocks  12 
by  6  inches,  each  stone  to  be  at  least  2  feet  long,  laid  to  the  inclinations  longitudinal 
and  transverse,  shown  on  drawings.  They  shall  be  bedded  on  2  inches  of  gravel 
sand  on  a  hard  rock  fou Dilation  3  inches  deep  and  well  cramped  and  bedded  solid. 

Curbing.—  The  contractor  shall  provide  and  fix  the  requisite  lengths  of  straight 
hard  York  stone-tooled  curbing,  5  inches  thick  and  13  inches  deep.  Tho  curbing 
throughout  to  be  in  not  less  than  3  feet  lengths,  to  be  well  bedded  on  2  inches  of 
gravel  sand  on  a  hard-rock  foundation  3  inches  deep,  and  truly  laid  and  close  jointed. 
The  radiated  corners  to  consist  of  granite  curbs,  5  inches  thick  and  12  inches  deep, 
laid  in  the  same  mauner  as  tho  York  curbs. 

Street  crossing*.—  Tho  contractor  shall  provide  and  lay  crossings  where  shown  on 
drawing,  formed  of  three  rows  of  hard  machine-faced  squared  York  stone  crossinir 
blocks,  16  inches  by  7  inches,  with  V  grooves  1  inch  wide  by  three-fourths  of  an  inch 
deep  in  center,  and  nine  rows  of  Clee  Hill  sets  7  inches  by  6  inches  by  3  inches,  the 
blocks  and  sets  to  be  laid  on  beds  of  good  lias  lime  and  rock  concrete  to  6  inches  deep 
in  2  inches  of  good  gravel  sand,  and  all  the  joints  to  be  racked  with  asphalt,  coal 
pitch,  and  creosote  oil,  to  be  used  while  hot,  and  limestone  chippings. 

Footways.—  The  contractor  shall  excavate  or  fill  up  the  grouud  as  may  bo  required 

to  a  line  6  inches  below  the  sectional  line  on  drawing  No. ,  and  shall  form  the 

ground  with  good  hard  material  to  the  profile  shown  on  cross  sections,  and  consoli- 
date the  same  by  horse  rolling,  wateriug,  or  otherwise,  as  may  be  required.  The 
footways  throughout  shall  be  paved  with  patent  Victoria  stone,  on  beds  of  engine 
ashes  3  iuches  deep,  and  good  mortar  beds  close  jointed  with  good  fine  mortar  of  the 
requisite  fluidity,  the  radiated  corners  to  be  worked  according  to  details,  all  the  stones 
to  be  well  and  solidly  bedded.     m 

Old  materials.— The  contractor  must  value  the  old  materials  (if  any)  at  present  on 
the  ground,  and  mus^t  state  in  his  tender  the  amount  he  will  allow  for  the  same. 

QUALITY   OF   MATERIALS. 

Stoneware  drain  pipes. — The  whole  of  the  pipes  shall  be  approved  salt-glazed  stone- 
ware socket  pipes  of  the  best  manufacture,  sound,  and  thoroughly  burnt  throughout 
their  whole  substance,  and  the  internal  and  external  surfaces  smooth  and  well  glazed. 
They  shall  be  cylindrical  in  bore,  and  internally  of  the  full  specified  diameter,  and 
shall  have  whole  socket  j  oints  forming  a  component  part  of  the  pipe.  The  thickness 
shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  entire  body  of  the  pipe. 

No  square  junctions  shall  be  used. 

All  pipes  shall  be  made  to  fit  without  being  chipped. 

Lime.— Tha  lime  shall  be  blue  lias  or  other  approved  hydraulic  lime,  fresh  burnt, 
and  until  used  in  mortar,  shall  be  protected  from  wet,  and  as  much  as  possible  from 
the  atmosphere. 

Portland  cement. — The  cement  used  in  the  works  of  this  contract  shall  be  fresh-burnt 
Portland  cement  (obtained  from  the  Rugby  Portland  Cement  Co.);  of  such  fine- 
ness that  samples  sifted  through  a  No.  50  gauge  wire  sieve  shall  not  leave  a  residue 
of  more  than  10  per  cent.,  and  of  such  quality  and  strength  that  samples  of  pure 
cement,  when  gauged  neat  in  the  ordiuary  brass  molds,  shall  not  become  firm  in  less 
than  3  hours,  and  shall,  after  7  days'  immersion  in  water,  be  capable  of  bearing 
a  tensile  strain  of  400  pounds  on  the  sectional  area  of  I  square  inch. 

Sand.— The  sand  for  mortar  shall  be  clean  and  sharp,  free  from  all  foreign  matter, 
and  screened  if  required  by  the  engineer. 

The  sand  for  blinding  macadam  shall  be  beach-gravel  sand,  of  quality  approved 
by  the  engineer,  a  sample  of  which  may  be  seen  at  his  office. 

Lime  mortar. — The  lime  mortar  shall  be  composed  of  two  parts  of  best  building 
sand,  of  approved  quality,  to  one  part  of  lime. 

Portland  cement  mortar. — Portland  cement  mortar  shall  be  composed  of  two  parts  of 
best  building  sand,  of  approved  quality,  to  one  part  of  Portland  cement. 


368  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Brickwork. — The  whole  of  the  brickwork  shall  be  built  in  old  English  bond,  unless 
otherwise  directed,  lineable,  plumb,-  and  solid  throughout,  carried  up  uniformly  with 
the  facework,  and  closely  bedded  in  mortar,  so  that  in  no  case  shall  four  courses, 
when  built,  exceed  in  height  four  like  courses  set  dry,  by  more  than  1J  inches,  and 
in  order  that  every  joint  may  be  filled,  the  brickwork  must  be  completely  flushed 
with  mortar  of  the  requisite  fluidity.  No  broken  bricks  will  be  allowed  except  for 
closers. 

The  whole  of  the  bricks,  except  where  otherwise  specified,  shall  be  best  common 
bricks,  hard,  sound,  and  well  burnt,  of  approved  quality. 

Henry  T.  Wakelam, 
Assoc.  M.  Inst.,  C.  E.,  Engineer  and  Surveyor. 

It  is  evident  that  in  this  region  macadamized  roads  are  believed  to 
be  the  best  and  most  economical.  I  can  not  therefore  do  better  tban 
annex  hereto  a  paper  on  "  The  maintenance  of  macadamized  roads  " 
by  W.  Hewitt,  read  at  the  ordinary  general  meeting  of  the  Surveyors 
Institution,  November  26,  1888. 

I  also  inclose  an  official  report  by  Thomas  Codrington,  C.  E.,  etc.,  on 
road  maintenance. 

Land  values  undoubtedly  are  enhanced  by  good  roads,  but  it  is  quite 
impossible  to  estimate  to  what  extent  in  this  densely  populated  district. 

Thos.  H.  Sherman, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Liverpool,  March  14, 1891. 


MACADAMIZED  KOADS.* 

By  W.  Hewitt. 
[Inclosure  in  Consul  Sherman's  report.] 

Road  maintenance  is  a  subject  to  which  comparatively  little  attention  has  been 
given  in  this  country,  although  it  is  one  of  great  importance,  involving,  as  it  does, 
inclusive  of  the  metropolitan  macadamized  roads,  an  annual  expenditure  of  nearly 
£4,500,000.  In  the  early  part  of  the  last  century  the  roads  were  little  more  than 
cart  tracks,  on  which,  when  they  got  in  a  very  bad  condition,  a  quantity  of  stone  of 
various  sizes  were  placed  indiscriminately  and  left  to  work  in.  Of  course  a  road 
maintained  in  such  a  way  as  this  was  always  in  a  bad  condition,  except  when  the 
stone  was  newly  put  on,  and  then  it  was  too  rough  and  uneven  for  the  traffic  to  pass 
easily  over  it.  In  some  districts  where  stone  was  scarce  the  road  would  be  mended 
in  the  autumn  with  brushwood,  mud,  etc.,  with  a  layer  of  stone  on  the  top;  but  in 
a  short  time  this  road,  especially  in  wet  weather,  became  in  a  much  worse  state  than 
before.  The  method  of  making  a  new  road  was  to  dig  a  trench  of  the  required 
width  and  deposit  alayer  of  large  stones  init  and  another  of  small  on  the  top  of  them. 
This  was  left  to  itself  and  allowed  to  consolidate  in  the  best  way  it  could.  Tho 
thickness  of  these  layers  varied  according  to  the  idea  of  the  surveyor,  and,  a&  he  was 
generally  a  man  possessing  no  experience  of  road  makiDg  or  maintaining,  it  was 
not  to  be  expected  that  he  would  know  anything  about  the  work  he  had  to  superin- 
tend.   Things  went  on  in  this  way  u  ntil  the  establishment  by  law  of  turnpike  trusts. 

*  Read  at  the  ordinary  general  meeting  of  the  Surveyors'  Institution,  November 
26,  !8d£J. 


EUROPE UNITED   KINGDOM.  369 

Bat  it  appears  this  did  not  do  much  good.  The  trusts  were  in  short  lengths,  some- 
times not  more  than  20  miles,  and  the  surveyors  were  no  better  than  before,  as  they 
were  more  frequently  appointed  by  favor  than  for  any  qualifications  which  they 
possessed  for  the  office. 

This  state  of  things  continued  until  the  time  of  Macadam  and  Tolford  (about  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century),  when  great  improvements  were  made;  the 
stone  was  broken  to  a  more  uniform  size,  and  greater  attention  was  paid  to  drainage. 
Macadam's  principle  was  "  to  put  broken  stone  upon  a  road  which  shall  unite  by  its 
own  angles  so  as  to  form  a  solid,  hard  surface,"  and  this  by  universal  experience  since 
has  been  allowed  to  be  correct.  He  also  contended  that  no  greater  convexity  should 
be  given  to  tlie  cross-section  of  a  road  than  was  necessary  to  carry  off  the  surface 
water  into  the  water-tables.  He  did  uot  agree  with  Telford  in  one  important  par- 
ticular, namely,  that  a  road  should  have  some  sort  of  hard  foundation,  either  a  rough 
hand-set  pavement,  or  a  layer  of  rough  stone  or  gravel  for  the  broken  stone  to  be 
placed  on,  preferring  to  lay  the  metalling  on  the  formation  surface.  Experience,  ' 
however,  has  since  shown  that  Telford's  method  was  the  right  one.  A  great  deal  has 
been  said  about  the  disagreement  between  these  two  eminent  men  on  this  particular 
subject,  but  it  is  very  evident  that  they  agreed  in  a  great  deal  more  than  they  differed ; 
and  it  is  by  a  combination  of  their  methods,  united  with  recent  improvements,  that 
tho  best  roads  are  now  made  and  maintained.  In  laying  out  a  new  road  the  general 
lines  must  always  be  controlled,  more  or  less,  by  the  surface  formation  of  the  locality. 
Cuttings  and  embankments  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible,  owiug  to  their 
great  expense,  and  when  unavoidable  the  work  should  be  so  arranged,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, that  the  soil  removed  in  cutting  can  be  used  for  the  embankment.  It  is  essen- 
tial that  the  formation  of  a  road  should  be  thoroughly  drained,  whether  it  has  a  paved 
bottom  or  not.  This  is  usually  done  by  ditches  on  each  side  of  the  road.  They  should 
be  from  2feetto  3  feet  below  the  level  of  the  surface  of  the  road.  They  are  sometimes  on 
the  land  side  of  the  fence,  and  sometimes  on  the  road  side ;  but  it  is  preferable  to  have 
them  on  the  latter,  as  the  roadmen  can  more  easily  get  at  them  to  clean  them  out,  and 
it  also  gives  a  greater  width  between  the  fences,  which  is  a  great  aid  in  drying  the 
road,  as  the  air  has  freer  access  to  it.  When  the  ditches  are  on  the  land  side  of  the 
fence,  in  most  cases  they  belong  to  the  owners  of  the  property,  and  the  occupiers  are 
supposed  to  clean  and  scour  them,  which  there  is  sometimes  great  difficulty  in  getting 
them  to  do.  When  they  are  on  the  road  side  there  should  be,  unless  there  are  foot- 
paths, and  when  the  width  will  allow,  sod  borders  between  the  metalled  portion  of 
the  road  and  the  side  ditches,  with  outlet  cuts  at  short  intervals  to  lead  the  water 
away  from  the  surface  of  the  road.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  great  objection  has 
been  made  by  some  members  of  highway  boards  to  their  formation,  and  they  assert 
that  sod  borders  cause  greater  expense  in  the  maintenance  of  the  road.  This,  how- 
ever, is  an  error ;  they  may  be  formed  and  maintained  very  inexpensively,  and  it  does 
not  cost  nearly  so  much  for  trimming  the  edges  and  cleaning  the  outlets  as  it  does  to 
clean  the  sides  of  a  road  by  stocking  up  the  weeds  aud  grass.  These  always  accumu- 
late where,  as  on  most  country  roads,  the  whole  width  is  not  used,  and  where  there 
is  no  sod  border  there  is  always  great  expense  caused  by  those  operations,  which  iuT 
jure  the  road  by  admitting  the  wet,  besides  being  very  unsightly ;  whereas  the  sod 
border,  when  properly  kept  and  trimmed,  adds  to  the  appearance  of  the  road  and 
facilitates  the  flowing  away  of  the  surface  water.  It  should  be  from  4  to  6  inches 
high,  as  this  would  not  be  high  enough  to  endanger  vehicles,  and  yet  high  enough  to 
keep  anyone  from  driving  into  the  ditches  in  the  dark. 

Where  there  are  many  houses  on  the  sides  of  the  road  it  becomes  necessary  to  have 
a  footpath,  and  this  should  be  formed  over  the  side  ditch,  as  it  is  always  better 
to  have  a  drain  under  tho  footpath  than  under  the  road.  In  such  a  case  it  is  al- 
ways best  to  lay  some  kind  of  curbing  and  channeling  at  the  side  of  the  road,  the 
nature  of  which  must  be  determined  by  tho  locality,  as  when  once  down  it  costs  less 
ip  such  a  situation  to  keep  clean  than  anything  else  would.     Spip.ll  drains  couimupj* 

334 24 


370  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

eating  with  the  underdrains  should  be  carried  under  the  footpath  at  intervals,  so  as 
to  carry  off  the  surface  water.  All  side  ditches,  outlets,  borders,  etc.,  should  be  thor- 
oughly cleaned  out  aud  trimmed  iu  the  autumn,  aud  gone  over  again  where  necessary 
in  the  spring.  If  this  work  is  done  in  the  summer  it  causes  a  frreat  deal  of  useless 
trouble  aud  expense,  as  the  grass  and  weeds  then  grow  so  rapidly,  necessitating  the 
doing  of  the  work  over  again.  In  addition  to  the  side  drains  cross  drains  are  neces- 
sary in  most  cases  so  as  to  thoroughly  drain  the  center  of  the  foundation  of  the  road. 
These  are  usually  pipe-drains  and  should  communicate  directly  with  the  side  drains, 
the  fall  from  the-  center  to  the  sides  being  from  1  in  80  to  1  iu  100.  In  districts  where 
stone  is  plentiful  box  drains  are  generally  used,  as  being  much  cheaper.  They  are  of 
square  section,  and  are  formed  with  flat  stones  for  the  top  and  bottom,  and  stone 
sides.  The  great  advantage  of  these  drains  is  that  they  can  be  so  readily  opened  for 
cleaning  by  taking  off  the  top  stones.  Sometimes  it  is  advantageous  to  construct 
miter  or  V  drains.  They  are  formed  as  ordinary  drains,  but  in  the  shape  of  a  flat  V, 
with  the  center  uphill.  In  many  instances  a  cheap  and  effective  drain  may  bo 
formed  by  cutting  a  trench  about  a  foot  square  in  the  formation  surface  and  filling  it 
with  large  rough  stones.  The  intervals  at  which  these  drains  should  bo  placed 
must  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  subsoil  and  the  quantity  of  water  in  it.  With  a 
clay  subsoil  they  must  bo  at  shorter  intervals  than  iu  gravel  or  sandy  soil.  Where 
there  are  footpaths,  catch-pits  or  gnllies  may  be  used  for  the  surface  water,  and 
should  be  connected  directly  with  the  cross  drains.  Any  springs  that  may  make 
their  appearance  must  be  immediately  tapped  and  led  away  to  the  side  ditches. 

With  a  good  system  of  cross-drainage  there  is  no  advantage  in  constructing  longi- 
tudinal drains  immediately  under  the  water-tables  in  addition  to  the  side  diaius.  On 
roads  which  are  formed  on  sidelong  ground  and  benched  into  the  hillside,  it  is  nearly 
always  necessary  to  have  a  drain  in  the  side  of  the  hill  above  the  road  to  keep  the 
laud  water  from  the  road  ;  but  the  form  of  this  must  be  determined  by  local  circum- 
stances. A  very  common  and  inexpensive  way  is  by  cutting  a  deep  trench  and  filling 
it  with  large  stones.  Whatever  system  maybe  adopted  in  such  cases,  the  drains 
should  be  connected,  at  intervals,  directly  with  culverts,  so  as  to  convey  the  water 
under  the  road  aud  away  from  the  upper  side  as  quickly  as  possible.  In  many  in- 
stances, particularly  in  hilly  districts,  no  outlet  can  be  found  for  the  water  on  one 
side  of  the  road.  In  such  cases  provision  must  be  made  for  conveying  it  under  the 
road  at  intervals  by  means  of  large  drains  or  culverts.  These  are  usually  pipes  of 
large  diameter,  or  may  be  large  box-drains,  with  the  walls  either  built  dry  or  with 
mortar ;  the  larger  ones  being  generally  built  with  brick  or  stone  walls,  and  with  a 
turned  arch  similar  to  a  bridge.  In  all  cases  au  invert  should.be  formed,  either  by 
an  inverted  arch  or  a  flat  pitched  invert,  or  (he  walls  would  be  rapidly  undermined 
by  the  water.  Barrel  culverts,  of  circular  section  aud  built  of  bricks,  are  now  rarely 
used.  It  will  sometimes  be  found  necessary  1o  go  to  considerable  expense  to  thor- 
oughly drain  a  road,  but  in  the  end  it  will  always  be  found  to  be  most  economical  to 
do  so,  as  a  wet,  uudrained  road  is  always  most  expensive  to  keep  in  good  order.  All 
underdrains  and  cnlverts,  unless  of  very  large  size,  should  have  an  iron  grating  at  the 
entrance,  to  prevent  their  getting  choked  with  the  rubbish  which  is  always  brought 
down  at  the  commencement  of  a  storm.  It  is  essential  that  the  cross-section  of  a  road, 
when  completed,  shall  be  such  as  will  allow  the  water  to  flow  freely  off  it;  yet  care 
must  be  taken  that  it  is  not  too  round,  or  else  the  traffic  will  always  keep  to  the  cen- 
ter and  form  ruts,  which  will  retain  the  water  and  thus  cause  great  damage  to  the 
road  by  soaking  into  and  thereby  weakening  it. 

The  best  form  for  general  purposes,  I  believe,  for  the  cross-section  is  an  arch  of  a 
circle,  having  a  fall  of  I  in  30  from  the  center  to  the  sides  of  the  road.  A  road  should 
never  be  quite  level  longitudinally,  or  the  water  will  stand  iu  the  gutters  instead  of 
flowing  away  freely  ;  so  that,  even  in  quite  level  ground,  it  is  better  to  go  to  a  slight 
expense  to  obtain  such  a  fall  as  will  enable  the  water  to  get  away  easily.  Steep 
gradients  should  be  avoided  where  possible.    No  road  should  ever  be  made  with  a 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  371 

gradient  steeper  than  1  in  30,  but  1  in  50  is  much  better  for  general  purposes,  espec- 
ially when  practicable  without  much  greater  cost,  for  the  after  exponse  of  mainten- 
ance will  be  much  less.  Great  damage  is  caused  to  a  road  by  the  feet  of  the  horses 
when  drawing  heavy  loads  uphill,  and  also  by  the  drags  on  vehicles  descendiug,  by 
causing  a  disintegration  of  the  surface.  Much  injury  is  frequently  caused  by  watei 
scouring  the  surface  of  a  hilly  road,  sometimes  the  whole  coat  of  surface  metalling 
being  swept  away.  When  a  road  is  formed  by  being  benched  into  the  hillside  a  re- 
taining wall  is  frequently  needed  to  prevent  the  earth  falling  on  to  it.  When  tfic 
cross  section  of  the  road  is  formed  partly  by  cutting  into  the  hillside  and  partly  by 
an  embankment,  a  retaining  wall  will  generally  be  needed  on  the  other  side  also, 
and  below  the  road.  The  section  and  strength  of  these  walls  must  always  vary  very 
much,  and  must  altogether  depend  on  local  surroundings  and  requirements.  The 
width  of  a  country  road  should  never  be  less  than  16  feet  of  metalled  surface.  On  a 
road  where  there  is  great  traffic  the  width  should  be  such  as  will  readily  accommo- 
date it,  and,  within  certain  limits,  the  wider  a  road  is  in  proportion  to  the  traffic  the 
less  it  will  cost  to  keep  in  good  order.  The  formation  surface  of  a  road,  wheu  the 
drainage  is  completed,  should  be  well  rolled,  so  as  to  consolidate  it,  before  the  found- 
ation is  laid  on  it;  the  foundation  is  usually,  in  the  case  of  streets  or  roads  with 
heavy  traffic,  a  pavement  of  rough  flat  stone  set  on  edge  and  formed  to  the  same 
cross  section  as  the  road  will  have  when  finished,  the  interstices  being  filled  with 
small  pieces  hand-set  with  a  hammer.  Sometimes  it  is  of  concrete  formed  to  a  simi- 
lar cross-section. 

Cinders  and  slag  form  a  very  good  foundation  when  obtainable,  as  does  coarse 
gravel.  In  some  districts,  where  stone  is  scarce,  burnt  clay  is  used;  but  for  ordinary 
roads  the  foundation  is  most  generally  formed  of  rough  stone,  often  of  spalls  from  the 
nearest  quarry.  Whatever  the  foundation  is  it  should  be  well  rolled  before  the  sur- 
face metalling  is  laid.  Oftentimes  the  metalling  is  laid  direct  on  the  formation  sur- 
face. The  generality  of  existing  roads  are  formed  in  this  way,  but  it  is  not  well  to 
do  so  if  it  can  be  avoided,  and  the  practice  is  much  to  be  coudemned.  In  some  cases, 
when  a  road  is  laid  on  wet,  boggy  ground,  a  layer  of  fascines  is  laid  first  to  form  a  firm 
foundation,  and  then  the  road  is  formed  on  it ;  but  unless  the  nature  of  the  ground 
is  such  as  will  always  insure  the  fascines  being  kept  in  a  wet  or  damp  state  they  will 
soon  rot  and  the  road  will  go  to  pieces.  Therefore  they  should  never  be  used  unless 
under  unavoidable  circumstances.  In  some  districts  the  foundation  is  formed  of 
chalk,  but  this  should  not  be  used  unless  it  can  be  thoroughly  protected  from  the 
action  of  wet  and  frost,  owing  to  its  power  of  absorbing  water,  which  causes  it  to 
turn  into  mud  in  wet  weather  and  to  blow  up  in  frost.  Stiff  clay  is  a  bad  foundation 
owiug  to  its  great  contraction  in  dry  weather  and  expansion  in  wet.  Wheu  the 
foundation  is  laid,  whatever  course  may  be  adopted,  the  metalling,  if  more  than  4 
inches  or  5  inches  in  thickness,  should  be  laid  in  two  layers,  each  rolled  separately 
if  rolled,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  with  a  heavy  roller  only.  When  two  rollers  can 
be  used,  one  light  and  one  heavy,  the  better  course  will  be  to  roll  it  all" in  one  layer, 
passing  the  light  roller  over  first  and  finishing  with  the  heavy  one.  The  top  layer, 
when  partly  consolidated  by  rolling,  should  have  a  binding  material  laid  over  the 
surface  and  rolled  in  with  the  metaling  to  form  a  compact  mass,  and  while  this  is 
ueing  rolled  it  should  be  well  watered.  It  is  better  in  making  a  new  road  to  roll  the 
8urface,  although  the  metaling  is  left  in  mauy  places  to  consolidate  by  the  traffic  ; 
but  in  such  a  case  a  great  deal  of  material  is  wasted  by  grinding  and  crushing,  besides 
causing  great  inconvenience  to  the  traffic,  and  the  metaling  also  wears  round  and 
takes  a  long  time  to  set.  Rolling  is  only  necessary  in  the  case  of  new  roads,  or  when 
a  thick  coat  of  metalling  is  laid.  When  a  thin  coat  is  rolled  the  roller  generally 
smashes  a  great  deal  of  the  stone,  which  would  not  be  the  case  if  it  wereconsolidatod 
by  the  traffic  Steam  rolling  is  better  and  more  economical  than  horse-rolling,  as  it 
more  thoroughly  and  quickly  consolidates  the  metaling.  With  a  heavily  weighted 
iiorscroller  the  stones  arc.  much  displaced  by  the.  horses'  feet,  in  consequence  of  the 
great  exertion  necessary  to  draw  it.     Horse  rollers  are  very  unwieldy  iu  use  and  are 


372  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

now  seldom  used  anywhere.  When  rolling  is  resorted  to  in  repairing  a  road  it  is 
sometimes  necessary  to  stock  the  surface  of  it.  This  should  not  be  more  than  half  an 
inch  deep,  as  deeper  than  that  displaces  the  old  metaling  and  increases  the  cost,  with 
no  corresponding  advantage. 

The  metaling  should  be  carefully  spread  and  of  a  uniform  thickness  and  the  bind- 
ing material  applied  when  about  half  rolled.  The  binding  is  very  often  applied  too 
soon  and  in  too  great  a  quantity,  the  consequence  being  that  the  road  is  soft  and 
muddy  and  does  not  get  firm  until  the  superfluous  small  stuff  is  squeezed  out  and 
removed  in  the  form  of  mud  or  dust  by  continued  scraping  and  sweeping.  The  proper 
quantity  of  binding  material  which  it  is  necessary  to  use  is,  in  my  opinion,  as  little 
as  possible.  Clean  sharp  sand  or  tine  gravel  is  generally  used  as  a  binding  mate- 
rial, but,  as  nearly  all  stone  where  rolling  is  resorted  to  is  broken  by  machinery,  I 
think  the  screenings  from  that  are  much  the  best  material  for  such  a  purpose,  and, 
being  of  the  same  nature  as  the  metaling,  will  unite  with  it  and  form  a  hard,  close 
surface,  much* better  than  with  sand  or  gravel,  which  are  of  a  foreign  nature  and,  not 
being  angular,  like  the  screenings,  will  not  set  so  readily.  With  a  silicious  material 
limestone  screenings  will  cause  it  to  set  better  than  anything  else.  In  all  cases  the 
screenings  should  be  of  the  same  material  as  the  road  metal.  When  using  a  binding 
material  the  fact  is  too  often  lost  sight  of  that  it  is  only  intended  to  fill  up  the  inter- 
stices between  the  larger  stones,  and  when  more  than  sufficient  for  this  purpose  is 
used  the  bad  effects  before  mentioned  always  ensue.  There  is  no  economy  in  repair- 
ing a  road  with  thick  coats,  and  rolling,  unless  the  traffic  is  very  considerable, 
although  there  is  a  great  deal  more  comfort  to  the  public,  owing  to  the  easier 
draft;  there  will,  moreover,  be  much  less  wear  and  tear  of  vehicles.  A  weak  road 
should  not  be  rolled,  as  although  the  weight  of  a  15-ton  steam  roller  is  very  evenly 
distributed  over  the  surface  and  the  weight  is  not  great  per  inch  of  width,  it  would 
be  likely  to  be  very  injurious  to  the  road,  owing  to  causes  which  will  be  mentioned 
further  on.  When  once  a  road  is  coated  and  rolled  it  is  too  often  the  case  that  it  is 
left  to  take  care  of  itself,  except  for  scraping  and  sweeping,  until  it  requires  coating 
again.  For  some  time  before  this  is  done  the  surface  is  covered  with  depressions, 
which  are  frequently  of  such  a  depth  as  to  be  dangerous.  The  coating  would  gen- 
erally last  much  longer  if,  as  soon  as  any  hollow  made  its  appearance,  it  were  filled 
up  with  small-sized  metaliug.  A  proper  system  of  repairing  by  small  patches  will  in 
all  cases  result  in  a  great  saving. 

One  of  the  great  causes  of  slacks  or  hollows  appearing  in  the  surface  of  a  newly- 
rolled  road  is  that  the  metalling  has  not  been  uniformly  spread.  When  they  appear 
during  rolling  they  should  be  ii lied  with  metalling  broken  to  a  rather  smaller  gauge 
than  the  rest.  The  road  should  be  carefully  watched  after  the  rolling  is  completed, 
and,  if  any  hollows  should  appear  then,  they  should  be  immediately  covered  with 
smjill  patches  of  stone.  Stoue  for  patching  should  always  be  broken  to  a  rather 
smaller  gauge  than  for  coating.  Too  great  stress  can  hardly  be  laid  on  repairs  by 
patching — a  matter  very  imperfectly  understood  by  a  great  many  highway  surveyors 
and  iu  some  towns  never  practised  at  all.  Roads  and  streets  have  come  under  my 
notice  where  little  or  nothing  is  done  to  them  until  they  require  coating,  and  so  coat 
after  coat  has  been  laid  until  the  top  metalling  is  12  to  15  inches  thick  on  roads  with 
only  light  traffic.  By  this  means  the  roads  have  been  so  raised  that  they  are  in  the 
centre  considerably  above  the  level  of  the  sidewalks  and  have  a  sharp  and  frequently 
dangerous  fall  toward  the  sides.  The  materials  used  for  road  metaling  must  of 
necessity  vary  very  much  according  to  locality.  Owing  to  the  cost  of  haulage  local 
stone  must  generally  be  used,  especially  if  the  traffic  be  only  moderate.  If,  however, 
the  traffic  is  heavy,  it  will  sometimes  be  found  better  and  more  economical  to  obtain 
a  superior  material,  even  at  a  higher  cost ;  and,  in  cases  where  the  traffic  is  very 
great,  the  best  material  that  can  be  obtained  is  the  most  economical.  In  some  cases 
the  better  material  may  be  used  on  those  parts  of  the  road  where  the  traffic  is  great- 
est, and,  in  other  cases,  in  the  centre  of  the  road  only.  A  good  road  metal  should  be 
hard  and  tough,  and  if  it  has  a  certain  amount  of  binding  nature  in  it  so  much  th» 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  373 

better.  It  should  also  be  able  to  withstand  the  influences  of  the  weather.  These 
qualities  are  seldom  found  together,  as  igneous  and  silicious  rooks,  although  fre- 
quently hard  and  tough,  do  not  consolidate  so  well  nor  so  quickly  as  limestone,  ow- 
ing to  the  sandy  detritus  formed  by  the  two  first  having  no  cohesion,  whilst  the 
limestone  has  a  detritus  which  acts  like  mortar  in  binding  the  stones  together 

A  stone  of  a  good  binding  nature  will  frequently  wear  much  better  than  one  with- 
out, although  it  is  not  so  hard.  A  limestone  road  of  good  cross-section  will  be  more  im- 
pervious to  wet  than  any  other,  owing  to  this  cause,  and  will  not  disintegrate  so  soon 
in  dry  weather,  owing  partly  to  this  and  partly  to  the  well-known  quality  which 
all  limestone  has  of  absorbing  moisture  from  the  atmosphere.  The  limestones  are 
generally  not  hard  enough  for  roads  with  very  heavy  traffic,  where  hardness  and  tough- 
ness are  of  more  consequence  than  any  other  properties.  For  such  roads  the  hest  ma- 
terials are  some  of  the  granites,  such  as  Guernsey,  Penmammawr,  and  Cornish; 
Clee  Hill  stones,  trap»>  basalts,  whiustones,  and  some  of  the  silicious  rocks.  For 
roads  of  moderate  traffic  the  best  are  the  harder  limestones  and  a  hard  sandstone 
sometimes  found'  in  the  coal  measures.  Iron  and  copper  slag  are  sometimes  used,  but, 
although  very  hard  and  tough,  have  no  binding  property  at  all,  and  the  edges  of  the 
pieces  when  broken  are  so  sharp  as  to  cut  horses'  feet  very  badly.  In  some  parts 
gravel  is  used  very  largely  for  road  metal.  It  should  be  well  sifted  from  small  ma- 
terial and  the  large  stones  broken  down  to  the  proper  gauge.  Field  stone  aud  river 
stone  are  much  used  in  some  districts,  but  generally  make  a  rough  road,  as  they  are 
composed  of  the  hardest  parts  of  those  stones  which  have  resisted  the  action  of  the 
weather,  and  are,  though  frequently  very  hard,  of  unequal  hardness,  so  that  they 
wear  very  irregularly.  Mere  hardness  without  toughness  is  not  of  much  use,  as  a 
stone  may  be  very  hard  but  so  brittle  as  to  be  crushed  to  powder  under  a  heavv  load 
when  a  stone  not  so  hard,  but  having  a  greater  degree  of  toughness,  will  be  unin- 
jured. The  size  to  which  surface  metaling  is  generally  broken  is  such  that  a  stone 
in  its  largest  dimensions  will  pass  easily  through  a  ring  either  of  2J  or  2£  inches  di- 
ameter. For  roads  where  the  traffic  is  light  it  may  advantageously  be  broken  smaller 
as  it  will  then  cover  a  larger  space,  consolidate  much  more  quickly,  aud  make  a 
smoother  surface.  When  the  material  is  rolled  it  need  not  be  broken  quite  so  small 
as  when  it  is  set  at  once  by  rolling  it  is  an  advantage  to  have  a  rather  larger  stone 
as  it  makes  a  stronger  road. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  in  the  preparation  of  the  material,  so  that  the  stones 
shall  not  be  long,  flat,  or  flaky  ;  the  small  stuff  should  not  be  screened  from  it  when 
hand-broken,  as  there  is  generally  no  more  than  what  is  useful.  All  clay  and  dirt 
should  be  separated  from  it,  except  in  the  case  of  gravel,  when  a  certain  proportion 
is  necessary,  for  if  gravel  is  too  clean  it  will  not  set  for  a  long  time,  owiug  to  there 
being  so  many  round  stones  in  it.  The  stones  should,  within  certain  limits,  be  kept 
as  nearly  as  possible  of  a  uniform  size  and  a  cubical  form,  as  they  then  make  a  better 
and  more  even  road.  Stone  broken  by  hand  is  preferable  to  that  broken  by  machin- 
ery, as  machine-broken  stone  is  not  so  durable  as  hand-broken.  When  broken  by  a 
machine  it  is  always  crushed  to  a  certain  extent  by  the  jaws,  aud  therefore  does  not 
wear  so  well,  especially  under  heavy  traffic ;  but  when  a  machine  can  be  kept  in 
constant  use  it  is  often  cheaper,  especially  if  the  stoue  is  very  hard  ;  with  some  hard 
Btoue  the  cost  will  often  be  fouud  to  be  only  about  half  that  of  hand-breaking.  A 
hard  stone  which  is  not  tough  and  some  of  the  softer  stones  will  be  crushed  to  powder 
by  a  machine.  Machine-broken  stone  is  also  frequently  very  flaky,  which  is  a  great 
disadvantage  in  setting.  In  stone  broken  to  a  gauge  of  2±  inches  the  proportion  of 
solid  is  55  per  cent,  to  45  per  cent,  of  void  ;  therefore,  taking  the  average  weight  of 
a  cubic  foot  of  solid  limestone  to  be  170  pounds,  the  weight  of  a  cubic  yard  of  broken 
metaling  would  be  1  ton  2  hundredweight  2  quarters  4  pounds.  This,  when  con- 
solidated, would  weigh  nearly  as  heavy  as  the  solid  stone ;  iu  fact,  a  cubic  foot  of 
consolidated  road  metal  weighs  on  an  average  of  from  93  to  95  percent,  of  an  equal 
bulk  of  solid  stone ;  therefore,  it  takes  1}  of  broken  material  to  form  1  of  road,  or,  in 
other  words,  when  the  metaling  is  consolidated  it  occupies  two-thirds  of  the  space 


374  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

it  did  before.  The  interstices  in  the  road  coating  are  filled  with  small  stones  and 
mud ;  these  form  a  great  portion  of  all  roads.  In  a  consolidated  road  the  amount  of 
metaling  over  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  varies  from  20  to  55  per  cent.,  and  the  mud 
from  20  to  25  per  cent.  ;  the  remainder  consists  of  small  stone  which  is  very  useful  in 
the  road.  In  a  road  freshly  coated,  of  course  the  proportion  of  large  stone  would  be 
greater. 

Generally  speaking,  the  road  which  contains  the  greatest  quautity  of  large  stone 
will  be  the  best ;  but  sometimes  such  a  road,  from  having  an  ill-drained  foundation, 
will  be  very  weak,  and  large  quantities  of  stone  may  be  put  down  without  materially 
strengthening  it,  and  the  stones  will  always  work  about  in  wet  weather.  An  excess 
of  mud  should  not  be  allowed  to  accumulate,  as  few  things  tend  to  wreakeu  a  road  so 
much;  any  road  containing  more  than  is  absolutely  needful  should  be  constantly 
scraped  until  it  is  reduced  to  the  proper  quantity.  The  chief  causes  of  wear  on 
roads  are  the  action  of  the  traffic  aud  the  action  of  the  weather.  The  relative  wear 
of  each  can  not  be  accurately  told,  as  the  one  helps  the  other  so  much,  aud  they  vary 
according  to  local  circumstances.  On  a  strong  consolidated  road  the  greatest  wear 
arises  from  the  action  of  the  horses'  feet  and  the  wheels  of  vehicles,  and  the  smoother 
the  road  is  the  less  the  wear  will  be,  as  in  a  rough  road,  in  addition  to  the  downward 
pressure,  there  will  be  that  pressure  on  every  projecting  stone  which  will  tend  to 
push  it  forward,  aud  so  cause  a  grinding  movement  between  the  stones.  This  pressure 
is  greater  in  proportion  as  the  diameter  of  the  wheel  is  smaller,  and  is  much  more 
destructive  than  the  vertical  pressure.  When  the  material  is  not  thoroughly  set  this 
grinding  movement  is  still  more  destructive  aud  causes  great  wear  and  waste  of 
material.  On  weak  or  ill-drained  roads  great  wear  is  caused  by  bending  aud  cross- 
breaking.  When  this  takes  place  there  is  a  yielding  of  the  subsoil,  as  well  as  of  (he 
road  coating  ;  the  road  bulges  aud  cracks  under  the  weight  of  the  load,  the  metaling 
is  driven  into  the  subsoil  at  the  point  of  contact  with  the  wheel,  and  that  surround- 
in<»-  it  rises  above  the  level  of  the  road  ;  the  surface  water  finds  its  way  in  through  the 
cracks  and  weakens  the  road  still  more,  aud  in  frosty  weather  the  frost  gets  in,  and 
when  the  thaw  comes  the  road  is  blown  up  in  a  great  many  places,  aud  wet  boggy 
places  are  formed  which  are  very  dangerous.  Besides  this  the  draft  is  very  much 
increased  on  such  a  road,  owiug  to  the  surface  bulging  before  the  wheels,  and  a  horse 
is  therefore,  on  a  level  road,  continually  pulling  the  road  uphill.  Along  the  sides  of 
the  ruts  may  be  seen  cracks,  which  lead  directly  to  the  subsoil.  The  wear  caused  by 
the  wheels  of  vehicles  is  influenced  very  much  both  by  their  diameter  and  width.  It 
has  been  said  by  some  that  the  resistance  to  traction  on  a  road  is  in  inverse  propor- 
tion to  the  square  root  of  the  diameter  of  the  wheel.  Others  say  it  varies  inversely 
as  the  diameter. 

From  experiments  made  with  Eastou  and  Anderson's  horse  dynamometer  at  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Show,  1874,  a  slightly  greater  ratio  than  inversely  as  the  diame- 
ter was  giveu,  aud  I  am  inclined  to  thiuk  that  inversely  as  the  diameter  is  the  more 
correct  view  of  the  two.  There  can,  however,  be  no  possible  doubt  but  that  large 
wheels  are  much  more  favorable  both  to  draft  and  wear  of  the  road  than  small 
ones.  The  draft  is  always  much  less  on  a  smooth,  hard,  unyielding  road;  a  flexi- 
ble, yielding  road,  although  it  may  be  elastic,  will  not  give  back  the  force  expended 
in  the  pressure  of  a  wheel  on  it,  and  this  force  must  naturally  be  more  on  a  yielding 
than  on  a  hard  road.  Of  the  width  of  a  wheel,  it  may  be  said  that  up  to  a  certain 
limit  a  broad  wheel  with  the  same  load  is  less  destructive  to  a  road  than  a  narrow 
onoiu  about  the  following  proportion— not,  I  believe,  as  is  generally  thought,  in  the 
direct  ratio  of  its  width.  In  practice,  I  think,  a  wheel  2  inches  wido  will  be  found  to 
be  nearly  one  and  a  half  times  as  favorable  to  the  road  as  a  wheel  1  inch  wide,  a 
wheel  3  inches  wide  nearly  twice  as  favorable,  aud  a  wheel  4  inches  wide  two  to  two 
aud  a  half  times  as  favorable.  This  will  vary  more  or  less  under  different  circum- 
stances, but  will  be  found,  I  believe  to  be  about  the  correct  proportions.  My  reasons 
for  so  thinking  will  be  found  in  the  theory  explained  in  the  next  paragraph.  Prac- 
tically, no  advantage  is  gained  by  having  wheels  more  tkau4£  inches  wide.     Sir  J. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  375 

Macadam  said  that  the  maximum  load  which  should  be  allowed  on  any  vehicle  should 
be  9  hundredweight  per  inch  of  width  of  tire;  Telford  and  Sir  J.  Macueil  contended 
that  5  hundredweight  was  the  greatest  load  that  should  be  allowed,  and  I  think  their 
view  is  the  more  correct  one,  as  few  roads,  except  in  large  towns,  are  strong  enough 
to  bear  such  heavy  loads  as  D  hundredweight  per  inch  continually  passing  over  them. 
Broad  wheels  loaded  in  the  same  proportion  as  narrow  ones  are  much  more  destruc- 
tive than  narrow  oues.  A  road  which  will  bear  a  considerable  load  on  narrow  tires 
will  sometimes  break  down  under  the  weight  of  a  traction  engine,  although  the 
pressure  per  inch  of  width  of  tire  maybe  much  Less.  1  think  the  explanation  of 
this  may  be  found  in  the  following  theory:  If  we  take  a  wheel  1  inch  wide,  and 
suppose  that  at  the  point  of  contact  with  the  road  surface  (which  we  will  suppose 
for  the  sake  of  illustration  cousists  of  spheres  1  inch  in  diameter)  it  presses  on  a 
sphere  and  that  sphere  on  four  others,  and  so  on  in  a  pyramidal  form,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  weight  is  distributed  over  a  much  larger  area  of  the  subsoil  than  the 
surface  it  comes  in  contact  with.  Now  take  a  wheel  4  inches  in  width,  and  suppose 
it  rests  on  four  spheres  placed  in  arow,  each  1  inch  iu  diameter,  it  will  be  evident 
that  each  sphere  can  not  rest  on  four  independent  spheres,  and  each  pyramid  will, 
therefore,  be  composed  of  parts  of  other  pyramids,  which  intersect  each  other. 
With  a  1-inch  wheel,  the  sphere  would  rest  on  four  others  immediately  supporting 
it,  aud  the  four  spheres  in  a  row  under  the  4-inch  wheel  avouUI  rest  on  ten ;  at 
the  same  depth  four  separate  1-iuch  wheels  would  rest  on  sixteen  spheres,  as 
agaiust  the  ten  supporting  the  one  4-inch  wheel,  and  the  lower  we  go  the  greater 
becomes  the  proportion  in  favor  of  the  l-inch  wheels.  Therefore,  the  greater  the 
width  of  the  wheel,  loaded  in  the  same  proportion,  the  greater  will  be  the  pres- 
sure on  the  subsoil  immediately  under  it,  as  the  load  is  always  borne  by  the  subsoil 
and  not  by  the  road  coating,  which  is  merely  a  hard  surface  formed  to  protect  the 
subsoil  from  the  immediate  effects  of  the  traffic.  Of  course,  this  will  be  greatly 
modified  in  practiee,  owing  to  the  different  sizes  and  shapes  and  nature  of  the  actual 
road  coating. 

It  may,  therefore,  I  think,  be  laid  down  that  broad  wheels  with  the  same  load  are 
much  less  destructive  than  narrow  ones,  but  broad  wheels  loaded  in  the  same  propor- 
tion per  inch  of  width  as  narrow  ones  are  much  more  destructive.  The  best  shape 
for  a  wheel  is  cylindrical;  dished  wheels  should  never  be  used,  as,  owing  to  their 
shape,  their  line  of  direction  is  not  the  same  as  the  line  of  draft,  consequently  a  lat- 
eral motion  is  caused,  which  is  a  source  of  great  injury  to  the  surface  of  the  road, 
especially  in  dry  weather,  and  they  also  increase  the  draft.  Wheels  with  tires  the  sec- 
tion of  which  is  the  segment  of  a  circle  are  also  to  be  condemned.  In  fact,  all  wheels 
which  are  not  cylindrical  have  disadvantages  for  which  they  have  no  proportionate 
compensation.  The  effect  of  springs  is  more  noticeable  with  vehicles  going  at  a  high 
rate  of  speed  than  when  at  a  walking  pace — in  fact,  when  walking,  the  draft  is  very 
little  less  than  without  springs;  at  higher  rates  of  speed  the  draft  is  much  less.  This 
applies  to  a  smooth,  hard  road  ;  on  a  soft,  yielding  surface  the  good  effect  of  springs 
is  considerably  lessened.  The  weather  has  a  considerable  effect  on  the  wear  of  roads, 
not  so  much  directly  as  indirectly,  by  increasing  the  wear  caused  by  the  traffic.  Ex- 
cessive wet  causes  great  wear  by  softening  the  binding  in  the  road  coating,  which 
destroys  the  solidity  of  it  and  causes  great  wear  by  the  material  rubbing  together, 
and  makes  it  less  able  to  support  the  traffic.  Frost  after  wet  causes  great  injury. 
The  water  in  the  road,  and  sometimes  in  the  material  itself,  when  frozen,  bursts  the 
road  coating,  especially  if  the  foundation  is  wet,  and  when  a  thaw  comes  the  road 
becomes  rotten,  and  much  damage  is  sometimes  caused  by  heavy  traffic  coming  on  a 
road  at  such  a  time.  Rain  after  a  thaw  also  causes  great  injury,  and  when  alterna- 
tions of  frost  and  thaw  occur  the  road  is  tried  very  much;  indeed,  a  good  road  will 
sometimes  break  up  under  such  conditions.  If  the  foundation  is  wet,  and  the  frost 
reaches  through  to  it,  the  road  will  be  blown  up  from  the  bottom.  Excessively  dry 
weather  causes  great  wear,  especially  with  a  siliceous  road  material,  by  the  small 
stuff  and  mud  being  loosened  ;  but  this  can  always  be  counteracted  by  watering. 


376  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Dry  weather  has  leas  effect  on  limestone  than  on  any  other  road  material.  Trees  and 
high  hedges  are  also  a  great  cause  of  wear  by  keeping  the  sun  away,  the  road  remain- 
ing wet  where  otherwise  it  would  be  dry.  Wear  is  less,  generally,  in  proportion  as  a 
road  is  smooth,  strong,  and  well  drained,  and  of  a  sufficient  width  to  accommodate 
the  traffic  freely. 

Many  experiments  have  been  made  to  measure  the  wear  on  roads;  but  this  can 
only  approximately  be  done,  unless  the  area  and  quantity  of  material  periodically 
laid  are  known.  Some  say  that  the  wear  increases  in  direct  proportion  to  the  traffic, 
others  that  it  increases  in  a  greater  ratio ;  but  from  personal  observation  I  think  that, 
on  a  road  where  the  traffic  is  very  heavy,  the  latter  idea  is  frequently  correct.  The 
amount  of  material  expended  annually  in  this  country  on  main  roads  varies  from 
about  40  cubic  yards  per  mile  in  remote  country  districts  to  1,000,  and  sometimes 
1,500  cubic  yards  in  the  vicinity  of  large  towns;  but  I  think  the  general  average 
would  be  from  70  to  80  cubic  yards  per  mile.  On  district  and  parish  roads  it  is  fre- 
quently as  low  as  10  cubic  yards  per  mile.  A  great  mistake  .is  often  made  in  country 
districts  where  there  is  little  traffic  in  procuring  a  very  hard  stone  Irom  a  distance, 
when  a  moderately  hard  one  can  be  obtained  in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  and  at 
a  very  much  less  cost.  The  hardest  stone  is  not  always  the  best  for  a  road ;  it  is  only 
the  best  when  the  traffic  is  great.  On  a  road  where  there  is  only  light  traffic  a  softer 
stone  is  much  to  be  preferred,  because  the  hard  stones  do  not  consolidate  under  the 
traffic,  and  the  road  is  always  rough  and  uneven.  I  have  seen  this  in  many  cases,  to 
make  the  matter  worse,  where  a  quantity  of  road  scrapings  was  put  on  in  the  spriug 
to  make  the  stones  set.  When  the  wet  weather  came  this  was  all  squeezed  out  as 
mud  and  had  to  be  scraped  off  again,  causing  great  inconvenience  to  the  traffic  and 
costing  altogether  about  twice  as  much  as  the  local  stone  would  have  done.  Where 
roads  are  repaired  by  thin  coats  without  rolling,  as  all  country  roads  must  be,  on 
account  of  the  small  quantity  of  stone  used  per  mile,  great  care  is  necessary  that 
none  of  the  material  is  wasted.  When  the  material  is  laid  in  the  proper  season— viz, 
in  the  late  autumn  or  early  winter,  it  soon  consolidates  under  the  traffic  and  forms  a 
smooth  surface.  All  the  stone  should  be  laid  before  Christmas  except  a  small  quan- 
tity which  should  be  kept  for  the  necessary  patching  in  the  spring.  The  coat  should 
never  be  more  than  one  stone  thick ;  if  it  is  necessary  to  put  a  greater  thickness  one 
coat  should  be  laid  and,  when  nearly  consolidated,  another  should  be  laid  on  the  top; 
by  this  means  a  much  firmer  and  harder  road  is  formed,  and  with  less  waste  of  ma- 
terial; but,  when  it  can  be  avoided,  a  road  should  never  be  left  to  get  so  much  out 
of  shape  as  to  require  a  greater  thickness  of  metalling  than  one  stone  thick. 

Before  coating  a  road  is  commenced  in  the  autumn  all  the  small  hollows  should  be 
patched,  which  will  prevent  them  wearing  larger ;  then  those  portions  of  the  road 
which  require  coating  should  be  done.  It  is  always  best  to  lay  the  coatings  in  short 
pieces,  as  if  a  long  length  is  laid  the  traffic  goes  to  the  side  of  the  road  to  escape  the 
stones,  and  frequently  cuts  it  up  very  much,  whereas  when  laid  in  short  lengths  it  is 
not  worth  while  to  go  to  the  side  to  do  so,  as  they  are  so  soon  passed  over ;  if  a  loug 
length  of  road  requires  coating  it  should  be  done  in  that  way,  and  when  the  short 
coatings  are  worn  in,  which  will  not  take  long  in  the  winter,  intermediate  coats  may 
be  laid.  When  the  metalling  is  laid  it  should  be  constantly  attended  to,  and  raked 
so  as  to  prevent  the  formation  of  ruts.  Generally  speaking,  there  is  no  advantage  iu 
stocking  a  road  when  repaired  in  this  way;  it  may  sometimes  be  necessary  to  do  so 
slightly  when  the  metalling  is  laid  in  a  dry  season,  but  this  will  always  depend  on 
circumstances.  Ruts  are  best  repaired  by  filling  in  the  wheel  tracks  first,  and  when 
the  material  is  partly  set  the  center  rut  should  be  attended  to ;  this  is  better  than 
doing  all  three  at  once,  or  the  center  and  one  side  first,  as  in  the  former  instance  in- 
termediate ruts  are  soon  formed  by  the  traffic  avoiding  the  loose  stones,  and  in  the 
latter  the  traffic  all  goes  to  one  side,  whereas  if  the  two  outside  ruts  are  filled  in  first, 
the  traffic  keeps  to  the  usual  line  on  account  of  having  the  horse  pad  clear,  and  wheu 
it  is  time  to  repair  this  rut  the  traffic  soon  wears  the  single  line  of  stones  in.  If  it 
should  be  necessary  to  lay  a  large  coating  on  a  street  or  road  with  heavy  traffic,  a 


EUROPE — UNITED   KINGDOM.  377 

binding  material  may  be  advantageously  used,  but,  as  a  rule,  a  firmer  road  is  formed 
without  it.  It  is  essential  tbat  tbe  superfluous  mud  be  removed  from  a  road.  Tbis 
may  be  done  by  sweeping  or  scraping  where  it  is  in  tbe  form  of  eitber  mud  or  dust. 
When  dust  is  regularly  removed  from  a  road  it  does  not  require  nearly  so  mucb 
watering  in  dry  weather  as  it  otherwise  would  ;  care  must  be  taken,  however,  in  a 
road  composed  of  silicious  materials  that  the  road  is  not  damaged  by  too  much  sweep- 
ing, as  it  will  tend  to  disintegrate  the  surface,  and  a  great  deal  of  useful  material  is 
liable  to  be  swept  away.  The  best  time  for  sweeping  is  early  in  the  morning  before 
tbe  dew  has  dried,  and  there  is  much  less  inconvenience  to  the  traffic  at  that  time. 
Machines  drawn  by  horses  are  sometimes  used  to  sweep  up  mud  or  dust.  The  most 
common  form  is  a  circular  revolving  brush,  mounted  obliquely,  which  sweeps  the 
mud  or  dust  in  a  line  on  the  one  side,  to  be  afterwards  gathered  up.  Another  ma- 
chine often  used  is  a  scraping  machine,  constructed  in  an  oblique  manner  also,  and 
which  acts  in  a  similar  fashion.  This  is  very  useful  when  the  mud  is  partly  dry. 
The  most  useful  machine  that  1  have  seen  is  Warren's.  In  this  machine  a  series  of 
brushes  attached  to  an  endless  chain  revolves  as  it  is  drawn  along,  and  sweeps  the 
mud  up  an  inclined  plane  into  a  mud  cart,  to  which  it  is  attached.  When  this  cart  is 
fall  it  can  be  removed  and  hauled  away,  and  an  empty  cart  attached,  so  that  the 
machine  is  kept  constantly  at  work. 

Some  surveyors  object  to  this  machine  on  the  ground  that  it  removes  too  much  of 
the  useful  small  material,  about  the  size  of  small  shot,  from  the  road.  It  does  do  so 
to  a  certain  extent,  but  this  can  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  by  adjusting  the  pressure 
of  the  brushes,  which  is  easily  done  by  simply  turning  a  small  wheel ;  but  the  amount 
of  small  stuff  that  this  machine  removes  is  so  little  more  than  the  ordinary  kinds  do, 
tbat  it  is  much  more  than  compensated  for  by  the  great  saving  in  time  and  labor, 
besides  more  effectually  cleansing  the  road.  The  great  advantage  of  this  machine  is 
that  it  removes  the  mud  quickly  and  at  once  from  the  road,  and  does  not  interfere 
with  the  traffic  while  doing  so.  These  machines  can  ouly  be  advantageously  used  in 
or  near  towns,  and  where  there  is  great  traffic.  In  the  country,  hand  scrapers  and 
brooms  are  mostly  used,  but  a  small  scraping  machine  which  can  be  used  by  one  man 
is  of  great  advantage.  The  best  way  to  use  it  is  from  side  to  side,  as  this  tends  to 
preserve  the  cross-section  of  the  road.  A  man  can  scrape  a  great  deal  more  in  a  day 
with  one  of  these  machines  than  with  a  hand  scraper,  and  do  the  work  much  better. 
It  is  said  by  some  to  be  very  injurious  to  remove  mud  from  a  road  when  it  is  at  all 
dry,  but  in  most  cases  it  is  better  for  the  road  that  it  should  be  removed.  A  road 
should  never  be  watered  unless  it  really  needs  it,  as  too  much  water  is  very  injurious 
and  it  increases  the  wear  from  traffic.  To  insure  the  constant  attention  that  a  road 
always  requires,  it  should  be  divided  into  lengths,  each  under  the  charge  of  a  con- 
stant laborer.  As  much  should  be.  given  to  each  man  as  will  keep  him  constantly 
employed  during  the  summer,  and  he  will  be  able  to  do  all  the  necessary  work  at 
other  times  with  the  assistance  of  casual  laborers.  The  length  of  road  apportioned  to 
each  man  will,  of  course,  vary  much  according  to  circumstances;  on  main  roads  from 
1  to  2  miles  on  a  road  with  heavy  traffic,  to  6  and  in  some  case  8  or  9  miles  on  roads 
with  light  traffic.  On  parish  roads  these  lengths  may  in  some  cases  be  longer.  The 
constant  laborer  should  be  on  his  road  at  all  times,  wet  or  dry,  and  it  is  of  great  im- 
portance that  he  should  be  there  during  heavy  rain  and  storms  so  as  to  see  that  all 
drains  and  watercourses  are  clear,  as  great  damage  is  frequently  done  to  a  road  by 
their  being  choked,  particularly  in  hilly  districts,  where  a  great  amount  of  rubbish  is 
usually  brought  down  at  the  commencement  of  a  storm.  The  constant  laborer  should 
have  entire  charge  of  his  length,  under  tbe  surveyor.  He  should  not  have  his  work 
set  by  the  piece,  as  piecework  is  seldom  so  well  done  as  day  work,  and  he  should  not 
be  moved  from  his  length  to  another  without  good  cause,  as  nothing  causes  a  man  to 
lose  interest  in  his  work  so  much  as  removing  him  when  he  has  succeeded  in  getting 
his  length  into  fair  order.  Some  men  can  never  be  made  good  roadmen,  while  others 
Acquire  the  necessary  knowledge  and  skill  very  quickly,  and  will  do  more  work  and 


378  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

make  the  material  go  farther  than  others  who  have  heen  at  similar  work  for  manj 
years. 

It  is  generally  much  hetter  to  employ  such  men  as  these,  even  if  paid  a  little  mora 
money,  as  it  will  be  far  more  economical  than  employing  the  first  man  who  applies 
for  the  work,  as  is  very  frequently  done,  because  he  will  work  for  less  money.  This 
system  of  employing  constant  laborers  has  been  in  use  on  the  South  Wales  County 
roads  for  the  past  40  years  and  has  been  found  to  work  very  effectually  ;  it  has  also 
been  adopted  in  several  parts  of  England  during  the  past  few  years.  I  think  it  is  a 
great  mistake  to  let  road  repairs  by  contract ;  the  work  is  never  so  efficiently  done 
as  it  would  be  by  day  work,  with  men  in  charge  of  a  skilled  laborer,  and  when  under 
the  supervision  of  a  surveyor.  The  only  thing  which  can  be  advantageously  let  by 
contract  is  the  supply  of  road  materials,  which  may  be  supplied,  ready  broken,  in 
heaps  on  the  side  of  the  road,  or,  better  still,  in  stone  depots  recessed  in  the  hedge  or 
bank.  It  is  better  to  have  the  material  in  small  heaps,  at  short  intervals,  so  that  it 
can  be  wheeled  out  with  a  wheelbarrow,  rather  than  have  large  heaps  at  long  inter- 
vals and  have  to  cart  it  where  it  is  wanted  ;  the  men  can  usually  make  the  material 
go  farther  in  repairing  and  patching  if  accessible  with  wheelbarrows.  It  is  best  to 
have  it  supplied  by  the  cubic  yard  rather  than  by  the  ton,  and  it  should  not  be  meas- 
ured until  broken  and  stacked.  It  should  always  be  delivered  by  the  end  of  the 
summer,  as  the  road  is  less  injured  by  the  carting  at  that  time,  and  the  longer  the 
stone  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  weather  the  better  it  is.  If  the  repairs  should 
be  let  by  contract  the  term  should  not  be  for  less  than  3  years,  as,  if  let  for  a  shorter 
period  than  this,  one  man  may  keep  the  road  in  good  repair  for  1  year,  and  use  a 
proper  quantity  of  material  and  labor  on  it  ;  the  next  year  another  man  may  get  the 
contract,  and  do  as  little  as  he  possibly  can  to  it,  just  keeping  it  of  good  appearance 
until  his  contract  expires,  and  then,  as  soon  as  wet  weather  comes,  the  road  shows 
great  signs  of  weakness  and  requires  a  great  deal  of  material  and  labor  expended  on 
it  to  bring  it  into  good  order  again. 

I  have  not  gone  into  the  cost  of  labor  or  material  in  auything  referred  to  in  this 
paper,  as  they  vary  so  much,  even  within  a  small  radius,  that  such  details  would  be  of 
little  practical  value.  The  length  of  road  which  a  surveyor  can  well  superintend 
must  depend  to  a  great  extent  on  the  nature  of  the  roads  and  the  situation  of  them. 
It  will  be  found  more  economical  in  all  ways  to  have  districts  of  such  a  size  that  a 
sufficient  sum  may  be  paid  to  a  surveyor  as  will  enable  the  authority  to  obtain  a  com- 
petent man  and  allow  him  to  keep  a  horse.  In  this  case  he  could  look  after  a  much 
greater  length  of  roads  if  he  had  two  or  three  assistants  and  a  uniform  system  of  main- 
tenance over  a  larger  area  is  much  to  be  preferred  to  small  divisions.  Extraordinary 
traffic,  as  defined  by  the  highways  aud  locomotives  (amendment)  act,  1378,  has  caused 
a  great  deal  of  trouble  and  annoyance.  It  is  frequently  very  difficult  to  tell  what 
extraordinary  traffic  is,  and  when  it  commences.  It  is  much  to  be  wished  that  some 
clearer  definition  of  what  constitutes  extraordinary  traffic  had  been  given  in  the  act 
aud  that  due  notice  of  such  traffic  had  been  made  compulsorj ,  unless  the  traffic  should 
be  thrown  ou  the  road  unexpectedly  through  an  emergency.  Such  notice  cannot  be 
reasonably  expected  until  extraordinary  traffic  is  more  clearly  defined.  Extraordi 
nary  traffic  thrown  suddenly  on  a  road,  which  is  amply  strong  enough  for  the 
ordinary  traffic  of  the  district,  will  frequently  destroy  the  surface  of  the  road,  often 
plowing  down  into  the  subsoil  and  cutting  the  road  completely  to  pieces.  In  many 
cases,  if  due  notice  had  been  given  of  the  intended  increase  in  the  traffic  the  road 
might  have  been  strengthened  so  as  to  have  borne  it  with  little  or  no  injury,  and  at 
a  very  much  less  cost  than  the  after  repairs  which  were  required  to  bring  it  into  good 
order.  I  think  the  abolition  of  turnpike  trusts  in  England  and  North  Wales  was  a 
great  mistake,  until  some  better  method  had  been  found  to  obtain  funds  for  road 
maintenance.  Then  everyone  who  used  the  road  had  to  pay  for  it,  but  now  the  bur- 
den falls  almost  altogether  upon  one  class,  viz,  the  farmers,  especially  in  agricultural 
districts.     From  inquiries  which  I  have  made  in  South  Wales  (where  turnpikes  still 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  379 

exist)  ut  gates  close  to  largo  towns,  eleven-twelfths  of  the  traffic  which  passes 
through  them  conies  from  the  towns,  and  even  at  country  gates,  G  or  8  miles  from 
any  town,  three-fourths  come  from  the  towns. 

It  is  manifestly  unfair,  then,  that  the  county  ratepayers  should  have  to  pay  the 
whole  amount  for  the  maintenance  of  roads  which  are  much  more  used  hy  the  towns- 
people than  by  themselves,  aud  to  this  cause,  I  think,  may  be  attributed  the  dissatis- 
faction which  exists  in  the  country  as  to  the  highways  and  locomotives  (amend- 
ment) act,  1878.  These  remarks  are  intended  to  apply  to  main  roads  only,  and  not  to 
district  or  parish  roads.  The  inferior  state  of  a  great  part  of  the  main  roads  may 
also,  I  believe,  be  traced  to  the  same  cause.  The  greater  part  of  most  highway  dis- 
trict boards  is  generally  composed  of  farmers,  and  they  naturally  try  to  reduce  the 
expenditure  on  the  roads  to  as  little  as  possible,  aud  in  many  cases  have  done  so  to 
too  great  an  extent,  and  the  roads  have  suffered  in  consequence.  The  tendency  is 
also  to  divide  the  present  highway  districts,  which  in  many  cases  are  already  too 
small,  and  place  each  division  in  charge  of  a  man  who  knows  nothing  whatever  about 
road  work,  the  salary  offered  being  so  small  that  no  competent  man  could  accept  the 
appointment,  a  great  many  highway  surveyors  at  present  having  had  no  previous 
training  in  road  work  whatever.  I  think  this  is  a  great  argument  in  favor  of  the 
county  government  of  roads.  The  districts  should  be  of  a  large  size,  and  the  sur- 
veyors should  be  appointed  by  the  county  authority,  aud  be  required  to  devote  the 
whole  of  their  time  to  their  duties.  District  boards  would  be  required  to  regulate 
the  expenditure,  and  I  think  it  advisable  that  all  main  roads  should  be  either  under 
separate  management,  as  in  South  Wales,  or  be  inspected  by  an  officer  appointed  by 
the  county  authority  ;  or  several  authorities  might  combine  to  pay  an  inspector,  and 
he  should  deliver  au  annual  report  on  the  state  of  the  roads,  aud  superintend  the 
preparation  of  the  estimates.  Under  the  South  Wales  turnpike  act,  the  main  roads 
of  each  county  are  governed  by  a  county  roads  board,  with,  in  some  counties,  dis- 
trict roads  boards,  as  distinct  from  highway  district  boards,  to  regulate  the  expendi- 
ture. The  surveyors  have  charge  of  the  main  roads  only.  The  highway  district  sur- 
veyors are  also  appointed  by  the  county  roads  boards,  although  not  paid  by  them, 
and  they  have  charge  of  the  district  and  parish  roads.  Until  recently,  the  maiu  roads 
were  annually  inspected  by  a  general  superintendent  of  roads  for  South  Wales,  ap- 
pointed and  paid  by  the  local  government  board.  This  office  has  recently  been  abol- 
ished, as  the  loans  advanced  by  government  to  the  respective  county  roads  boards 
when  the  act  was  passed,  have  been  repaid. 

In  many  of  the  English  counties  the  main  roads  are  inspected  ;  but  in  many  cases 
it  is  either  hy  magistrates,  county  surveyors  (who  are  usually  architects),  or  police 
superintendents,  etc.  These  may  know  very  well  when  a  road  is  in  good  or  bad  con- 
dition ;  but  they  can  not  know,  unless  they  have  had  special  training,  what  is  the 
most  economical  aud  best  way  of  repairing  a  good  road  and  maintaining  its  efficiency, 
or  of  repairing  and  niakiug  good  a  bad  one.  A  great  deal  has  been  said  lately  as  to 
how  funds  should  be  obtained  for  the  maintenance  of  roads  if  the  present  system  of 
rating  should  be  abolished.  In  my  opinion,  the  fairest  way  would  be  by  the  appro- 
priation of  the  carriage  tax,  and  if  that  did  not  prove  sufficient,  by  the  reiniposition 
of  the  horse-tax.  All  vehicles  and  horses,  whatever  they  may  be  kept  and  used  for, 
should  be  taxed.  In  the  case  of  vehicles,  the  tax  should  be  adjusted  on  the  basis  of 
the  tolls  which  were  levied  under  the  turnpike  act,  due  regard  being  paid  to  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  wheels.  It  may  be  said  that  in  this  case  the  townspeople  would 
have  to  pay  towards  maintaining  the  country  roads,  whilst  the  country  people  would 
not  pay  anything  towards  the  maintenance  of  the  town  roads  and  streets;  but  I  think 
this  objection  may  be  met  by  providing  that  the  tax  should  be  divided  proportion- 
ately and  applied  to  both  purposes,  certain  of  the  streets  for  this  purpose  being  clas- 
sified as  main  roads.  Since  the  preceding  paper  was  written,  now  nearly  5  years 
eince,  the  local  government  act,  1858,  has  been  passed,  and  in  clause  20  it  provide! 
that  all  local  taxation  licenses,  as  specified  in  the  first  schedule  to  the  act,  are  to  bo 
paid  into  the  Hank  of  England  to  au  account  called  the  local  taxation  account,  after 


380  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

which,  when  the  respective  amount  collected  in  each  county  has  been  ascertained 
and  certified  by  the  commissioners  of  inland  revenue,  it  is  to  be  paid,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  local  government  board,  out  of  the  local  taxation  account,  to  the  county 
counsel  of  each  county. 

This  schedule,  in  addition  to  others,  includes  licenses  for  carriages,  trade  carts, 
locomotives,  horses  and  mules,  and  horse-dealers ;  and  in  section  121  a  temporary 
provision  is  made  by  which,  in  addition  to  part  of  the  probate  duties,  all  duties  on 
these  licenses  under  any  act  of  the  present  session  are  to  be  applied  as  a  grant,  to  be 
distributed  as  follows :  "  In  paying  to  every  county,  highway,  and  other  local  author- 
ity, who  have  hcietofore  received  out  of  moneys  provided  by  parliament  a  contribu- 
tion to  the  cost  of  roads,  or  to  the  successors  of  such  authority,  sums  calculated  in 
like  manner  and  according  to  the  like  scale  and  regulations  as  in  the  financial  year 
ending  ou  the  31st  day  of  March,  1888."  A  great  outcry  has  been  made  against  tho 
projected  wheel-tax  (withdrawn  since  this  paper  was  read) ;  but  it  was  only  to  be 
expected,  as  people  who  have  previously  benefited  by  the  taxation  of  others  do  not 
care  to  have  the  burden  thrown  directly  on  their  own  shoulders.  The  usual  argu- 
ment against  it  is  that  the  roads  are  for  the  indirect  benefit  of  all.  This  is  quite  true; 
and,  therefore,  all  the  more  reason  why  some  more  equitable  mode  of  obtaining  funds 
should  be  provided  than  at  present  exists,  by  which  the  whole  cost  of  maintaining 
the  county  main  roads  is  thrown  chiefly  on  the  agricultural  classes.  I  strongly  hold 
that  those  who  obtain  a  direct  benefit  from  the  use  of  the  roads  should  pay  directly 
towards  the  cost  of  their  maintenance.  At  present  it  is  difficult  to  judge  how  the 
act  will  work  in  relation  to  main  roads.  In  South  Wales,  all  tolls  will  be  abolished 
from  the  date  it  comes  into  operation,  and  funds  for  their  maintenance  will  be  ob- 
tained in  a  similar  manner  as  in  England  and  North  Wales.  The  general  opinion  in 
South  Wales  is  that  under  section  11.  clause  2,  the  various  urban  authorities  will  take 
possession  of  the  various  lengths  of  road  within  their  districts,  thus  leaving  many 
short  isolated  lengths,  which  will  be  transferred  by  the  county  councils  to  the  vari- 
ous highway  districts  under  clause  4  of  the  same  section.  The  proper  maintenance 
of  all  these  roads  will  be  supervised  by  the  road  surveyors  of  the  councils  of  the  dif- 
ferent counties,  and  all  payments  to  the  bodies  who  have  taken  over  these  roads  will 
be  made  on  their  certificates.  It  seems  probable  that  the  district  roads  there,  which 
stand  on  a  somewhat  similar  footing  to  the  main  roads  in  England,  and  receive  a  con- 
tribution from  the  common  fund  of  the  county,  will  all  be  declared  main  roads  under 
the  act.  No  special  provision  has  been  made  to  meet  this  as  far  as  I  can  see,  but  it 
seems  to  be  the  evident  intention  of  the  act.  In  England  a  similar  course  seems 
likely  to  be  taken  as  regards  the  absorption  by  urban  authorities  of  main  roads  in 
their  districts.  The  proper  supervision  of  the  main  roads  seems  well  provided  for  by 
the  act,  as  by  clause  5,  section  11,  no  county  council  has  power  to  make  any  payment 
to  a  district  council  in  respect  of  the  maintenance,  repair,  or  improvement  of  any 
road  by  an  urban  authority  until  the  couuty  council  is  satisfied  by  the  report  of  their 
surveyor  or  such  other  person  as  they  may  appoint  for  the  purpose.  While  the  more 
efficient  control  and  maintenance  of  the  main  roads  appear  to  be  well  provided  for, 
the  importance  of  the  proper  maintenance  of  district  and  parish  roads  should  not  bo 
lost  sight  of. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  381 

MANCHESTER  DISTRICT. 

BLACKBURN,  BOLTON,  SALFORD,  AND   STRETFORD. 

REPORT  BT  CONSUL  QRINNELL,  OF  MANCHESTER. 

I  inclose  herewith  three  interesting  reports  received  from  the  borough 
surveyors  of  Blackburn,  Bolton,  and  Salford,  in  this  consular  district, 
in  reply  to  my  inquiries  as  to  the  making  and  maintenance  of  city  streets 
within  their  municipalities.  I  would  draw  especial  attention  to  the  ex- 
cellent ieport,  with  inclosures,  furnished  me  by  Mr.  J.  B.  McCallum,  the 
borough  and  water  engineer  of  Blackburn.  I  also  inclose  a  report  re- 
ceived from  the  surveyor  to  the  Stretford  local  board. 

I  have  delayed  the  sending  forward  of  these  reports  in  the  hope  of 
being  able  to  obtain  similar  information  from  the  borough  surveyors  of 
Manchester,  Oldham,  and  Lancaster,  but  I  regret  to  say  that  these  gen- 
tlemen have  not  seen  fit  to  reply  to  my  letters  of  inquiry. 

William  F.  Grinnell, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Manchester,  June  18, 1891. 


BLACKBURN. 

Borough  and  Water  Engineer  McCallum  to  Consul  Grinnell. 

Borough  and  Water  Engineer's  Department, 

Municipal  Offices,  Blackburn. 
William  F.  Grinnell,  Esq., 

United  States  Consul,  Manchester  : 

Sir:  In  reply  to  your  letter,  I  beg  to  hand  you  the  following  information  which  I 
trust  may  be  of  some  use : 

(1)  The  methods  employed  in  making  and  maintaining  the  city  streets. 

After  due  notice  has  been  given  owners  of  property  (see  copy,  inclosure  No.  1),  new 
streets  are  made  by  the  corporation  and  the  cost  charged  to  owners  of  the  property 
abutting  on  same,  according  to  length  of  frontage.  Materials  are  purchased  by  the 
corporation  under  annual  contracts,  and  labor  is  done  by  contract,  prices  being  ar- 
ranged for  each  street  separately.  When  completed,  the  streets  are  maintained  by 
and  at  the  expense  of  the  corporation,  both  under  annual  contracts  and  by  day  labor. 

(2}  The  details  of  the  systems  followed  and  expenses  incurred  by  that  branch  of 
the  city  government  having  in  charge  the  city  streets. 

Granite  sets,  5  inches  deep,  with  tar  joints  on  a  bed  of  cement  concrete  6  inches 
thick,  costing  11».  Gd.  per  square  yard. 

Granite  sets,  5  inches  deep,  with  tar  joints,  on  hand-pitched  under-bedding  stone, 
12  inches  thick  after  being  rolled  with  a  15-ton  steam  roller,  costing  8«.  per  square 
yard. 

Local  stone  sets,  6  inches  deep,  with  tar  jointB,  on  hand-pitched  under  bedding 
stone,  12  inches  thick  after  being  rolled  with  a  15-ton  steam  roller,  costing  6s.  per 
square  yard. 

Local  stone  sets  (seconds),  with  tar  joints  on  10  inches  of  clinkers  and  mill  ashes, 
costing  5».  6d.  per  square  yard. 


382  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Granite  baud  broken  to  pass  a  2-incb  ring,  on  hand-pitcbed  underbedding  stone, 
12  inches  thick  after  being  rolled  with  a  15-ton  steam  roller,  costing  4s.  per  square 
yard. 

Limestone,  ditto,  costing  3s.  per  square  yard. 

Footways :  Granite  curbs,  12  incbes  wide  and  7  incbes  deep,  with  local  flags  3  incbes 
thick,  mortar  joints,  and  gravel  underbedding  3  inches  thick,  costing  7s.  3d.  per 
square  yard. 

Local  stone  curbs,  ditto,  costing  5s.  9rf.  per  square  yard. 

(Specifications  for  materials  and  labor  inclosed.  Inclosure  No.  2,  Forms  Nos.  1,  2, 
3,5,6,7,8,29,33,  and  34.) 

(3)  The  materials  used  for  streets  of  heavy  and  light  traffic,  respectively. 

Heavy  traffic  streets:  Granite  sets  on  cement  concrete.  Granite  sets  on  hand- 
pitched  underbedding. 

Light  traffic  streets :  Local  stone  sets  on  hand-pitched  underbedding. 

Back  streets:  Local  stone  sets  (seconds)  on  clinkers  and  mill  ashes,  run  in  with  tar. 

Macadamized  roads :  Grauite  or  limestone,  hand  broken,  on  hand-pitched  under- 
bedding. 

(4)  The  source  and  treatment  of  such  materials,  and  the  first  and  final  cost. 

Granite  sets,  costing  22s.  6d.  per  ton,  and  curbs,  costing  4s.  per  lineal  yard,  are  ob- 
tained from  Dalbeattie,  Scotlaud,  or  Newry,  Ireland.  (See  inclosure  No.  3,  giving 
the  results  of  experiments  to  ascertain  the  resistance  to  thrustiug  stress  and  the  po- 
rosity of  Dalbeattie  gray  granite.) 

Granite  macadam  from  Penmaen-Mawr,  Wales,  at  lis.  3d.  per  ton  ;  local  stone  sets 
at  lis.  per  ton  ;  curbs  at  2s.  6d.  per  lineal  yard  ;  flags  at  3a.  Ad.  per  square  yard, 
and  underbedding  stone  at  Is.  8d.  per  ton.,  are  obtained  from  the  Rosseudale  Valley, 
Hasliugden,  Darwen,  Blackburn,  etc.  About  6d.  per  ton  and  3d.  per  yard  is  added 
to  the  above  prices  in  order  to  cover  office  and  stoneyard  expenses.  (See  inclosure 
No.  4  for  description  of  Penmaen-Mawr  stone.) 

(5)  The  cost  of  building  and  maintaining  such  streets,  and  the  assessment  of  such 
first  cost  and  maintenance. 

Cost  of  making,  6s.  6d.  to  12s.  per  square  yard.  Cost  of  maintaining,  8d.  to  Is.  3d. 
per  square  yard. 

Assessments.^ First  cost  is  paid  by  property  owners.     Streets  are  maintained  by  aud 
at  the  expense  of  the  corporation.     An  annual  sum,  amounting  to  about  £7,000  is 
set  apart  for  repairing  streets,  etc.,  and  £4,500  for  repairing  macadam  roads. 
Very  faithfully  yours, 

J.  B.  McCalt.um, 
M.  Inst.  C.  E.,  Borough  and  Water  Engineer,  JSlackburn. 


TOE  BLACKBURN  IMPROVEMENT  ACT,   1882. 
[Inclosure  No.  1,  in  letter  of  the  borough  surveyor  of  Blackburn.] 

Whereas,  The  street  called  Henry  street,  from  James  street  to  Regent  street,  within 
the  borough  of  Blackburn,  not  being  a  highway  reparable  by  the  inhabitants  at 
large,  is  not  sufficiently  se\v<  red,  drained,  leveled,  flagged,  paved,  chauueled,  metaled, 
made  good  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  corporation  of  Blackburn, 

The  corporation  do  therefore  hereby  give  you  notice  to  sewer,  drain,  level,  pave, 
flag,  channel,  metal,  and  mate  good  in  the  manner  specified  in  the  specification,  here- 
unto annexed,  so  much  of  the  said  street,  as  the  premises  belongiug  to  you  and  each 
of  you  severally  and  respectively  front,  adjoin,  or  abut  upon,  within  60  days  from 
the  service  hereof: 

Aud  further,  that  a  plan  and  section  showing  the  particulars  of  the  said  works  are 
deposited  at  the  office  of  the  borough  surveyor,  within  the  municipal  offices,  in  the 
eaid  borough,  for  inspection  ;  and  the  same  can  be  inspected  between  the  hours  of  9 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  383 

o'clock  in  the  morning  and  1  o'clook  in  the  afternoon  on  Saturdays,  and  between  the 
hours  of  9  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  6  o'clock  in  the  evening  on  any  other  day,  ex- 
cepting Sunday  ;  and  the  borough  surveyor,  upon  application,  will  give  such  further 
information  as  may  be  needed,  or  you  may  require : 

And  further,  that  the  highway  and  general  drainage  committee  of  the  corporation 
will  meet  at  the  committee  room  in  the  town  hall,  in  the  said  borough,  on  Monday, 
the  16th  day  of  February,  1891,  at  3  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
sidering any  objections  which  may  be  made  against  the  proposed  level  of  the  said 
street,  when  and  where  all  persons  interested  therein  or  likely  to  be  agrieved  thereby 
may  attend  : 

And  further,  that  in  case  of  your  default  in  the  premises,  the  corporation  will, 
without  further  notice,  execute  the  said  works  (except  any  which,  at  such  meeting, 
may  be  ordered  to  be  abandoned,  and  with  such  alterations,  if  any,  as  at  such  meet- 
ing may  be  ordered  to  be  made)  and  charge  you  with  the  expenses  thereof. 

Dated  this  15th  day  of  January,  1891. 

J.  B.  McCallum, 

Borough  Surveyor. 

To  the  Blackburn  school  board,  and  William  Ditchfield,  clerk;  to  the  North  Britous' 
Friendly  Society,  and  John  Sefton  Scott,  their  secretary  ;  and  to  Thomas  Briudle 
and  Charles  Augustus  Sanderson,  Thomas  Howson,  and  William  James  Waugh, 
the  executors  of  the  late  Thomas  Ainsworth ;  or  others,  the  owners  or  occupiers 
respectively  of  the  lands  abutting  upon  Henry  street  aforesaid. 


Specification  referred  to  in  the  foregoing  notice. 


ed  street  of  glazed  earthenware  socket-jointed  pipes,  of  the  sizes  and  to  the  in- 
ations,  depth,  and  length  as  shown  on  the  plan  and  section,  and  connect  the 
same  to  the  nearest  main  sewer.  Manholes  and  ventilating  shafts  to  be  constructed 
where  shown  of  9-inch  brickwork  in  cement,  with  step  irons  built  in  at  intervals  of  1 
foot ;  the-bottoms  being  formed  of  blue  radiated  bricks  floated  in  cement,  and  the  tops 
arched  over  and  covered  with  6-iuch  landings  and  cast-iron  lids  of  approved  pattern. 

Branch  drains  to  be  laid  for  all  existing  or  future  requirements  as  the  borough 
surveyor  may  direct.  Each  pipe  must  be  boned  to  an  uniform  inclination,  and  the 
joints  made  water  tight  with  clay  puddle  or  cement. 

Earthenware  or  cast-iron  gullies  and  grates  to  be  fixed  in  the  position  shown  ou 
plan  and  connected  to  the  sewer  by  6-inch  earthenware  pipes.  The  gullies  to  he  of 
the  form  and  dimensions  of  the  sample  gullies  and  grates  lying  for  inspection  at  tho 
storeyard  of  the  corporation  at  Islington. 

The  down-spouts  to  be  connected  to  the  sewer  with  4-inch  pipes  ;  such  down-spouts 
as  require  it  to  be  lengthened  for  this  purpose. 

The  carriageway  o.f  the  before-mentioned  street  must  be  excavated  to  the  depth 
and  extent  shown  upon  the  plan  and  section,  and  a  formation  or  underbed  composed 
of  broken  stones,  hard  bricks,  or  other  clean  and  approved  material,  must  be  broken 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  borough  surveyor  or  his  inspector.  The  underbed  to  be  laid 
in  the  manner  shown  upon  the  section,  and  to  be  of  such  depth  that  it  shall  average 
12  inches  in  thickuess  after  being  consolidated  by  a.  steam  roller.  The  undeibed  to 
be  then  covered  with  a  layer  of  clean,  sharp,  screened  gravel,  2  inches  in  thickness, 
and  properly  prepared  for  the  paving. 

The  flags,  curbstones,  and  sets  must  be  of  good  quality,  and  such  as  shall  be  ap- 
proved by  the  borough  surveyor. 

The  flags  must  each  contain  an  area  of  not  less  than  r>  square  feet,  and  beat 
least  :;  inches  in  thickness,  well  squared  through,  laid  with  closejoints,  in  good  lime 
inortn r,  on  ;i  hed  of  gravel  not  less  than  3  inches  in  thickness. 

The  curbstones  must  be  in  lengths  of  not  less  than  2  feet  6  inches  each,  7  to  8 
inches  deep,  and  12  inches  broad,  well  dressed,  squared  and  jointed,  and  properly 
laid  to  the  inclination  shown  on  this  section. 


384 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


The  carriageway  of  the  street  mast  be  paved  with  what  are  known  as  6-inch  sets, 
squared  and  laid  in  courses  of  equal  breadth,  well  and  firmly  bedded  in  the  gravel. 
The  joints  between  the  courses  not  to  exceed  half  an  inch,  to  be  well  filled  with 
clean  chittings  screaned,  when  required,  to  free  them  from  dirt  or  sand.  The  paving 
to  be  well  rammed  with  proper  beaters  and  the  joints  rnn  with  impervious  material. 

By  permission  of  the  borough  surveyor,  a  mixture  of  sharp  sand  and  clean  mill 
ashes  may  be  used  instead  of  gravel  when  the  state  of  the  weather  or  the  nature  of 
the  ground  seems,  in  his  opinion,  to  require  such  ;  and  when  this  mixture  is  used  it 
must  be  prepared  by  thoroughly  blending  equal  parts  of  sand  and  ashes. 


DALBEATTIE   GRANITE. 

Dalbeattie,  Scotland,  February  11,  1891. 
I.  B.  McCallum,  Esq.,  C.  E., 

Borough  Engineer,  Municipal  Offices,  Blackburn  : 
Sir:  We  regret  we  have  kept  you  waiting  so  long  for  the  information  required, 
but  our  friend  was  late  in  replying,  and,  after  all,  his  reply  was  not  satisfactory. 

We  take  the  following  extract  from  "Granites  and  our  Granite  Industries,"  by 
Geo.  P.  Harris,  T.  G.  S.,  published  by  Crosby,  Lockwood  &  Co.,  London,  in  1888 : 

"  Dalbeattie  quarries. — The  light-gray  stone  obtained  from  these  quarries  is  tine- 
grained,  some  kinds  approaching  medium.  The  quartz  is  white,  clear,  and  trans- 
parent. The  feldspar  is  mostly  white  also,  but  here  and  there  assumes  a  light-brown 
tint.  None  of  the  crystals  are  well  defined,  and  they  are  much  interlocked  with  the 
quartz.  There  is  a  fair  proportion  of  black  mica  present,  and  another  black  mineral, 
which  occurs  in  long  needle-like  crystals,  denotes  the  presence,  perhaps,  of  schorl. 
This  last  mineral  is  not  abundant.  The  stone  appears  to  be  very  hard,  compact, 
and  takes  a  beautiful  polish,  being  highly  suitable  for  ornamental  decorations  and 
the  like." 

Perhaps  this,  together  with  a  copy  of  the  crushing  and  porosity  tests  made  by 
Kirkcaldy  &  Son,  of  London,  which  we  inclose  herein,  may  answer  your  purpose; 
but  if  not,  please  inform  us  and  we  will  do  what  we  can  to  procure  further  informa- 
tion. 

Yours  respectfully, 

P.  Pro.,  D.  H.  &  J.  Newall, 
H.  Gilli8PIE. 


Results  of  experiments  to  ascertain  the  resistance  to  thrusting  stress  of  four  4-inch  cubes  oj 
granite  received  from  Messrs.  D.  H.  $•  J.  Neivall. 


Name  of  qnarry  and 
marked. 

Dimensions. 

Base 
area. 

Cracked  slightly. 

Crushed,     steel    yard 
dropped. 

6 
H 

Stress. 

a 

u 

ft 

a 

o*o 

0 

Oh 

Stress. 

£ 

h 

•  a    . 

0 

ft 

§ 

!•! 

ft 

Y. 

889 
888 
890 

Dalbeattie      gray 
granite. 

...do 

....do 

....do 

Inches. 
4.00X4.00X4.00 

3.96  4.00X4.00 
4.00    4.00X3.97 

3.97  3.98X3.98 

Sq.  in. 
16.00 

16.00 
15.88 
15.81 

Pounds. 
176,  500 

174,  800 
168,  200 
161,900 

Founds. 
il,  031 

10,925 
10.  591 
10, 410 

Tons. 
709.3 

702.5 
681,0 
669.4 

Pounds. 
241,  870 

240, 180 
212, 640 
202, 230 

Pounds 
15, 116 

15,  011 
13,390 
12,  767 

Tons. 

972.0 

965.  S 
861.0 
821.0 

171, 109 

10,  739 

692.5 

224,  230 

14, 071 

904.8 

Bedded  between  pieces  of  pine  f-inch  thick. 

99  Southwark  street,  London,  S.  E.,  March  25,  188 
Messrs.  D.  H.  &■  J.  Newall, 

Dalbeattie  Qranitp  Works,  Dalbeattie,  ScollqnQ. 


David  Kirkcaldy  &  Son. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM. 


385 


Experiments  to  ascertain  the  porosity  of  two  pieces  of  stone  from  quarry,  as  under. 
I  Weighed  when  thoroughly  dry  and  weighed  again  after  10  days'  immersion  in  water  tank.] 


Received  from— 

Name  of  quarry  and 
marked. 

Test 
No. 

Porosity  percentage  of  original  weights. 

V. 

Before. 

After. 

Diff.        Porosity. 

Messrs.  D.  H.  &  J.  Newall . . 

Dalbeattie  gray  granite.. 

892 
893 

Pounds. 
23.  H 

23.76 

Pounds. 
23.15 
23. 77 

Pounds. 
0.01 
0.01 

•00 
•00 

For  "results  of  experiments  under  Thrusting  Stress.    (See  report  of  March  25, 1886.) 
99  South waik  street,  London,  S.  E.,  March  8,  1888. 

David  Kikkcaldy  &  Son. 
Messrs.  D.  H.  &  J.  Newall, 

Dalbeattie  Granite  Works,  Dalbeattie,  Scotland. 


PENMAENMAWR   (WALES)   STONE. 

The  Peuiuaonmawr  stone  possesses  very  slight  porosity,  the  absorption'  being  less 
than  0.03  per  cent,  of  its  weight,  an  importaut  characteristic  as  regards  disintegration 
by  atmospheric  influences,  or  by  chemical  action  consequent  upon  contact  with  ani- 
mal droppings  or  other  street  refuse,  or  by  the  action  of  frost,  stones  of  slight  porosity 
being  best  able  to  withstand  such  actions. 

From  Messrs.  Brundritt  $•  Co.'s  quarries. 

Silicia - 56.25 

Alumina 18.02 

Peroxide  of  iron 3.81 

Protoxide  of  iron 3.70 

Oxide  of  manganese Trace. 

Lime 6.90 

Magnesia , 5.04 

Potash 2.76 

Soda 1.90 

Carbonic  acid 0.50 

Sulphuric  acid 0.03 

Combined  water 1.09 

100. 00 

SpeciCc  gravity 2.76 

The  crushing  strength  is  placed  at  26,837  pounds  per  square  inch. 


BOLTON. 
Borough  Surveyor  Brockbank  to  Consul  Grinnell. 

Borough  Surveyor's  Office,  Bolton. 
Sir:  In  reply  to  yonr  letter  as  to  street  building  and  road  making,  I  have  pleasure 
in  forwarding  the  following  particulars  referring  to  our  own  town  : 
The  owner  of  any  land  desiring  to  open  out  the  same  for  building  purposes  is  re- 

33A L'5 


386  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

quired  to  provide  front  streets  of  not  less  than  12  yards  wide  and  back  streets  of  not 
less  than  6  yards  wide,  which  are  sewered,  formed,  paved,  flagged,  etc.,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  owners  of  the  property  abutting  on  same.  In  forming  the  roadway  is 
excavated  to  a  depth  of  2  feet  in  front  streets  and  filled  in  with  14  inches  of  ballast, 
back  streets  being  excavated  to  a  depth  of  Id  inches  and  filled  in  with  8  inches  of 
ballast,  and  both  back  and  front  streets  are  paved  with  local  grit  sets  of  8  inches 
deep.  The  footpaths  are  excavated  to  a  depth  of  6  inches  and  filled  in  with  3  inches 
of  cinders  or  gravel  and  flagged  with  flags  of  not  less  than  3  inches  thick  in  both 
front  and  back  streets,  the  edgings  and  curbs  being  8  inches  deep  and  12  inches  wide 
in  front  streets  and  12  inches  deep  and  6  inches  wide  in  back  streets. 

The  cost  of  excavating,  forming,  paving,  etc.,  is  as  follows:  Excavating,  Is.  6d.  per 
cubic  yard;  14  inch  ballasting,  8d.  per  superficial  yard;  8  inch  ballasting,  6d.  persu- 
snperficial  yard;  paving,  3s. 2d.  per  superficial  yard;  flagging  (front  streets),  4s.  5d. 
■per  superficial  yard ;  flagging  (back  streets),  3s.  9d.  per  superficial  yard ;  edgings  (front 
streets),  2s.  lid.  per  superficial  yard ;  edgings  (back streets),  2s.  3d.  per  superficial  yard ; 
curbs  (front  streets),  3s.  2d.  per  superficial  yard ;  curbs  (back  streets),  2s.  6d.  per  super- 
fici  al  yard. 

Public  streets  reparable  at  the  expense  of  the  corporation  where  there  is  heavy 
traffic  are  mostly  paved  with  grauite  sets,  aud,  unless  the  foundation  is  good,  on  a 
concrete  bed  of  6  inches  deep.  These  sets  are  obtained  principally  from  Wales  aud 
are  6  inches  deep  and  3  inches  wide,  their  average  life  being  about  30  years  and  the 
cost  as  follows:  Concreting,  paving,  and  asphalting  lis.  8d.  per  superficial  yard,  aud 
will  require  r-epaving  once  during  the  time  stated,  at  a  cost  of  3s.  6d.  per  superficial 
yard,  making  an  average  cost  for  the  30  years  of  6d.  per  superficial  yard  per  yard  : 
paving  and  asphalting,  9s.  per  superficial  yard,  aud  require  repaving  twice  at  a. 
cost  of  3s.  6d.  per  superficial  yard  each  time,  thus  giving  an  average  for  the  30  years 
(without  concrete)  of  6£d.  per  yard  per  year. 

Leicester  Mill  sets  of  8  inches  deep  are  obtained  in  Lancashire  and  will  last  8 
years  where  the  traffic  is  heavy,  the  cost  of  concreting,  paving,  aud  asphalting  being 
9s.  2d.  per  superficial  yard  ;  they  require  repaving  once  at  a  cost  of  2s.  3d!,  per  super- 
ficial yard,  making  an  average  for  the  8  years  of  Is.  5d.  per  superficial  yard  per 
year.  Paving  and  asphalting  without  concrete  will  cost  6s.  6d.  per  superficial  yard,  I 
repaving  once  at  a  cost  of  2s.  3d!,  per  superficial  yard,  thus  showing  an  average  for 
the  8  years  of  Is.  Id.  per  superficial  yard  per  year. 

Local  grit  sets  of  8  inches  deep,  obtained  from  local  quarries,  will  last  4  years  with 
heavy  traffic,  and  coucreting,  paviug,   and  asphalting  will  cost  7s.  2d!,  per  superficial 
yard  per  year ;  without  concrete  the  cost  will  be  4*   6d!.  per  superficial  yard,  or  an 
average  of  Is.  l|d.  per  superficial  yard  per  year. 
Yours  faithfully, 

W.  H.  Brockbank, 

Borough  Surveyor.    I 

William  F.  Grinnell,  Esq., 

United  States  Consul,  Manchester. 


SALFORD. 

Borough  Engineer  Jacoo  to  Consul  Grinnell. 

Borough  Engineer's  Office, 

Town  Hall,  Saiford. 
Sir  :  I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  receipt  of  your  communication,  and  bclo 
1  give  you  the  information  you  require. 

The  "  methods  employed  in  making  and  maintaining  the  city  streets,"  do  not  diffr 
in  any  essential  respect  from  the  instructions  contained  in  any  of  the  ordinary  te 
books  on  road  making,  but  it  is  needless  to  state  that  the  making  of  a  street  and  its 


, 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  387 

maintenance/are  two  wholly  different  and  distinct  matters.  The  preparation  of  the 
foundation  of  a  new  street,  to  be  constructed  on  new  ground,  consists  of  forming  the 
ground  to  the  same  contour  as  that  of  the  street  when  finished,  and  the  writer  can 
not  do  better  thau  inclose  one  of  the  standard  drawings  which  he  has  designed  for 
use  in  his  office  at  the  Salford  town  hall.  This  section  is  for  a  now  paved  road,  the 
only  variation  being  that  in  localities  where  the  traffic  is  very  heavy,  paving  sets  of 
Welsh,  or  other  good  granite  are  employed  for  the  surface  of  the  carriageway,  whilst 
the  carriageways  for  streets  to  carry  lighter  traffic  the  surface  is  paved  with  sets  of 
somewhat  larger  size,  of  tho  millstone  grit,  which  are  produced  principally  from 
north  Lancashire,  near  Stacksteads  orDarwen.  The  life  of  millstone-grit  sets  under 
a  fair  average  traffic,  does  not  generally  exceed  fifteen  years,  whilst  the  paving  stones 
of  Welsh  grauite  may  be  expected  to  stand  on  a  good  solid  foundation  for  25  or  even 
30  years.  It  is  therefore  needless  to  say  that  a  high  rate  of  carriage  upon  the  material 
will  be  warranted  where  such  a  durable  material  as  granite  is  employed. 

It  is  of  the  first  importance  that  the  foundation  of  a  street  should  be  disturbed  as 
little  as  possible  either  by  main  drainage,  cross-drainage,  or  the  laying  of  gas  and 
water  pipes,  for  foundations  that  have  been  much  disturbed  are  pretty  sure  to  settle 
more  or  less  in  process  of  time,  causing  dislocation  of  the  sets  or  other  surface  mate- 
rials, and  a  bad  surface  for  traffic.  The  writer  is  of  the  opinion  that  in  North  Amer- 
ica or  Canada  where  the  climate  is  excessive,  it  is  desirable  that  all  roadways  should 
have  a  solid  foundation  of  not  less  than  10  or  12  inches  of  cement  concrete,  laid 
beneath  the  paving  sets,  for  even  in  the  Manchester  and  Salford  streets,  the  sets  of 
which  are  laid  on  a  layer  of  cinders,  it  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  observe  that  during 
a  severe  frost  the  whole  surface  of  a  street  will  rise  from  the  foundation  and  become 
detached  on  account  of  the  frosts  penetrating  to  the  damp  cinders  under  the  sets  and 
lifting  them  up  bodily  out  of  their  place. 

It  would  be  extremely  difficult  to  supply  a  reliable  estimate  of  the  cost  of  street- 
making,  even  in  England,  unless  the  nature  of  the  material  to  be  employed  were  spe- 
cifically defined,  and  the  locality  from  which  it  is  to  be  obtained.  The  distancefrom 
which  materials  are  procured  forms  an  importaut  factor  in  framing  the  estimate  of 
cost,  and  a  small  increase  in  the  distance  from  which  materials  have  to  be  brought 
will  sometimes  double  the  cost  of  the  work,  but  it  may  be  some  guide  to  say  that  1 
ton  of  Welsh  granite  se  ts  will  cover  about  3^  square  yards  of  surface,  whilst  1  ton 
of  grit  sets  will  cover  an  area  of  4  square  yards  of  carriageway.  In  almost  every 
locality  in  or  near  Manchester,  the  footways  are  flagged  with  the  best  self-faced — 
that  is,  natural  faced — flags  of  millstone  grit,  truly  squared  and  laid  in  courses  across 
the  footway,  no  flag  to  be  less  in  area  than  3  square  feet,  and  none  more  than  12  square 
feet  in  area.  The  curbing  for  the  footways  is  of  millstone  grit,  laid  in  lengths  of  from 
2  feet  6  inches  to  3  feet.  The  stones  are  10  inches  wide  by  7  inches  deep,  laid  flat. 
Yours  obediently, 

Arthur  Jacob,  B.  A.,  M.  I.,  C.  E., 

Borough  Engineer. 

William  F.  Grixnkll,  Esq., 

United  States  Consul,  Manchester. 


STRETFORD. 
ENGINEER  ROYLE  TO  CONSUL  QRINNELL. 

Sir:  In  answer  to  your  inquiries  respecting  road-making  in  this  district  I  have 
much  pleasure  in  contributing  tin-  following  information  : 

(1)  The  methods  employed  in  making  and  maintaining  the  public  roads. 

In  this  local  government  district  of  Stretford  which  is  situated  on  the  southwest 
side  of  the  city  of  Manche-tor,  we  have  two  main  thoroughfares  which  converge  at  a 


388 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


ttMW 


point  half  a  mile  from  the  city  boundary,  through  which  a  very 
large  and  heavy  traffic  of  agricultural  produce  finds  its  way  into 
the  Manchester  markets,  as  well  as  other  general  and  through 
traffic  of  building  material,  etc.,  and  during  portions  of  the  year 
the  traffic  continues  through  the  night.  This  road  is  the  old 
Roman  road  from  London  and  Chester  to  the  north.  The  length 
of  this  main  road  is  4  miles,  and  with  the  exception  of  half  a  mile 
the  center  portion,  16  feet  wide,  is  paved  with  granite  setts,  which 
form  the  road  way  on  which  the  tramcars  run,  the  sides  thereof 
being  a  macadam  surface.  The  original  way  of  making  this  road 
was  that  known  as  MacAdam's  system,  viz,  by  simply  tipping  and 
spreading  broken  stone  on  a  moderately  level  surface  and 
thus  formiug  the  roadway,  the  thickness  of  broken  stone  or 
metal  varying  from  3  to  6  inches.  We  have  no  broken  stone 
roadways  made  on  the  Telford  system,  but  I  have  some  made  by 
first  excavating  the  carriageway  18  inches  iu  depth  below  the 
side  curbs.  The  foundation  is  then  formed  with  10  inches  of 
cinders  or  furnace  slag,  on  which  is  placed  4  inches  of  rough 
gravel,  and  the'final  or  finished  surface  with  4  inches  of  hard 
stone  (trap  rock),  broken  to  a  2A-inck  gauge,  the  steam  roller 
having  been  used  during  the  making  and  up  to  the  final  com- 
pletion. A  roadway  made  up  in  this  manner  gives  every  satis- 
faction. 

(2)  The  details  of  the  systems  followed  and  expenses  incurred 
by  that  branch  of  the  local  government  having  iu  charge  the 
public  roads. 

In  the  maintenance  of  MacAdam  or  broken-stone  roads  the 
method  adopted  is  to  use  the  hardest  and  most  durable  stone 
obtainable,  and  before  laying  on  the  stone  the  surface  is  hacked 
up  with  picks  in  cross  courses  about  4  inches  apart  in  order  to 
»  burst  up  the  old  material,  theu  one,  two  or  three  stones  iu  thick- 
ness of  broken  stone  is  laid  on  evenly,  the  steam  roller  being  used 
before  the  gravel  is  put  on  for  a  binding  material.  The  road  is 
then  watered  as  required  and  finally  consolidated  with  the  roller 
uutil  completed.  Two  men  are  required  to  constantly  brush  in  and 
spread  the  binding  material  and  distribute  the  water  until  the 
surface  is  thoroughly  creamed  up.  The  rolling  should  be  done 
slowly,  as  nothing  is  gained  by  a  rapid  motion,  the  fuel  con- 
sumption being  considerably  increased  without  any  advantage  to 
the  work. 

Macadam  or  broken-stone  roadways  in  Stretfordare  very  expen- 
sive to  maintain,  in  consequence  of  their  close  proximity  to  Man- 
chester, and  the  average  cost  per  mile  for  watering,  scavenging, 
and  repairing  is  about  £360,  notwithstanding  the  central  por- 
tion, which  is  paved  with  granite,  being  maintained  by  the  Man- 
chester Carriage  and  Tramways  Company. 

The  material  put  on  the  roads  is  from  the  quarries  at  Pen- 
maenmawr,  in  North  Wales,  and  is  of  the  igneous  or  trap  rock 
formation.  It  is  very  hard  and  durable,  there  being  no  better 
stone  for  the  purpose.  It  is  broken  to  a  guage  of  24  inches  (if 
the  roller  is  not  used  it  should  be  broken  to  a  2-inch  gauge),  and  , 
the  cost  per  ton  when  broken  and  on  the  wharf  is  10s.  3d. 

(3)  The  effect  of  improved  public  roads  upon  land  values  and 
other  economic  conditions. 

I  can  not  give  you  any  information  in  regard  to  this  question, 


Transverse  section 
ot  street  in  Salford. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  389 

except  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  good  roads  increase  the  value  of  land  through 
which  they  pass  for  many  purposes  besides  those  for  building,  just  in  the  same 
manner  as  main  outfall  sewers  improve  land  for  building  purposes  and  the  develop- 
ment of  estates. 

Yours,  respectfully, 

H.  Roylk, 
Assoc.  M.  Inst.  C.  E. 
William  F.  Giunnell,  Esq., 

United  States  Consulate,  Manchester. 


TUNSTALL. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BURGESS. 

HIGHWAYS. 


As  we  look  into  the  subject  of  roads  and  road-making  in  this  consu- 
lar district  we  find  a  wide  and  interesting  field  for  study.  Looked  at 
from  an  historic  standpoint,  the  subject  at  once  brings  us  to  the  time 
of  the  Koinans — the  world's  great  highway  builders — at  the  time  of 
the  conquest  by  them  of  the  islands  of  Britain  towards  the  end  of 
the  first  century.  One  at  least  of  these  old  roads  runs  through  this 
district. 

I  It  is  not,  however,  from  this  point  of  view,  extremely  interesting 
though  it  be,  that  I  propose  to  report  my  investigations  of  the  very 
practical  aud  important  question  of  how  roads  are  made  and  maintained 
within  my  circle  of  observation.  The  subject  naturally  divides  itself 
into  two  heads,  viz,  the  country  roads  and  the  city  or  town  streets. 
These  again  subdivide  themselves  in  the  highways  and  country  lanes; 
and  the  main  roads  and  bye-streets. 

The  beautiful  country  roads  now  in  use,  for  which  these  middle  coun- 
ties of  England  are  so  worthily  famous,  were,  with  the  exception  of  the 
few  roads  built  since  1878,  made  by  the  turnpike  trusts  under  special 
acts  of  Parliament,  the  first  of  which  was  passed  in  1762.  The  different 
districts  of  the  country,  having  been  divided  into  sections  or  divisions, 
.each  several  section  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  trustees,  separate  and 
distinct  acts  of  Parliament  being  required  for  each  of  said  sections. 
These  trustees  levied  tolls  on  all  traffic  passing  over  the  roads  under 
their  control ;  the  amount  of  toll  demanded,  per  horse,  cart,  wagon,  etc., 
varied  from  time  to  time,  according  to  the  distance  traveled  between 
■6  toll  gates  and  the  amount  expended  in  building  and  maintaining 
the  roads.  In  some  instances  the  trustees,  finding  the  revenue  from 
their  roads  inadequate  to  meet  the  outlay,  delegated,  or  contracted  out, 
to  private  individuals,  the  collection  of  the  tolls.  These  individuals, 
having  guarantied  the  necessary  amount  to  the  trustees  and  depending 
for  their  reimbursement  on  the  tolls,  looked  very  sharply  after  the  just 
and  full  collection  of  the  same. 


390  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS   IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Under  these  trusts  many  of  the  old  lanes  and  wagon  tracks,  by  the 
proper  use  and  periodic  application  of  hard  broken  stones  (obtained 
from  the  adjoining  counties)  to  the  ruts  and  holes  caused  by  continued 
travel,  have  attained  a  condition  equal  to  the  highways  running  through 
the  country.  To  the  good  judgment  and  judicious  care  of  these  trusts 
is  due  the  present  almost  perfect  condition  of  the  main  or  country  roads 
of  England.  Many  years,  however,  of  untiring  labor  have  been  re- 
quired to  accomplish  such  results. 

These  trusts,  however,  were  abolished  in  this  district  about  the  year 
1878.  From  that  date  to  the  year  1888  the  roads  were  under  the  con- 
trol of,  and  maintenance  of  the  same  devolved  upon,  the  local  authori- 
ties. 

At  the  present  time  the  county  council,  who  occupy  in  general  the 
position  of  our  county  boards  of  chosen  freeholders,  or  county  commis- 
sioners, have  the  entire  oversight  and  control  both  of  the  building  and 
maintenance  of  the  country  roads.  A  county  surveyor  is  appointed  by 
them,  who  is  a  paid  officer,  devoting  his  entire  time  and  attention  to  the 
one  subject  of  roads,  laying  out  and  constructing  new  ones  and  keeping 
in  repair  the  old,  and  buying  all  the  materials  necessary  thereto. 

The  county  is  divided  into  districts  and  the  detail  of  the  road  work  is 
looked  after  by  assistant  surveyors. 

The  money  required  for  the  proper  maintenance  of  the  highways,  out- 
side the  town  limits,  is  derived  by  a  precept  issued  periodically  by  the 
county  commissioners  to  the  various  town  authorities,  demanding  the 
amount  which  has  been  expended  on  the  roads  in  their  locality.  This 
amount  is  collected  by  the  town  authorities  in  the  general  town  rates, 
or  taxes,  the  rate  for  this  purpose  now  being  3  farthings  on  the  pound, 
or  about  -^  of  1  per  cent.,  aud  are  levied  on  the  estimated  rental  value 
of  the  property  and  paid  by  the  occupier,  be  he  the  owner  or  only  a 
leaseholder. 

The  cost  of  keeping  these  country  roads  or  highways  in  proper  order 
necessarily  varies  greatly  according  to  the  locality  and  according  to  the 
amount  of  traffic  passing  over  them.  The  Stafford  County  council  es- 
timate the  annual  cost  to  be  from  $150  to  $500  per  mile.  The  road-beds 
are  not  only  kept  in  order,  but  the  road-sides  are  kept  clean  and  free 
from  grass  and  weeds.  The  loose  stones  are  gathered  and  the  mud  and 
dust  is  more  tenderly  cared  for  than  is  the  case  in  many  of  our  larger 
towns. 

STREETS. 

The  term  main  roads  in  this  district  indicates  the  chief  streets  or 
thoroughfares  within  the  town  limits. 

The  local  governing  bodies,  be  they  the  town  council  of  an  incorpo- 
rated borough  or  the  local  governing  board  of  an  unincorporated  place, 
have  the  power  granted  to  them  to  maintain  and  repair  the  main  roads 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  391 

within  their  boundaries.  The  county  surveyor,  however,  has  an  over- 
sight of  all  this  work,  and  if  he  certifies  that  the  roads  have  been  kept 
in  proper  repair  the  county  council  annually  reimburse  the  local  bodies 
for  the  expenditure  they  have  made. 

The  kind  of  roadbed  in  general  use  in  this  district  is  that  so  well 
kuown  by  name  in  the  United  States,  as  the  "  macadam  road,"  and  yet 
so  often  disgracing  the  name  on  account  of  the  cheap  and  incomplete 
manner  of  its  construction.  The  construction  of  the  roadbed  here  is 
very  thorough,  the  extent  of  the  excavation  depending  upon  the  nature 
of  the  soil.  Two  feet  is  the  usual  depth  to  which  this  excavation  is 
made,  but  should  the  soil  prove  loose  or  of  a  nature  unsatisfactory  for 
a  good  foundation  a  still  greater  de.pth  is  reached.  A  layer  of  hard 
broken  .bricks  or  the  refuse  from  the  many  potteries  of  this  neighbor- 
hood, such  as  cinders,  broken  ware  and  saggars,  or  any  other  hard 
refuse  material  is  put  down  to  the  depth  of  about  18  inches.  The  con- 
tour or  rounded  shape  of  the  road  is  roughly  formed  in  this  state,  the 
mass  being  consolidated  by  means  of  steam  or  heavy  horse  rollers.  The 
former  are  generally  used  and  of  course  are  much  preferred  on  account 
of  their  great  weight,  the  standard  weight  being  12  tons.  The  next  3 
or  4  inch  layer  consists  of  granite  stone  of  the  best  and  hardest  quality, 
broken  into  pieces  capable  of  passing  through  a  3-inch  gauge.  The 
mass  is  again  rolled.  The  finishing  eoating  of  about  3  inches  is  of  the 
same  quality  of  stone,  but  broken  to  a  2-inch  gauge  and  mixed  with 
half-inch  chippings  of  the  same  material.  This  being  again  well 
watered  and  rolled  many  times,  produces  a  wonderfully  hard  and  even 
surface. 

The  cost  of  this  macadam  stone  varies  according  to  the  size  to  which 
it  is  broken,  but  would  average  about  $2.70  per  ton,  delivered  in  the 
towns  of  this  district. 

The  approximate  cost  of  building  a  main  road  on  which  the  traffic  is 
very  heavy,  as  is  the  case  in  all  the  pottery  towns,  is  estimated  at  about 
$2.44  per  superficial  or  square  yard.  The  estimated  annual  cost  for 
maintenance  and  repairs,  taking  6  yards  as  the  average  width  of  the 
roadbed,  is  $1,296  per  mile  or  13  cents  per  superficial  yard. 

The  by  or  side  streets  of  the  towns  are  nMde  in  much  the  same  way 
as  the  main  roads,  with  the  exception  that,  on  account  of  the  traffic 
being  much  less,  and  so  great  a  depth  of  foundation  being  unnecessary, 
only  a  12-inch  core  of  hard  material  is  made,  the  final  layer  consisting 
of  broken  limestone,  about  3  or  4  inches  in  thickness,  rolled  and  watered 
as  before. 

The  cost  of  building  these  by  streets  including  the  cost  of  paving 
and  curbing  with  bricks  made  for  the  purpose  is  estimated  at  $1.80  per 
superficial  yard.  There  are  many  of  these  side  streets  which  have  been 
laid  out  and  built  by  the  property  owners,  desirous  of  opening  up  their 
property,  and  the  street  not  having  been  turned  over  to,  nor  accepted 
by,  the  towns,  their  maintenance  devolves  upon  the  property  owners. 


392  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Where  such  streets  are  used  by  the  inhabitants  at  large,  thus  making 
them  public  streets,  and  are  found  to  be  in  bad  condition,  the  property 
owners  are  served  with  a  notice  to  repair  or  make  good  the  same; 
should  they  fail  to  do  so,  the  town  authorities  step  in  and  do  it  them- 
selves, apportioning  the  cost  to  the  several  property  owners  who  are 
compelled  to  pay. 

The  granite  used  in  this  district  is  obtained  from  the  adjoining  county 
of  Shropshire  and  from  North  Wales  j  the  limestone  from  Derbyshire. 

The  wood  or  Nicholson  pavements  have  been  used  to  a  small  extent 
in  some  of  the  towns,  but  do  not  meet  with  much  favor.  It  is  not  solid 
and  durable  enough  to  suit  the  tastes  of  a  people  who  glory  in  their 
solidity  and  who,  when  they  build  even  a  house,  expect  it  to  stand  for 
generations. 

One  of  the  greatest  charms  of  English  scenery  to  the  American  vis- 
itor is  the  beauty  of  its  hedge-lined,  stone-bedded  roads.  Much  of 
Englands  scenery  would  be  nothing  without  them.  Would  they  not 
add  as  greatly  to  the  natural  beauties  of  our  own  country1?  The  Eev. 
Dr.  Cuyler,  of  Brooklyn,  on  the  subject  of  "  How  to  make  rural  life 
more  attractive,"  writes  as  follows : 

Take  the  single  matter  of  roads,  for  example.  Most  country  roads  are  abominable 
for  at  least  half  of  every  year.  They  make  it  very  difficult  for  farmers  to  drag  their 
produce  to  the  nearest  railway  or  market ;  they  make  all  social  intercourse  and 
travel  wretchedly  uncomfortable.  If  couutry  people  would  open  their  eyes  to  this 
fact  and  open  their  hands  and  pockets  to  improve  their  highways,  they  would  fiud  it 
not  only  to  their  pleasure  and  comfort,  but  also  in  the  end  to  their  pecuniary  profit. 
Good  roads  would  be  one  of  the  first  and  most  indispensable  conditions  of  restoring 
and  reinvigorating  the  decliuing  country  districts. 

Nothing  can  be  truer  than  the  above.  The  fact  presents  itself  strongly 
to  me,  as  I  see  daily,  the  enormous  loads  of  farm  produce  carted  with 
ease  along  these  country  roads  by  one  horse,  which  at  this  season  of  the 
year  (March)  in  America,  would  require  at  least  4  horses,  if  indeed,  it 
would  be  possible  at  all  to  market  the  produce. 

It  is  difficult  to  arrive  at  any  facts  in  dollars  and  cents  relative  to  the 
effect  of  improved  public  roads  upon  the  value  of  land  or  other  economic 
condition,  but  the  effect  of  such  roads  now,  and  for  so  long  in  existence, 
is  seen  on  every  hand  and  the  influence  felt  in  the  English  mode  of  life. 
Englishmen,  be  they  of  the  gentry  or  of  those  in  the  humbler  walks  of 
life,  seek  their  pleasure  in  and  gladly  betake  themselves  to  their  coun- 
try homes.  The  one  medium  of  this  pleasure  so  natural  to  all  men  is 
the  solid  roadbed  over  which  one  can  walk,  or  ride,  or  drive  with  equal 
comfort  or  pleasure  in  any  day  of  the  year. 

Wm.  Burgess, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Tunstall,  March  28,  1891. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  393 

IRELAND. 

IRISH  HIGHWAYS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  MAOAHAN,  OF  LVROAN. 

CONSTEUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE- 

In  Ireland  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  the  public  highways 
throughout  suburban  and  rural  districts  in  each  county  are  regulated 
by  means  of  the  grand  jury  presentment  system. 

Every  county  is  divided  into  baronies,  and  in  each  barony  a  present- 
ment sessions  court  is  held  twice  a  year,  the  persons  composing  the  court 
being  the  magistrates  residing  in  or  having  property  and  jurisdiction  in 
the  barony,  and  a  number  of  the  resident  rate-payers  in  the  barony, 
the  latter  being  nominated  by  the  grand  jury  of  the  county  at  the  pre- 
vious county  assizes. 

Previous  to  each  presentment  sessions  all  applications  for  the  con- 
struction of  new  bridges  and  roads  or  the  maintenance  of  existing  roads 
and  bridges  within  the  barony  are  lodged  with  the  secretary  of  the 
grand  jury,  who  classifies  the  applications  and  attends  with  them  at  the 
court,  where  they  are  examined  and  approved  of  or  rejected. 

Advertisements  inviting  tenders  for  all  such  works  as  have  been  ap- 
proved of  are  then  issued  and  a  day  for  the  consideration  of  the  tenders 
is  fixed  (this  being  called  the  "  adjourned  road  sessions").  The  county 
surveyor,  who  is  the  engineer  in  charge  of  all  the  highways,  bridges, 
and  other  public  works  in  the  county,  prepares  the  necessary  plans 
and  specifications,  and  when,  after  an  interval  of  3  or  4  weeks,  the 
court — "  the  adjourned  road  sessions" — reassembles,  all  tenders  sent 
in  are  examined  and  the  several  contractors  declared,  each  contractor 
having  to  enter  into  a  bond,  with  sureties,  for  the  due  execution  of  the 
work. 

A  list  of  the  contracts  thus  (provisionally)  entered  into,  giving  con- 
tractor's name  and  a  brief  description  of  the  work,  as  to  length,  width, 
material,  and  contract  price,  is  then  printed  for  the  information  of  the 
grand  jury  at  the  following  assizes,  when,  if  approved  of,  they  are  laid 
before  the  judge  and  "  fiated  "  or  finally  confirmed. 

The  grant  warrant  of  each  assizes  (of  which  I  herewith  send  a  copy) 
contains  full  particulars  as  to  each  contract,  together  with  details  as  to 
the  amount  of  tax  ("  county  cess  ")  to  be  levied  on  each  barony  for  all 
purposes  connected  with  roads,  bridges,  public  buildings,  salaries  of 
officials,  etc. 

The  grand-jury  cess  ranges  from  8d  to  2i)d  per  pound  valuation 
of  the  lands  and  buildings  in  baronial  subdivisions  of  the  county.    In 


394  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

this  way  every  barony  supports  its  own  roads  and  bridges,  except  mail- 
post  roads,  which  are  charged  half  on  the  barony  and  half  on  the  county 
at  large. 

The  county  surveyor  is  assisted  by  six  or  more  deputies,  in  proportion 
to  the  area  of  the  county.  Appeal  on  the  part  of  rate-payers  against 
the  county  surveyor's  certificate  for  payment  to  any  contractor  may  be 
made  to  the  grand  jury  at  the  assizes,  when  all  grounds  of  complaint 
would  be  inquired  into,  and,  if  necessary,  to  the  judge. 

EXPENDITURE. 

The  annual  expenditure  on  the  public  roads  and  bridges  in  the 
county  of  Armagh  (a  small  county)  is  about  £22,000  per  annum.  The 
expenses  are : 

One  county  surveyor $2,300 

Four  assistant  surveyors,  each  having  his  own  district 1,600 

Secretary  to  the  grand  jury 925 

County  treasurer 1,600 

Collector  of  tax  (county  cess),  probably 5,000 

The  duties  oi  the  secretary  of  the  grand  jury  and  of  the  county  treas- 
urer extend  over  other  departments  of  the  grand-jury  system,  such  as 
asylums,  jails,  court-houses,  coroners'  inquests,  etc. 

As  the  county  of  Armagh  is  fairly  provided  with  roads,  it  is  not  easy 
to  say  what  is  the  actual  amount  of  depreciation  in  the  value  of  land 
where  the  lauds  are  inconveniently  situated  with  regard  to  the  roads. 
It  is  easy  to  calculate  such  case  by  comparing  the  actual  amount  of 
cartage  to  and  from  land  per  annum,  compared  with  what  the  cartage 
would  be  were  the  land  conveniently  situated  with  respect  to  a  good 
road. 

ROAD  MATERIALS. 

The  materials  employed  for  the  construction  and  maintenance  of 
roads  in  this  country  are  broken  stones  and  gravel — chiefly  depending 
upon  whether  the  roads  are  in  a  stone  or  a  gravel  district.  For  roads 
subject  to  heavy  traffic  broken  stone  "metaling"  is  essential,  laid  on 
a  pavement  of  stones  set  on  edge  closely  together,  the  top  interstices 
being  filled  with  "  spawls,"  so  as  to  provide  a  firm  foundation  for  the 
metaling.  Bound  stones,  such  as  are  found  in  coarse  gravel,  should  not 
be  used,  as  they  invariably  yield  to  lateral  pressure ;  therefore  "  bot- 
toming "  should  be  done  with  quarry  stones  or  natural  bowlders  broken 
to  a  suitable  size,  so  that  the  natural  rounded  surfaces  are  not  in  con- 
tact with  the  pavement.  The  strength  of  the  road  crust  must  be  de- 
termined by  the  engineer  according  to  the  nature  and  amount  of  the 
traffic  to  be  provided  for. 

In  first-class  roads  the  depth  of  the  foundation  pavement  should  be 
12  inches  and  of  the  broken  stones  8  inches.  Second-class  roads,  founda- 
tion pavement  6  to  8  inches,  and  metaling  6  inches  deep. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  395 

Stones  for  metaling  should  be  broken  sufficiently  small  to  pass 
through  a  gauge  ring  2  inches  diameter.  The  full  depth  of  the  broken 
stones  should  not  be  put  on  in  one  layer,  but  in  two  or  three  layers, 
each  to  be  fairly  consolidated  before  the  succeeding  layer  is  laid  on. 

MAINTENANCE. 

The  future  maintenance  of  roads  will  be  greatly  increased  if  strict 
attention  is  not  paid  to  the  following  structural  conditions : 

(1)  Perfect  and  permanent  drainage  of  the  site  of  the  road,  such  as 
will  provide  in  future  for  drainage  to  a  lower  level  than  that  of  the  road 
foundation.  Defective  drainage  will  involve  an  extravagant  expendi- 
ture of  material  for  maintenance  in  wet  weather  and  will  require  increase 
of  power  for  the  traction  of  loaded  vehicles. 

(2)  Such  fall  from  the  center  of  the  road  to  the  sides,  and  laterally  in 
the  water  tables  and  outside  chains  as  will  prevent  the  water  from 
causing  any  degree  of  dampness  to  the  road  crust  or  the  substratum 
on  which  the  foundation  rests.  With  regard  to  permanent  drainage 
much  will  depend  upon  the  selection  of  the  line  of  the  road  as  to  lateral 
gradients,  and  the  question  of  the  drainage  of  .the  district. 

(3)  The  quality  of  the  material  employed.  In  many  cases  road  ma- 
terial (broken  stone)  is  found  to  give  way  under  the  traffic  in  wet 
weather,  producing  mud,  which  increases  the  cost  of  scavenging,  and 
renders  the  employment  of  such  material  ineffective,  or  nearly  so.  The 
hardest  material  within  reach  should  be  employed,  even  at  a  consider- 
able increase  of  cost.  Stones  broken  by  machinery  are  not  nearly  so 
effective  as  those  broken  by  hand,  as  the  crushing  power  applied  to 
break  them  shatters  the  natural  structure. 

THE  COST  OF  ORIGINAL  CONSTRUCTION. 

First-class. — The  cost  of  earthworks,  hedges,  and  fencing  are  so  very 
variable  in  amount  that  each  particular  case  must  be  taken  by  itself, 
and  therefore  I  can  only  speak  of  the  cost  of  bottoming  and  metaling. 

For  foundation  bottoming,  as  already  specified,  having  the  materials 
within  a  distance  of  2  miles  from  the  work,  per  yard  superficial,  18  cents ; 
broken  stone  metaling,  24  cents. 

Second-class. — Foundation  bottoming,  per  yard  superficial,  10  cents ; 
broken  stone  metaling,  17  cents. 

Extra  lead  beyond  2  miles  would  increase  the  foregoing  items  of  Is. 
lOd.  and  1*.  l£d.  per  square  yard  cost  to  the  extent  of  lOd.  and  Gd.  re- 
spectively for  each  mile  of  lead  beyond  2  miles. 

COST  OF  MAINTENANCE. 

The  cost  of  maintenance  is,  in  practice,  very  variable,  principally  de- 
pendent upon  the  degree  of  perfection  with  which  the  road  has  been 


396 


STREETS   AFD    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


constructed,  but  largely  influenced  by  the  employment  of  a  sufficient 
number  of  surfacemen  for  maintaining  the  surface  in  proper  condition 
uuder  skilled  supervision.  The  following  particulars  are  taken  from 
Sir  John  F.  Burgoyne's  treatise  giving  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  road 
from  Tours  to  Caen  (France),  viz  : 


Year. 

Material. 

Road  labor. 

Total. 

Tear. 

Material. 

Road  labor. 

Total. 

1832 
1833 
1834 
1835 
1836 

£872 
708 
745 
671 
684 

£195 
205 
236 
280 
293 

£1,  067 
913 
981 
951 
977 

1837 
1838 
1839 
1840 
1841 

£584 
445 
412 
271 
163 

£504 
456 
420 
392 
445 

£1,088 
901 
832 
663 
608 

The  foregoing  particulars  show  that  by  increasing  the  skilled  labor 
and  diminishing  the  consumption  of  material  the  cost  of  maintenance 
is  much  reduced.  This  practice,  however,  has  its  limits.  Care  must 
be  taken  that  the  crust  of  the  road  shall  not  be  worn  down  below  the 
thickness  as  originally  constructed. 

In  the  county  of  Armagh  the  prices  paid  per  mile  per  annum  for  the 
maintenance  of  roads  of  the  first-class  are  as  follows : 

Highest  per  mile  per  annum $320.00 

Lowest  per  mile  per  annum 80.00 

Average  per  mile  per  annum 110.00 

In  a  work  on  "The  maintenance  of  macadamized  roads,"  by  Thomas 
Codrington,  chief  engineer  (to  be  had  at  446  Broome  street,  New  York), 
the  mean  cost  of  the  whole  of  the  macadamized  national  roads  of 
France  for  1876  is  given  as  $165  per  mile.  In  some  departments  the 
average  is  given  as  low  as  $75  and  $80  per  mile.  The  same  authority 
states  that  the  average  cost  per  mile  of  turnpike  roads  in  England  and 
Wales  was  in  1874  $155  and  in  1875  $147. 

The  steam  roller  for  the  consolidation  of  the  metaling  of  newly- 
coated  roads  is  a  recent  economic  improvement.  The  road  metaling  is 
consolidated  at  once,  a  smooth,  firm  surface  is  provided,  and  the 
broken  stones  are  pressed  in  their  original  angular  condition.  Where 
the  heavy  roller  is  not  used  the  broken  stones  are  subject  to  great  wear 
by  being  in  a  continual  state  of  disturbance,  producing  mud ;  the 
angles  are  worn  round  and  such  compact  consolidation  as  is  produced 
by  the  roller  becomes  impossible,  and  the  crust  is  weak  and  ill  adapted 
for  heavy  traffic. 

Fred.  W.  Magahan, 

Consular  Agent. 

United  States  Consular  Agency, 

JLurgan,  February,  1891. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  397 

BELFAST. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  RUBY. 

There  are  two  classes  of  streets  in  Belfast,  those  maintained  by  the 
corporation  out  of  the  borough  rates  or  taxes,  and  those  maintained  by 
owners  of  the  property.    The  latter  class  are  very  few  in  number. 

The  principal  officer  in  charge  of  the  streets  is  the  city  surveyor,  who 
is  appointed  by  the  corporation  under  local  act  of  Parliament.  In  towns 
not  having  a  local  act  he  is  appointed  under  the  public  health  act, 
which  is  a  general  one.  His  immediate  duties  are  those  of  engineer  and 
surveyor  to  the  corporation  and  the  carrying  out  of  such  acts  of  Parlia- 
ment as  are  in  force  in  the  city  relating  to  streets  and  buildings. 

The  salary  and  those  of  his  staff  are  as  follows,  per  annum : 

Surveyor $3,645 

Assistant 1,500 

General  assistants 2, 732 

Clerks 1,185 

Apprentice  clerks 219 

Building  inspector  and  two  assistants 1,540 

Outdoor  superintendents 2,455 

The  workmen  are  employed  by  the  outdoor  superintendents,  and  the 
wages  paid  are  as  follows,  per  hour : 

Bricklayers $0.16 

Stonecutters 14 

Carpenters ...., 15 

Paviors - 12  to  ,  16 

The  gangers  have  various  rates  from  $6.30  to  $6.54  per  week. 

There  are  about  150  miles  of  streets  in  Belfast,  of  which  about  50 
miles  are  macadamized,  ten  paved  with  sets  and  ninety  with  sea 
pebbles. 

The  cost  of  repairs  in  1890  was  about  £25,000  to  the  corporation. 

The  best  paving  sets  come  from  Wales,  and  the  present  prices  are  as 
follows  :  Four  by  4  by  4  inches,  $4.36 ;  4  by  4  by  6  inches,  $4.48  on  quay 
in  Belfast.     Local  granite  costs  about  48  cents  per  ton  less. 

The  best  paving  is  always  executed  by  the  corporation  workmen 
and  not  by  contract,  as  is  usual  in  the  case  of  most  new  streets.  It  is 
laid  on  a  concrete  bed  composed  of  four  parts  clean  broken  stones,  two 
parts  clean  broken  brick,  two  parts  clean  gravel,  and  one  part  best 
Portland  cement.  This  concrete  is  made  6,  9,  or  12  inches  thick,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  ground  and  traffic. 

Just  before  paving  the  concrete  is  covered  with  grout  one-half  inch 
thick,  composed  of  six  parts  screened  gravel  to  one  part  cement,  and 
the  sets  are  set  in  this. 

The  stones  are  paved  close,  just  touching,  and  in  perfectly  straight 
lines. 

The  joints  are  run  in  with  grout  of  five  parts  clean  gravel  to  one  part 
cement. 


398  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS   IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  concreting  and  paving  follow  closely.  Concrete  put  in  on  one 
day  is  paved  on  on  tbe  next. 

The  street  is  then  fenced  off  from  traffic  until  the  whole  is  properly 
set.  Sometimes  in  bad  weather  2  extra  days  are  given,  but  as  a  rule 
1  week  suffices. 

Asphalt  is  not  now  used  for  grouting.  It  is  more  costly  in  case  of 
repairs  than  cement. 

Sets  from  the  Welsh  granite  company's  or  Port  Keut  quarries  are 
always  used  for  the  best  pavements. 

Formerly  the  size  was  3£  inches  to  4  inches  wide  by  7  inches  deep, 
but  they  have  been  found  rather  large  to  give  good  foothold.  The  sets 
now  used  are  chiefly  4  by  4  by  6  inches  deep.  This  size  looks  very 
well,  and  is  very  safe  for  traffic. 

Granite  sets  and  local  whin  stone  are  used  here  in  small  quantities, 
but  they  are  very  costly  when  the  wear  is  considered,  although,  being 
cheaper  at  first,  tbey  tend  to  keep  down  the  price  of  the  Welsh  stones. 

For  macadamizing  whinstone  is  principally,  used.  It  is  obtained  from 
the  surrounding  farms,  where  it  crops  up  out  of  the  ground.  It  is  broken 
up  by  the  small  farmers  during  their  leisure  hours  or  by  the  prisoners 
in  the  jail  and  is  very  cheap.  The  foundation  is  made  of  larger  stones 
than  those  used  on  the  surface  and  are  firmly  rammed  in  by  a  haud. 
rammer.  It  is  then  coated  from  4  to  6  inches  deep  with  broken  stones  of  a 
finer  class.  It  is  then  traversed  by  a  heavy  steam  roller  which  crushes 
the  stones  to  a  sufficient  degree  of  fineness  to  make  travel  easy  and 
agreeable.  It  is  necessary  to  put  on  a  fresh  coat  of  stones  about  2 
inches  in  thickness  at  periods  varying  from  1  to  6  months,  depending 
on  the  amount  of  travel  on  the  streets. 

Wood  is  not  used  for  paving  in  this  country,  as  being  very  expen- 
sive. 

Where  laying  out  streets  in  the  first  iustance  a  plan  and  specification 
are  lodged  with  surveyor  or  corporation  by  the  owner  of  the  property 
intending  to  make  the  street.  The  surveyor  then  approves  or  disap- 
proves of  the  plan  on  account  of,  among  other  reasons,  the  lines, 
levels,  width,  mode  of  drainage,  or  specification  proposed,  and  no  street, 
plan  can  be  approved  until  the  surveyor  is  satisfied. 

The  owner  then  makes  the  street  in  accordance  with  the  documents 
lodged,  and  if  he  does  so  the  street  is  adopted  and  owner  is  liable  to 
keep  it  in  repairs. 

If  the  street  laid  out  as  above  be  not  made  by  the  owner  when  de- 
manded by  the  corporation,  the  corporation  makes  an  order  and  the 
owners  can  be  sued  Jor  the  cost,  which  is  a  charge  against  the  property. 

The  entire  cost  of  making  streets  is  chargeable  to  the  owners,  but  the 
corporation  may  in  special  cases,  if  they  see  fit,  bear  a  share  of  the  cost 
i.  e.,  a  street  made  for  special  purpose  or  of  extra  width. 

Samuel  G.  Ruby, 

United  States  Consulate,  Consul. 

Belfast,  February  23,  1891. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  399 

DUBLIN. 
KEFORT  BY  CONSUL  BEID. 
CITY  STREETS. 

There  are  three  classes  of  streets  in  Dublin,  each  class  being  con- 
structed with  reference  to  the  principal  uses  to  which  It  is  likely  to  be 
subjected. 

(1)  Stone  pavements. — This  class  of  streets  is  constructed  with  special 
reference  to  heavy  traffic  and  a  great  deal  of  driving.  It  includes,  of 
course,  the  principal  thoroughfares  of  the  city.  The  method  of  con- 
struction is  substantially  as  follows:  The  initial  step  is,  of  course, 
to  establish  the  desired  level,  which  is  done  by  excavating  or  filling, 
as  the  case  -may  be.  A  foundation  for  the  pavement  is  then  laid,  con- 
sisting of  a  bed  of  concrete  6  inches  in  thickness,  one-eighth  part  of 
which  is  Portland  cement  and  seven  eighths  clean  gravel  and  sand. 
The  surface  is  perfectly  and  uniformly  even  and  the  outline  between 
the  curbs  is  slightly  convex,  the  degree  of  convexity  being  1  inch  in 
36,  so  as  to  throw  the  water  caused  by  rainfalls  into  the  gutters  on 
either  side.  Special  pains  are  taken  to  secure  a  substantial  and  durable 
foundation,  as  the  soil  of  Dublin  as  a  rule  is  very  bad.  The  area  cov- 
ered by  the  newer  portion  of  Dublin,  being  originally  only  slightly  above 
the  surface  of  the  Eiver  Liffey,  which  divides  the  city  into  two  nearly 
equal  parts,  was  very  marshy,  and  now  rests  largely  upon  made  ground. 
It  may  be  said  in  this  connection  that  the  street  foundations  are  never 
disturbed  by  frosts.  The  temperature  is,  of  course,  very  mild.  Only 
a  few  times  during  the  winter  season  is  it  sufficiently  severe  to  freeze  a 
slight  crust  upou  the  earth's  surface.  A  covering  of  1  inch  of  fine  gravel 
is  then  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  concrete  for  the  purpose  of  accom- 
modating the  slight  inequalities  of  the  paving  blocks. 

After  the  foundation  is  completed  in  the  manner  above  described 
and  is  sufficiently  seasoned  the  stone  blocks  or  "sets"  are  laid  down 
in  rows,  crosswise,  in  the  usual  way,  and  are  well  rammed  into  place 
with  a  heavy  iron-shod  mall.  A  mixture  of  hot  pitch  and  creosote  oil 
is  then  poured  into  the  interstices  between  the  sets  and  the  remaining 
space  is  filled  with  fine  gravel.  The  pavement  is  then  complete  and 
ready  for  use. 

The  material  used  for  stone  pavements  in  Dublin  is  taken  from  the 
Wicklow  quarries  and  consists  of  greenstone  or  trappean  rock,  a  very 
hard  and  durable  material.  In  fact  the  objection  is  made  sometimes 
that  it  is  too  hard,  as  it  becomes  dangerously  smooth  in  dry  weather, 
presenting  an  almost  glassy  surface. 

The  size  of  the  blocks  or  sets  is  7  inches  long,  0£  inches  deep,  and 
3£  inches  wide.  The  cost  of  these  sets  delivered  in  Dublin  is  24  shil- 
lings and  0  pence  ($5.90)  per  ton.  One  ton  of  sets  suffices  to  cover  an 
area  of  3  to  3£  square  yards.  The  cost  of  this  pavement,  including 
everything,  varies  from  12  shillings  ($2.92)  to  14  shillings  ($3.40)  per 


400  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

square  yard,  according  to  the  amount  of  work  done  at  a  time  and  the 
facilities  for  getting  rid  of  the  excavated  material. 

The  average  durability  of  a  pavement  thus  constructed  and  of  the 
materials  mentioned  is  25  years.  Of  course  some  repairs  are  neces- 
sary during  this  period,  but  the  extent  depends  largely  upon  how 
much  the  street  is  broken  in  laying  pipes,  repairing  and  building 
sewers,  etc.  The  sets  are  not  worn  out  even  after  being  in  constant 
use  during  this  long  period.  When  replaced  they  are  generally  re- 
dressed and  utilized  upon  side  streets. 

Tbe  streets  in  Dublin  thus  paved  are  very  hue  and  are  frequently 
commented  upon  favorably,  especially  by  American  visitors.  However, 
they  are  said  to  be  inferior  to  the  pavements  of  most  English  cities.  I  am 
informed  that  the  character  of  the  pavements  here  could  be  greatly  im- 
proved by  a  more  perfect  dressing  of  the  sets.  Under  similar  conditions 
the  sets  used  in  many  English  cities  cost  29s.  ($7.06)  per  ton,  the  differ- 
ence in  price  being  made  up  in  the  more  perfect  dressing  of  the  sets. 
The  advantages  of  more  perfect  dressing  are  that  a  more  even  and  less 
dangerous  surface  is  secured,  and  a  street  over  which  rapidly  moving 
vehicles  make  less  noise. 

(2)  Wood  pavements. — This  class  of  pavement  nearly  corresponds  to 
what  is  known  as  the  Nicholson  pavement  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
laid  upon  some  of  the  strictly  commercial  streets,  where  there  is  only  a 
limited  amount  of  heavy  traffic,  and  opposite  churches,  hospitals,  and 
other  institutions,  and  in  cases  where  a  minimum  amount  of  noise  is 
desirable. 

The  foundation  for  this  pavement  is  constructed  in  exactly  the 
same  way  and  with  the  same  materials  as  above  described  in  connec- 
tion with  the  stone  pavement,  except  that  an  even  more  perfect  surface 
is  required  upon  which  the  wooden  blocks  or  sets  are  immediately  laid. 
The  blocks  are  laid  in  rows,  crosswise,  quite  closely  together.  The  spaces 
between  are  partially  rilled,  as  before,  with  a  mixture  of  hot  pitch  and 
creosote  oil.  The  remaining  part  of  the  space  is  filled  with  a  mixture 
of  one  part  cement  and  six  parts  gravel,  to  further  solidify  the  pave- 
ment and  to  protect  the  deposit  of  pitch  and  creosote  oil  from  the  action 
of  the  sun.  This  makes  a  very  fine,  noiseless,  and  fairly  durable  pave- 
ment, the  average  life  of  which  is  about  10  years. 

The  materials  used  for  this  kind  of  pavement  consist  of  beech  or 
Archangel  deals  (pine),  the  timber  first  being  well  seasoned.  The  size 
of  the  blocks  is  9  inches  long,  5  inches  deep,  and  3  inches  wide. 
The  cost,  delivered,  is  £8  17s.  Qd.  ($43.18)  per  thousand  blocks.  About 
50  blocks  are  required  for  each  square  yard.  I  should  add  that  before 
the  blocks  are  placed  they  are  thoroughly  creosoted  under  steam  pres- 
sure, 10  pounds  of  creosote  beiug  used  for  each  cubic  foot  of  timber. 

The  cost  of  a  pavement  of  this  description,  including  construction  of 
foundation,  etc.,  is  14s.  ($3.40)  per  square  yard. 

Macadamized  streets. — This  class  of  streets  in  the  city,  mainly  to  be 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  401 

found  in  parts  outside  of  the  center,  over  which  there  is  a  limited 
amount  of  heavy  traffic,  is  constructed  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  tbe 
country  roads,  which  is  described  in  detail  in  a  subsequent  part  of  this 
report. 

How  paid  for. — Tbe  disbursements  occasioned  by  the  construction  of 
all  streets  within  tbe  city  limits  by  tbe  municipal  corporation  are  made 
from  tbe  proceeds  of  a  general  tax  upon  all  city  property.  No  part  of 
the  cost  of  tbe  construction  of  auy  street  specially  falls  upon  abutting 
property. 

Population, — For  the  convenience  of  persons  who  may  be  interested 
in  the  subject-matter  of  this  report,  in  estimating  tbe  probable  amount 
of  traffic  and  the  extent  to  which  the  public  thoroughfares  are  used,  I 
may  add  that  the  population  of  Dublin,  according  to  the  last  census 
(1881),  is  249,602. 

Vehicles. — Nine  out  of  ten  of  tbe  vehicles  used  for  carrying  goods 
and  conveying  people  are  mounted  upon  two  wheels.  As  a  rule  the 
vehicles,  heavy  and  light,  are  hauled  by  one  horse  only.  Heavy  loads, 
however,  are  hauled  in  this  way,  large  and  powerful  horses  being  used 
for  heavy  traffic. 

Method  of  doing  the  work.— All  streets  in  Dublin  are  built  by  day 
and  piece  1  abor,  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  experts  employed 
by  the  corp  oration.  The  wages  paid  for  labor  are  as  follows :  Ordinary 
laborers  14s.  ($3.40)  to  18s.  ($4.38)  per  week.  Concrete  men  22s.  ($5.35) 
per  week.  Rammer  men  24s.  ($5.83)  per  week.  For  laying  blocks,  or 
sets,  a  rate  of  2$d.  (5  cents)  per  square  yard  is  paid. 

For  the  da  ta  upon  which  the  foregoing  part  of  this  report  is  based  I 
am  indebted  to  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  L.  J.  Lawless,  the  assistant  engineer 
of  the  city  of  Dublin. 

COUNTRY  ROADS. 

The  country  roads  in  Ireland  have  received  and  are  receiving  very 
considerable  attention.  However,  it  is  said  that  they  suffer  materially 
from  comparisons  with  the  roads  in  England  and  Wales,  but  as  com- 
pared with  the  average  country  road  in  the  United  States  they  seem  to 
approximate  closely  to  perfection,  a  condition  which  must  not  be  con- 
sidered marvelous  or  even  surprising  when  the  antiquity  of  the  coun- 
try and  its  settlement  are  taken  into  account. 

The  course  described  by  the  country  roads  in  Ireland  Is  most  irregu- 
lar and  even  tortuous,  the  apparent  purpose  being  to  avoid  tbe  points 
of  the  compass.  Although  doubtless  not  so  intended  it  may  be  said,  in 
the  respect  mentioned,  they  serve  to  suggest  the  peculiar  individual 
characteristics  as  well  as  the  devious  historical  record  of  tbe  masses  of 
the  people  who  travel  over  them.  However,  as  a  rule  it  may  be  said, 
at  least  in  partial  justification  of  the  arrangement,  that  the  main  public 
thoroughfares  in  Ireland  connect  centers  of  population  or  interest 
But  the  geometrical  proposition  was  unknown  or  unheeded  when  the 
33a 26 


402  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

course  of  the  roads  was  determined,  viz,  that  a  straight  line  describes 
the  shortest  distance  between  two  given  points.  But  for  all  this  I  am 
bound  to  say  that  the  traveler  who  is  not  pressed  for  time,  especially 
if  he  is  mounted  upon  other  legs  than  his  own,  will  find  greater  pleas- 
ure in  following  the  ever  recurring  and  graceful  curves  of  the  Irish 
country  roads,  than  in  moving  in  strait  lines  and  turning  repeatedly 
at  right  angles. 

But  all  this  is  scarcely  even  incidental  to  the  immediate  work  in  hand, 
to  which  I  now  give  attention. 

(1)  The  methods  employed  in  making  and  maintaining  the  public 
roads : 

When  a  new  road  is  constructed  a  grade  is  first  established  generally 
corresponding  (when  the  roadway  is  completed)  with  the  contour  of  the 
land  upon  either  side.  Trenches  are  sunk  on  either  side  to  a  depth  of 
about  3  feet.  The  excavated  material  is  used  to  construct  fences  on 
either  side.  Into  the  trenches  the  subsoil  of  the  road  is  carefully 
drained  by  means  of  narrow  cuts,  placed  herring-bone  fashion,  filled 
with  field  stoue  to  prevent  the  washing  of  the  surface  and  through 
which  the  water  percolates.  The  original  surface  of  the  roadway  is  then 
removed  to  a  depth  of  about  9  inches  and  an  artificial  surface  of  con- 
verse section  formed  and  the  ground  allowed  to  dry  aud  harden  for 
some  time. 

The  next  operation  is  to  make  what  is  called  a  pitched  pavement  on 
this  surface,  generally  of  corresponding  sections,  and  about  9  inches 
in  depth,  which  consists  of  rubblestone  placed  on  edge  across  the  axis 
of  the  roadway.  The  interstices  are  filled  in  with  stone  chipping,  so 
as  to  wedge  in  between  the  rubblestone  forming  the  pavement.  The 
width  of  the  roadway  is  never  less  than  16  feet,  and  is  sometimes  much 
more,  according  as  the  local  traffic  may  require.  On  this  foundation 
is  placed  broken  stone  to  a  depth  of  6  inches.  These  stone  are  of 
uuiform  size,  which  is  determined  by  causing  them  to  pass  through  a 
3-inch  ring.  The  mass  is  then  rolled  three  or  four  times  with  a  roller 
weighing  about  1  ton.  Next  a  coating  of  smaller  broken  stone  of  uni- 
form size,  which  are  passed  through  a  2-inch  ring,  is  spread  upon  the 
surface  to  a  depth  of  3  inches.  The  roller  is  then  applied  the  same  as 
before.  A  coating  of  clean  gravel  2  inches  in  depth  is  then  spread 
over  the  surface  and  the  road  is  complete.  The  road  surface  curves 
slightly  from  the  center  towards  the  sides,  the  fall  being  1  inch  in  36. 
This  degree  of  convexity  has  been  found  to  be  suitable  to  the  require- 
ments of  traffic,  and  is  sufficient  for  proper  aud  thorough  surface  drain- 
age. When  opened  for  use  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  longitudinal 
tracks  formed  by  traffic  raked  in  for  some  time  until  the  mass  becomes 
consolidated. 

The  cost  of  a  road  as  above  described  is  2s.  and  6d.  (60  cents)  per 
superficial  yard,  exclusive  of  the  cost  of  preparing  the  surface,  as  this 
varies  according  to  circumstances. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM. 


403 


The  cost  of  maintaining  this  class  of  rood  varies  from  4  to  Id.  (8  to 
14  cents)  per  square  yard  per  annum. 


Section,  of  Mood,  for  Heavy  traffic. 

The  road  I  have  described  above  is  designed  for  heavy  traffic.  The 
ordinary  country  road  is  constructed  in  a  similar  way,  however,  except 
that  the  foundation  is  constructed  of  field  or  riprap  stone  to  a  depth  of 
about  six  inches.  Upon  this  is  placed  a  stratum  of  broken  stone,  uni- 
form in  size,  to  a  depth  of  Cinches,  and  on  this  again  a  dressing  of  clean 
gravel  of  2  inches  in  depth. 


Section,  of Roa&forlzglvt  traffic. 


The  cost  of  constructing  a  road  as  above  described  is  2s.  (48  cents) 
per  square  yard.  The  cost  of  maintenance  is  1  to  3d.  (2  to  6  cents)  per 
superficial  yard  per  annum. 

The  broken  stone  used  in  road  making  is  of  the  kind  known  as  green- 
stone. These  are  almost  entirely  broken  by  hand.  For  this  class  of 
labor  the  contractors  pay  3s.  and  6d.  (85  cents)  per  ton.  Thermen  earn 
at  this  rate  about  2s.  and  6d.  (60  cents)  per  day. 

The  soil  of  Ireland  is  poorly  adapted  to  roadways,  the  frequent  rain- 
falls making  it  very  spongy.  The  utmost  care  in  drainage  is,  for  this 
reason,  necessary.  However,  the  roadways  suffer  but  little  from  the 
action  of  frost  as  it  rarely  ever  penetrates  more  than  two  or  three 
inches. 

I  may  add  in  this  connection  that  nearly  all  of  the  bridges  in  Ireland, 
large  and  small,  and  both  in  the  cities  and  in  the  country,  are  con- 
structed of  stone,  and  are,  therefore,  very  durable.  There  are  numerous 
bridges  of  this  kind  in  and  about  Dublin,  over  which  there  is  a  heavy 
traffic,  that  are  over  a  century  old,  and  which  are  still  apparently  as 
substantial  as  when  built. 

I  find  that  by  consulting  reliable  statistical  authority  that  there  was 
expended  upon  roads  and  bridges  in  Irelaud,  during  the  year  1888, 
£038,041,  a  sum  equivalent  to  $3,977,737.  It  must  bo  borne  in  mind 
in  this  connection  that,  the  country  being  very  old,  but  comparatively 
little  absolutely  new  work  is  required.  Hence,  for  the  most  part,  this 
sum  is  expended  in  repairs  and  maintenance.  The  sum  named  repre- 
sents about  the  average  annual  expenditure,  the  year  1888  being  the 
leatst  for  which  information  under  this  head  is  attainable. 


404  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  in  this  connection  to  state  that  the  total 
population  of  Ireland  at  the  present  time  is  estimated  to  be  about 
4,700,000,  and  that  the  total  amount  of  land-rents  for  1889  is  £13,969,907. 

(2)  Details  of  the  system  followed : 

For  the  purpose  of  constructing  and  maintaining  roads  and  bridges 
throughout  the  island,  each  county  is  divided  into  baronies,  comprising 
a  certain  number  of  parishes  and  a  certain  proportion  of  town  lands. 
There  are  several  of  these  baronies  contained  in  every  county.  The 
method  of  proceeding  is  peculiar,  but  has  been  found  to  be  effective  and 
satisfactory.  It  is  substantially  as  follows  :  When  any  new  or  recon- 
structed work  or  repairs  are  wanted,  any  two  rate  or  tax  payers  of  a 
barony  make  written  application  to  this  effect  to  the  secretary  of  the 
grand  jury  for  the  county  comprising  the  barony,  stating  the  extent  of 
the  work  wanted  and  the  amount  which  it  is  desired  to  expend.  The 
secretary  of  the  grand  jury  prepares  a  schedule  of  all  such  applications 
and  submits  them  to  what  is  known  as  the  presentment  sessions  of  the 
respective  baronies.  This  is  a  body  made  up  of  the  justices  of  the 
peace  resident  of  the  barony  and  twelve  representative  rate  or  tax- 
payers who  are  property-owners  in  the  barony.  The  rate  payers  com- 
posing in  part  the  board  are  selected  by  the  grand  jury  from  one  hun- 
dred of  their  class  whose  names  are  sent  in  by  the  tax  collector  of  the 
barony,  after  the  manner  of  drawing  petit  jurors  in  many  of  the  States 
of  the  United  States.  These  men  serve  upon  the  board  one  year  only 
and  are  replaced  from  year  to  year  by  others  of  their  class  in  the  man- 
ner already  described.  The  body  thus  constituted,  holdiug  annual  ses- 
sions for  this  purpose,  considers  the  applications  presented  by  the  secre- 
tary of  the  grand  jury  and  determines,  so  far  as  it  is  empowered  to  do 
so,  what  applications  shall  be  approved  and  what  shall  be  rejected,  but 
in  no  case  can  it  extend  or  increase  the  applications.  This  body  is 
governed  to  a  considerable  extent  in  its  conclusions  by  the  recommenda- 
tions of  the  district  surveyor,  who  possesses  expert  knowledge  and 
practical  judgment  of  the  matters  under  consideration.  When  the 
work  of  this  body  is  concluded  the  applications  approved  are  placed  in 
the  hands  of  the  secretary  of  the  grand  jury,  who  has  a  printed  sched- 
ule thereof  prepared.  This  schedule  is  laid  before  the  grand  jury  of 
the  county,  which,  for  this  purpose,  meets  once  a  year,  in  the  county  of 
Dublin,  and  in  other  counties  twice  a  year,  to  consider  presentments 
which  come  to  it  from  the  several  presentment  sessions.  The  original 
applications  also  accompany  the  presentments.  The  grand  j  ury  has  the 
authority  to  approve  or  reject  any  or  all  presentments,  but  it  can  not 
alter  them.  Such  of  the  presentments  as  are  approved  are  submitted 
to  a  judge  of  the  queen's  bench,  by  whom  they  are  fiated  if  approved 
by  him.  I  should  add  here  that  any  cess  or  tax  payer  cau  enter  objec- 
tions to  any  work  at  any  stage  of  the  proceedings  before  the  barony 
board,  the  grand  jury,  or  the  judge  of  the  queen's  bench.  If  his  obj  ec 
tions  are  valid  they  will  of  course  be  duly  considered, 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  405 

After  the  presentments  are  fiated  by  the  judge  they  are  returned  to 
the  presentment  sessions,  which  body  proceeds  to  negotiate  for  con- 
tracts for  the  work.  Acting  under  its  authority  the  secretary  of  the 
grand  jury  advertises  for  tenders  or  proposals  for  each  piece  of  work, 
according  to  the  terms  of  the  particular  presentment.  A  condition  of 
every  proposal  is  that  it  must  not  exceed  the  amount  stipulated  by  the 
grand  jury  for  the  work.  If  no  proposal  is  received,  or  should  it  ex- 
ceed the  amount  previously  fixed  upon,  the  district  surveyor  may  be 
authorized  by  the  presentment  sessions  to  proceed  with  the  work  by 
day  labor,  but  this  seldom  happens.  Every  person  to  whom  a  contract 
is  awarded  is  required  to  furnish  two  satisfactory  sureties.  Should  he 
at  any  time  fail  to  comply  with  conditions  of  his  contract,  the  district 
surveyor  can,  by  giving  him  10  days'  notice,  take  charge  of  the  work, 
the  contractor  and  sureties  being  held  pecuniarily  liable  for  his  failure. 
Nearly  all  country  roads  are  constructed  on  the  contract  system.  If 
the  work  is  limited  the  contract  is  usually  taken  by  a  local  farmer.  If 
the  work  is  extensive  it  is  done  by  an  experienced  contractor.  All 
forms  of  contract  are  drawn  by  the  surveyor. 

I  should  say  here  that  if  from  neglect  or  indifference  of  local  tax- 
payers applications  for  needed  work  are  not  filed  in  the  usual  way,  the 
*  district  surveyor  is  authorized  to  act  in  their  stead. 

Contracts  for  repairs  or  maintenance  are  made  in  the  same  way  as 
for  new  work,  a  specimen  form  being  inclosed  herewith.  These  con- 
tracts are  usually  taken  for  3  years  at  so  much  a  running  perch, 
according  to  the  number  of  cubic  yards  of  material  required  to  be 
placed  and  named  in  the  specifications.  When  the  district  surveyor 
directs  the  work  of  maintaining  a  road  it  is  only  for  1  year. 

All  new  work  and  the  placing  of  material  for  maintenance  are  re- 
quired to  be  done  during  the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August.  All 
material  required  for  maintenance  or  repair  must  be  prepared  and  de- 
livered at  stated  places  on  the  first  of  September  for  use  the  year 
following. 

The  board  of  works,  a  general  body  having  jurisdiction  over  the 
entire  island,  can  at  any  time  repair  roads  neglected  by  the  local  boards 
over  which  her  majesty's  mails  are  carried,  but  the  fund  thus  tempo- 
rarily drawn  upon  must  ultimately  be  recouped  at  the  expense  of  the 
barony  in  which  the  repairs  are  made. 

In  the  case  of  a  sudden  damage  to  any  public  road  two  local  justices 
can  direct  repairs  to  the  extent  of  £1 0  ($48.67)  or  in  a  similar  emer- 
gency they  can  order  repairs  to  a  bridge  to  the  amount  of  £50  ($243.32.) 

How  paid  for. — The  disbursements  made  in  the  constriction  and 
maintenance  of  public  roads  are  from  a  fund  derived  mostly  from  a  tax 
levied  upon  the  taxable  property  iu  the  barony  where  the  work  is  done. 
The  money  is  received  annually  by  the  grand  jury  from  the  baronial 
collectors.  There  are  also  some  other  sources  of  revenue  derived  from 
probate  duties,  Government  bounty  in  lieu  of  rates,  etc.,  partitioned 


406  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

equally  among  the  different  baronies,  and  from  local  dog  tax.  The 
taxes  paid  by  each  barony  for  road  purposes  are  collected  twice  a  year, 
in  June  and  December. 

When  a  bridge  is  constructed  involving  a  heavy  outlay  the  expense 
is  usually  borne  by  the  county  at  large  and  not  by  the  particular 
barony  in  which  it  is  located. 

By  virtue  of  a  general  law  under  which  all  roads  are  constructed 
none  but  a  main  thoroughfare,  or  one  open  at  both  ends,  can  be  im- 
proved at  the  public  expense,  even  though  any  number  of  taxpayers 
might  tile  an  application  therefor.  This  is  an  important  safeguard 
against  injudicious  expenditure. 

As  already  intimated  all  financial  transactions  connected  with  the 
building  and  maintaining  of  public  roads  are  conducted  by  the  grand 
jury  of  each  county.  All  payments  are  made  to  contractors  quarterly 
on  the  certificate  of  the  district  surveyor  that  he  is  entitled  to  a  certain 
amount  for  work  performed.  In  Dublin  County  the  details  of  this 
work  are  performed  by  a  committee  of  twelve,  usually  composed  of 
members  of  the  grand  jury.  In  all  other  counties  the  graud  jury  acts 
for  itself.  All  accounts  connected  with  road  building  and  maintenance 
are  audited  once  a  year  by  a  Government  auditor. 
(3)  General  effect  of  improved  highways : 

It  has  been  impossible  to  get  any  definite  statistics  or  information 
upon  this  point.  I  can  only  add  that  the  system  in  vogue  has  been 
satisfactory  and  that  the  property  interests  pay  the  taxes  necessary 
to  its  support  willingly.  The  opinion  generally  prevails  that  the  traffic 
of  the  country  could  not  be  successfully  carried  on  with  any  less  effi- 
cient system  of  highways  than  that  with  which  the  country  is  provided, 
and  that  full  value  is  received  for  all  expenditures  made. 

For  a  considerable  part  of  the  iuformation  necessary  to  this  report, 
as  far  as  it  pertains  to  country  roads,  I  am  indebted  to  the  kindness 
of  R.  T.  Blackburne,  secretary  of  the  grand  jury  for  the  county  of 
Dublin,  and  to  Richard  A.  Gray,  surveyor  of  the  county  of  Dublin. 

For  the  further  information  of  parties  who  may  be  interested,  I  trans- 
mit herewith,  under  separate  cover,  a  copy  of  the  act  of  1836,  relating 
to  the  presentment  of  public  money  in  Ireland,  which  covers  the  ground 
briefly  traversed  in  the  foregoing  report.  It  differs  only  in  some  of  the 
details  to  the  act  which  applies  exclusively  to  the  county  of  Dublin.  I 
also  transmit  herewith,  under  same  cover,  a  volume  containing  present- 
ments passed  by  the  graud  jury  of  the  county  of  Dublin  for  the  year 
1890,  which  explains  in  detail  the  method  of  proceeding. 

t  Alex.  J.  Reid, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Dublin,  January  12,  1891. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  407 

SOUTH   OF  IRELAND. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  PIATT,  OF  CORK. 

There  is  no  radical  difference  between  the  city  streets  and  the  conn- 
try  highways  in  the  south  of  Ireland.  They  are  both  made  of  macad- 
amized limestone  and  are  repaired  with  the  same  material.  The  repair- 
ing is  generally  done  during  wet  weather,  as  the  water  in  the  ruts  and 
hollows  shows  where  the  surface  of  the  road  is  uneven. and  in  need  ot 
repair.  It  also  tends  to  keep  the  broken  stones  in  place  by  softening 
the  ground  and  thus  allowing  them  to  partly  sink  into  it. 

The  grand  jury  has  the  power  to  grant  permission  for  the  construc- 
tion of  roads.  These  roads  are  divided  into  two  classes  with  regard  to 
the  expense  for  construction  and  maintenance.  That  class  called  "  mail 
roads,"  from  being  used  by  the  postal  authorities  as  routes  for  the  mail 
cars^  is  built  and  maintained  at  the  expense  of  the  county  at  large  in 
which  the  roads  lie.  The  expense  for  the  other  class,  called  "district 
roads,"  is  borne  by  the  district  in  which  the  roads  are  situated.  How- 
ever, when  a  bridge  or  other  work  is  to  be  made  on  a  district  road 
which  will  cost  more  than  the  district  can  afford,  the  grand  jury  may 
levy  the  expense  incurred  for  the  work  in  question  on  the  rate-payers 
of  the  county  at  large,  and  then  the  road  will  be  regarded  as  one  which 
may  be  used  as  a  mail  route,  though  the  district  will  otherwise  pay  for 
the  construction  and  maintenance. 

The  expense  of  keeping  roads  in  good  condition  depends  Upon  the 
amount  of  traffic  and  upon  their  situation.  The  roads  about  Queens- 
town,  in  length  about  9  miles,  cost  for  maintenance  from  £350  to  £400 
per  annum.  This  is  a  little  above  the  average,  I  am  told.  These  are 
the  only  details  as  to  expense  which  I  have*been  able  to  obtain. 

As  a  general  rule  new  roads  enhance  the  value  of  the  property  in 
their  vicinity  by  affording  more  direct  or  better  means  of  communica- 
tion, and  especially  by  increasing  the  facilities  for  the  conveyance  of 
farm  produce  to  and  from  the  market  towns  and  railway  stations. 
There  are  very  few  instances  where  the  value  of  property  depreciates 
on  account  of  the  privacy  of  the  place  being  destroyed. 

John  J.  Piatt, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Cork,  May  15,  1891. 


SCOTLAND. 


DUNFERMLINE. 
REPORT  BY  COMMERCIAL  AGENT  REID. 


The  towns  included  in  this  consular  district  are  small,  and  possess  so 
few  of  the  elements  of  modern  progress  that  they  afford  no  adequate 
illustration  of  any  advanced  knowledge  in  the  science  of  street  con- 


408  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

straction  which  concerns  so  deeply  the  prosperity  and  comfort  of  the 
larger  centers  of  population  and  commerce.  There  being,  therefore,  no 
actual  experience  here  in  the  matter  of  city  streets  which  can  have 
any  real  value  in  the  way  of  testimony  to  guide  the  public  inquiry  now 
happily  arisen  in  America,  no  response  to  this  part  of  the  circular  of 
the  Department  on  "  streets  and  roadways"  will  be  attempted.  But 
on  the  subject  of  country  roads,  which  interests  all  countries  claiming 
civilization,  and  is  rapidly  commanding  supreme  interest  in  America, 
I  have,  with  as  much  care  as  has  seemed  possible,  collated  all  the  data 
which  road-makers  and  engineers  regard  as  of  practical  value. 

Adam  Smith,  who  was  a  citizen  of  this  consular  district,  and  whose 
great  work  on  the  Wealth  of  Nations  has  perhaps  more  than  any  other 
cause  influenced  commercial  legislation  both  in  this  country  and  in  other 
lands,  used  no  uncertain  language  on  the  value  of  public  roads  as  one  of 
the  primary  necessities  of  civilized  life  and  national  prosperity.  Splen- 
did roads  had  been  constructed  centuries  before  his  time.  Their  con- 
tinued existence  fifteen  hundred  years  after  their  construction  proved 
the  skill  and  care  of  the  master  minds  who  planned  and  built  them. 
But  they  were  constructed  in  the  interest  of  war.  Roads  had  to  be 
built  to  move  armies  for  conquest.  Roads  then  became  essential  to 
hold  the  conquered  countries.  In  these  commerce  had  no  element  or 
consideration.  Indeed  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  public  roadways 
became  thus  the  terror  of  nations.  Even  in  this  ocean-surrounded 
island,  far  from  imperial  Rome,  the  roads  of  the  Coesars  entered  and 
so  terrorized  the  public  mind  that  it  was  not  until  long  after  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century  that  turnpikes  were  first  authorized,  and 
were  even  then  inaugurated  against  the  vigorous  protests  and  prejudices 
of  the  common  people.  It  seems  strange  also  to  know  that  to  the 
Carthagenians,  a  people  living  on  the  northern  coast  of  "Darkest  Af- 
rica," must  be  given  the  credit  of  first  inaugurating  the  public  road 
as  the  necessity  of  commerce. 

THE  ROMAN  ROAD. 

The  first  inquiry  made  of  a  modern  educated  engineer  respecting 
public  roads  leads  inevitably  to  the  reference  to  the  methods  pursued 
by  the  engineers  of  the  Roman  roads.  Although  constructed  for  the 
purpose  of  invasion  and  subjugation  they  provide  still  most  instructive 
lessons  in  methods  of  construction.  Adam  Smith's  assertion  that  "  the 
construction  of  roads  is  the  greatest  of  all  improvements,"  and  the  say- 
ing of  the  Abbe  Reynal  that  "  wherever  we  shall  find  no  facility  of 
travel  from  a  city  to  a  town,  or  from  a  village  to  a  hamlet,  we  may  pro- 
nounce the  people  to  be  barbarians,"  have  long,  especially  in  Europe, 
been  accepted  by  mankind.  Roads  are  the  acknowledged  civilizers  of 
the  world.  A  road  through  "  Darkest  Africa"  is  fast  ending  human 
slavery  and  introducing  light.  A  good  road  through  Bad  Lands  would 
largely  settle  the  question  of  Indian  warfare.    It  is  to  methods  of  con- 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  409 

struction  to  which  public  attention  is  now  chietly  directed.  TheKoinan 
roads,  the  via  Appia,  the  via  Aurelia,  the  via  Flaminia,  the  roads  to 
the  Rhine  and  the  Danube,  and  the  4,000  miles  of  road  from  the  wall  of 
Antoninus,  in  Great  Britain,  through  Koine  to  Jerusalem,  still  reveal 
lessons  of  construction  worthy  of  the  study  of  the  road  builders  of  the 
nineteenth  century. 

The  historian  Gibbon  says  of  these  roads : 

They  were  accurately  divided  by  milestones,  and  ran  in  a  direct  line  from  one  city 
to  another  with  very  little  respect  for  the  obstacles  of  nature  or  private  property. 
The  middle  part  was  raised  into  a  terrace,  and  consisted  of  several  strata  of  sand, 
gravel,  and  cement,  aud  was  paved  with  large  stones,  which,  near  the  capital,  were 
of  granite. 

The  following  description  of  the  method  of  construction  is  given  in 
the  French  Cyclopaedia  of  1836. 

(1)  A  cement  of  chalk  and  sand  1  pouce  in  thickness. 

(2)  On  this  cement  for  the  first  bed  large  stones  6  pouces  thick  were  placed  on  one 
another  and  compacted  by  hard  mortar. 

(3}  A  second  bed,  8  pouces  thick,  of  small  round  stones,  mingled  with  other  broken 
pieces  of  building  material  not  so  hard,  and  mixed  with  a  binding  cement. 
(4)  A  third  bed  of  1  foot  of  cement  made  of  rich  earth  mixed  with  chalk. 

These  beds  formed  a  concrete  of  from  3  to  3i  feet  thick.  The  whole 
surface  was  then  spread  with  a  gravel  bound  in  cement  mixed  with 
chalk. 

These  roads  were  16  feet  wide  in  the  middle,  with  two  side  roads  8 
feet  wide. 

They  were  built  either  on  a  level  or  on  a  uniform  inclination  at  an 
easy  gradient. 

Piles,  stone  arches,  and  protecting  walls  were  used  whenever  the  sub- 
sod  was  not  compact. 

This  road  thus  constructed  has  outlived  fifteen  centuries. 

Down  to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  roads  of  Scotland 
were  of  the  poorest  character.  jGoods  conveyed  from  place  to  place, 
where  the  distances  were  not  great,  were  corveyed  on  horseback.  Oat- 
meal, coals,  turf,  and  even  straw  aud  hay  were  thus  conveyed.  That 
iwas  the  era  of  "  cadgers."  They  supplied  the  country  with  salt,  fish, 
eggs,  and  poultry.  For  longer  routes  carts  were  used.  Through  this 
very  region  to  go  a  distance  of  38  miles  and  return  required  14  days. 
It  took  14  days,  in  1873,  to  go  from  here  to  Loudon.  Considering  how 
I  old  is  the  supposed  civilization  of  this  great  country,  one  is  surprised 
to  read  of  one  of  its  chief  routes  of  travel  as  follows : 

I  know  not  how  to  describe  this  infernal  road.  Let  me  most  seriously  caution  all 
travelers  who  may  accidentally  propose  to  travel  this  terrible  country  to  avoid  it 
as  they  would  the  devil.  I  passed  3  carts  broken  down  inside  of  18  miles  of  execrable 
memory. 

This  is  stated  to  show  that  road-making  even  here  is  not  an  ancient 
science.    The  first  turnpike  roads  in  Scotland  were  constructed  in  1760, 


COUNTRY   ROADS   IN   SCOTLAND. 


410  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

and  against  the  violent  resistance  and  prejudices  of  the  people,  who  re- 
garded roads  as  aids  to  plunder.  Except  only  the  remains  of  the 
Roman  road,  the  improved  roads  of  this  country  are  of  comparatively 
recent  origin,  but  are  now  constructed  with  the  utmost  care  and  main- 
tained with  scrupulous  fidelity. 

ROADS  IN  AND  BEYOND   FIFE. 

The  earliest  stone  roads  built  through  and  northward  of  this  district 
were  constructed  by  Abercromby,  an  eugineer  of  some  note,  whose 
chief  formula  consisted  of  the  following  rules  : 

(1)  Never  make  a  road  ascend  a  single  foot  unless  absolutely  una- 
voidable. 

(2)  Economy  in  maintenance  depends  on  an  easy  gradient. 

(3)  Hilly  roads  are  full  of  danger,  expensive  to  maintain,  and  de- 
structive to  horses. 

The  great  Highland  roads  were  constructed  with  great  care  aud  skill 
and  were  adapted  to  the  country  through  which  they  passed.    Although 
traversing  wild  mountain  ranges,  easy  gradients  were  everywhere  ee- 
•  cured  and  are  unexcelled. 

THE   MACADAM   ROAD    AND   THE   STEAM   ROLLER. 

Two  men  of  quite  recent  date  were  largely  instrumental  in  the  iu- 
troductionof  a  general  system,  which  is  still  maintained  in  its  essential 
features.  In  1819  Macadam  elaborated  his  plan  of  road  making  and 
presented  it  to  the  British  Parliament.  Upon  its  general  plan,  a  vast 
extension  of  the  macadam  road  immediately  followed. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  auxiliary  to  good  road  making,  aud  by 
many  engineers  deemed  absolutely  essential,  was  supplied  by  M.  Po- 
lonceau  in  1834,  by  the  introduction  of  the  steam  roller.  Excepting  a 
very  decided  variance  of  opinion  on  the  comparative  advantages  of 
soft  and  hard  foundations,  the  macadam  road  is  the  generally  accepted 
road  of  the  country  for  country  roads,  and  has  stood  the  test  of  long 
and  varied  experience. 

RESISTANCE  TO  TRACTION. 

A  few  years  ago  road-making  science  expressed  itself  as  follows  as 
to  traction : 

(1)  Resistance  is  directly  proportional  to  the  load  and  inversely  to  the  diameter  of 
the  wheel. 

(2)  Upon  a  paved  road  the  resistance  is  independent  of  the  width  of  the  tire  when 
it  exceeds  3  to  4  inches. 

(3)  At  a  walking  pace  the  resistance  is  the  same  to  carriages  with  or  without 
springs,  hut  increases  on  macadam  roads  with  the  velocity,  and  less  as  the  road  is 
smooth  and  the  carriage  less  rigid. 

(4)  On  soft  roads  or  freshly  graveled  roads  the  resistance  to  traction  is  indepen- 
dent of  velocity. 

(5)  The  destruction  of  roads  increases  with  reduced  wheel  diameter  and  in  carriages 
without  springs. 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  411 

GRADIENTS. 

The  steepest  gradient,  according  to  one  authority,  that  can  be  properly- 
allowed  on  roads  with  a  broken-stone  covering  is  about  1  in  20,  as  this, 
from  experience,  according  to  the  same  authority,  is  found  to  be  about 
the  angle  of  repose  upon  roads  of  this  character  in  the  state  in  which 
they  are  usually  kept.  Engineers  of  eminence  insist,  however,  and 
with  apparent  justice,  on  a  much  lower  grade.  Sir  John  Macneil  as- 
serts, as  a  fact  not  generally  known,  that  "if  a  road  has  no  greater  in- 
clinations than  1  in  40  there  is  20  per  cent,  less  cost  for  maintenance 
than  where  the  inclination  of  the  road  is  1  to  20.  The  additional  cost 
is  due  not  only  to  the  greater  injury  by  the  action  of  horses'  feet  on  the 
steeper  gradient,  but  also  to  the  greater  fatigue  of  the  road  by  the 
more  frequent  necessity  for  sledging  or  braking  the  wheels  in  descent." 

The  same  authority  adds :  "  Experience  teaches  that  on  broken-stone 
roads  in  perfect  condition  the  resistance  to  traction  is  of  the  gross 
weight  or  45  pounds  per  ton,  for  which  the  angle  of  repose  is  50.  The 
traction  force  required  is  just  double  that  which  is  required  on  a  level." 

FOUNDATIONS. 

Mr.  Macadam  maintained  that  a  soft  and  yielding  foundation  for  a 
road  is  better  than  one  that  is  firm  and  unyielding.  He  argued  that  a 
road  on  a  soft  foundation  being  more  yielding  and  elastic  the  materials 
of  which  the  covering  of  the  road  was  formed  would  be  less  likely  to  be 
crushed  and  worn  away  by  the  passage  of  a  heavy  traffic  than  on  a  hard 
solid. 

This  theory  of  road  foundation  is  still  held  by  some,  but  rejected  by 
the  majority.  Experience  seems  to  have  proved  that  there  is  no  more 
general  cause  of  bad  roads  than  soft  foundations.  A  firm,  solid,  and  dry 
substratum  is  necessary  for  the  road  materials  to  rest  upon.  The  outer 
surface  of  the  road,  it  is  urged,  should  be  regarded  merely  as  a  cover- 
ing to  protect  the  actual  working  road  beneath,  which  should  be  suffi- 
ciently firm  and  substantial  to  support  the  whole  of  the  traffic  to  be 
carried  over  it.  The  lower,  or  subroad,  properly  provided  for,  and  the 
upper  covering  renewed  from  time  to  time,  should  last  forever.  The 
following  are  directions  now  generally  in  force. 

Where  the  expenditure  is  limited  and  the  traffic  moderate  every  care 
should  be  taken  to  make  the  roadbed  as  solid  as  possible.  If  the  ground 
is  wet,  deep  ditches  should  be  cut  on  each  side,  and  cross  underdrains 
should  be  formed. 

Where  the  ground  is  very  soft  a  layer  of  faggots  or  brushwood  from 
4  to  6  inches  thick  should  be  laid  over  the  surface  of  the  ground  to 
receive  the  road  materials.  Where  the  ground  has  been  recently  depos- 
ited the  surface  should  be  rolled  or  beaten  to  render  as  solid  as  possi- 
ble, 


412 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


CONCRETE  FOUNDATIONS. 

Macadam's  theory  of  the  advantage  of  soft  foundations,  especially 
when  made  to  apply  to  roads  likely  to  bear  a  heavy  traffic  seem  now 
very  generally  discarded.  In  roads  subject  to  heavy  travel  concrete 
is  insisted  on  and  has  shown  proof  of  its  value.  From  a  leading  au- 
thority the  following  quotation  is  made  : 

The  concrete  used  is  similar  to  that  used  ou  the  old  Roman  roads.  It  is  a  mixture 
of  gravel  and  lime.  The  lime  is  ground  to  a  fine  powder,  water  is  added  and  every 
particle  of  the  lime  slaked  and  saturated. 

The  hed  of  concrete  having  been  spread  to  the  depth  of  6  inches  the  surface  is  then 
covered  over  with  6  inches  of  good  hard  gravel  or  broken  stone,  and  this  depth  is  laid 
on  in  two  courses  of  3  inches  at  a  time,  the  first  course  to  be  laid  on  a  few  hours 
after  the  concrete  has  been  placed  on  the  road.  The  covering  of  gravel  is  laid  before 
the  concrete  has  become  hard,  to  admit  of  more  perfect  junction  between  the  two 
beds.  The  lower  stones  thus  united  become  a  fixed  matrix  and  not  easily  dis- 
lodged. On  some  roads  where  the  obstacles  to  sound  foundation  were  great  and  ap- 
parently insuperable,  the  use  of  cement  or  concrete  foundation  has  been  eminently 
successful. 

One  of  the  principal  advantages  of  using  concrete  is  that  a  good  and  solid  road  can 
be  made  with  material  such  as  gravel,  which  is  usually  readily  found,  and  which  on 
any  other  mode  of  application  would  be  unsuited  for  the  purpose.  The  gravel  should 
be  clean  and  mixed  with  sand  and  then  mixed  with  one  part  of  lime  to  six  of  gravel. 
On  adding  water  the  whole  should  be  quickly  aud  thoroughly  mixed  up,  thrown  into 
place,  and  the  first  layer  of  broken  stone  or  screened  gravel  be  placed  just  as  the  con- 
crete is  about  to  set. 

THE   MACADAM  THEORY. 

In  18 L6  James  L.  Macadam  put  in  practice  his  system  of  roadmaking, 
which  is  eminently  worthy  of  restatement  in  this  inquiry.  His  princi- 
ple was  "  to  put  broken  stone  upon  a  road  which  shall  unite'by  its  own 
angles  so  as  to  form  a  solid,  hard  surface.  When  this  material  is  thus 
laid  upou  the  road  it  must  remain  in  the  situation  in  which  it  is  placed 
without  ever  being  moved  again,  whereas  gravel,  before  it  becomes  use- 
ful, must  move  its  situation  and  be  in  constant  motion."  The  principle 
was  uto  substitute  small  augnlar  stones  such  as  resulted  from  the 
breakage  of  larger  stones,  for  rounded  stones,  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of 
mosaic  or  interlocking  system." 

This  system,  which  experience  has  thoroughly  tested  and  approved ; 
the  provision  of  solid  foundations,  which  seems  to  be  proved  of  the  first 
importance;  aud  the  use  of  the  steam  roller  in  securing  thorough  im- 
pact, are  the  three  vital  elements  of  the  successful  modern  road. 

Ou  these  three  principles  of  road  building  the  following  roads  have 
been  extended  within  a  comparatively  short  period: 


Length  of 
road. 

Area. 

Population. 

Great  Britain 

Miles. 
160,  000 
100,  048 
55,  818 
10,  886 

Sq.  miles. 
122,  519 
210,460 
139,  675 
198,  061 

30,621,431 
38, 192.  064 
23,970,641 
15,  673, 481 

EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  413 

CONVEXITY  OP   ROADS. 

Macadam  gave  the  following  testimony  before  a  committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  which  is  practically  the  judgment  of  the  most 
experienced  road  builders : 

"  I  consider  that  a  road  should  be  as  flat  as  possible  with  regard  to 
the  water  flowing  off,  because  a  carriage  ought  always  to  stand  upright 
I  have  generally  made  roads  3  inches  higher  in  the  center  than  at  the 
sides,  and  on  this  slope  the  water  will  easily  escape.  When  the  road 
is  made  flat  people  will  not  follow  the  middle  of  it  as  they  do  when  ex- 
tremely convex.  More  water  will  stand  on  a  very  convex  road  than  on  a 
flat,  because  all  carriages  seek  an  upright  position  in  the  center,  and  the 
wear  there  will,  of  course,  be  greater.  The  most  useful  inclination  is  in 
the  direction  of  a  road's  length,  and  engineers  give  preference  to  a  mod- 
erately inclined  road  over  one  rigidly  level.  To  secure  an  equal  dis- 
tribution of  service  every  part  of  a  road  should  be  equally  hard  and 
good  to  prevent  unequal  wear." 

HIGHWAYS  IN  THE  DUNFERMLINE  DISTRICT. 

I  am  indebted  for  much  of  what  follows  to  personal  interviews  with 
and  documents  furnished  to  me  by  John  Macleunan,  esq.,  for  some  years 
president  of  the  association  of  road  surveyors  for  Scotland. 

(1)  Road  routes. — Other  things  being  equal  a  road  route  should  be 
chosen  having  the  freest  exposure  to  sun  and  wind. 

(2)  Gradients.—  Gradients  should  not  exceed  1  in  40.  Easy  gradients 
are  preferable  to  dead  levels,  securing  drier  and  more  compact  roads. 

(3)  Foundations. — All  roads  should  have  foundations  to  be  determined 
jby  the  character  of  the  soil  on  which  they  are  laid.  On  roads  of 
moderate  travel,  the  soil  light  and  the  natural  or  unstoned  road,  well 
compacted,  unbroken  and  of  easy  gradient,  the  necessity  for  special 
foundations  is  absent,  and,  according  to  Macadam,  unnecessary. 
Wherever,  however,  the  surface  is  broken  either  to  elevate  or  depress, 
the  ground  should  be  well  rolled  or  tamped.  Where  the  soil  is  soft 
and  yielding  or  an  active  traffic  is  likely,  the  foundations  become  impor- 
tant. Stones  laid  on  their  flattest  side  and  compacted  with  broken 
metal,  ashes,  or  the  like,  require  to  be  carefully  laid.  Even  cement,  in 
which  gravel  forms  a  useful  constituent,  becomes  essential  if  the  nature 
of  the  soil  is  yielding  and  the  traffic  heavy.  New  macadam  roads  are 
now  generally  made  with  a  foundation  from  6  to  12  inches  of  stone 
shivers,  slag,  brick  rubbish,  or  other  inferior  character,  on  which  6 
inches  of  hard  metal  is  laid. 

(4)  Drains— In  forming  road  foundations  the  proper  provision  of 
drains  is  important.  These,  whether  by  side  ditches  or  by  lateral  or 
transverse  carefully  constructed  drains,  are  essential  to  a  good  and 
economical  maintenance  of  a  road  under  the  best  conditions.  Existing 
conditions  will  determine  their  character  and  mode  of  structure. 


414 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS   IN   FOEEIGN    COUNTRIES. 


(5)  Character  of  stone. — The  stones  employed  on  Scotch  roads  are  of 
the  hardest  and  toughest  attainable.  In  these  the  granites  are  by  far 
the  most  serviceable,  and  that  because  of  their  unstratified  character. 
Granite,  named  so  from  its  coarse  granular  structure,  has  for  its  pre- 
vailing elements  a  crystalline  compound  of  three  simple  minerals — 
feldspar,  silica  or  quartz,  and  mica — silica  varying  in  proportion  from 
65  to  80  per  cent,  and  usually  in  an  amorphous  condition,  cementing 
the  feldspar  and  mica.  Granite  is  capable  of  absorbing  10  pounds  of 
water  per  cubic  yard =1.450  of  its  weight.  Perhaps  the  most  valuable 
stone  for  macadamizing  roads  is  the  Welch  stone,  greywacke-  of  Pen- 
maenaur,  in  Wales,  which,  while  of  the  same  weight  as  granite,  is 
much  harder  and  is  so  highly  esteemed  that  enormous  quantities  are 
sent  by  ship  and  rail  to  the  large  towns  in  the  north  of  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Ireland.  This  shows  the  value  of  hardness  in  the  metal  for 
public  roads.    The  following  table  may  be  of  interest : 


Specific 
gravity. 


Crushing 
resistance  per 
square  inch. 


Weight  of 

water  absorbed  i 

48  hours. 


Graywacke 

Granite,  Scotch 

Sandstone,  English 


2.75 
2.67 
2.41 


754 
5.74 
4.38 


I  part  in  1641. 
1  part  in  490. 
1  part  in  47. 


Of  Scotch  granites  Guernsey  is  the  most  durable.  The  most  impor- 
tant quality  in  stotte  for  roadmakiug  is  toughness.  Mere  hardness 
without  toughness  is  of  no  use,  as  such  stone  becomes  rapidly  reduced 
to  powder  by  the  action  of  wheels.  The  sandstones  and  th£  limestones 
are  to  be  avoided  because  of  their  affinity  for  water,  by  which  in  frosty 
weather,  which  has  been  preceded  by  wet,  they  are  split  up  into  powder 
and  the  solidity  of  the  road  is  destroyed. 

(6)  Breaking  the  stone. — The  quality  of  stone  proper  for  the  metaling 
of  the  road  is  scarcely  more  important  than  its  preparation.  It  should 
be  reduced  to  angular  fragments  of  such  a  size  that  each  piece  will 
pass  freely  through  a  ring  of  2£  inches  in  diameter  in  every  direction. 
Broken  stone  is  superior  to  gravel,  and,  wherever  obtainable,  should 
always  be  employed.  Pebbles,  when  cleaned,  never  bind  until  they 
become  ground  and  wornd  own  and  are  incapable  of  supporting  the  pres- 
sure of  heavy  wheels.  If  gravel  be  employed,  experience  seems  tc 
indicate  that  it  is  best  to  leave  some  binding  material  to  adhere  in  or- 
der to  secure  firmness  and  cohesion. 

There  has  been  introduced  into  the  service  of  the  roads  in  this  dis- 
trict a  stone-breaking  machine  with  good  effect  and  economical  results. 
The  comparative  cost  of  breaking  stone  by  machine  and  hand  labor 
as  Is.  per  ton  for  the  former  against  2s.  3d.  per  ton  for  hand  labor.  In  a 
trial  of  the  two  systems  3,325  cubic  yards  of  stone  broken  by  machine 
cost  £169  18s.  Id.  while  the  same  quantity  broken  by  hand  cost  £398  4s« 

(7)  Metaling  the  road. — The  foundation  of  the  road  having  been  care- 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  415 

fully  provided,  and  which,  as  has  been  stated,  can  be  done  either,  for 
roads  of  moderate  travel,  by  thoroughly  drying  and  solidifying  the 
soil  by  tamping  or  rolling,  or,  as  recommended  by  able  engineers,  for 
roads  of  larger  travel,  of  using  soft  stones  or  cinders,  the  stones  being 
"  carefully  set  by  hand,  broad  end  down,  in  the  form  of  a  close,  neat 
pavement,"  there  shall  then  be  placed  6  inches  of  broken  stone  to  such 
width  as  may  be  desired,  but  so  laid  that  the  entire  width  shall  form  a 
convex  line  or  segment  of  a  flat  ellipsis  the  arch  of  which  shall  not 
exceed  6  inches  in  30  feet.  This  shape  not  only  assists  the  water  to 
pass  from  the  center  toward  the  sides,  but  contributes  to  the  drying 
of  the  road  by  allowing  the  action  of  the  sun  and  air  to  produce  a  great 
degree  of  evaporation.  The  use  of  the  steam  roller  in  at  ouce  compact- 
iug  and  smoothing  the  road,  it  is  believed,  is  becoming  more  and  more 
acceptable,  and  producing,  both  in  construction  and  repairs,  very  useful 
results. 

(8)  Road  repair. — The  following  quotation  from  a  report  of  Govern- 
ment Surveyor  Macleuuau  is  pertinent  and  complete : 

The  chief  end  of  road  repair  is  a  smooth,  hard,  and  slightly  elastic  surface.  To 
secure  this  the  metal  should  he  of  uniform  6ize  and  quality.  Small  2-inch  whinstone 
metal  is,  in  my  opinion,  the  hest.  Large  metal,  although  ever  so  well  blinded  and 
rolled,  will  in  a  very  short  time  present  an  uneven  surface,  not  having  the  same 
capacity  for  forming  into  the  concrete  as  when  smaller.  Hard  and  soft  stones  should 
not  be  mixed.  The  soft  stones  are  quickly  ground  into  mud,  while  the  hard  pro- 
trudes, rendering  the  surface  rough  and  uneven.  When  the  surface  is  very  sorely 
worn  I  apply  a  small  sprinkling  of  clay  to  give  a  bed  for  the  new  material.  "Work  of 
this  kind  requires  experience  and  care.  I  believe  in  giving  good  convexity  to  the 
road.  Water  should  run  off  quickly  to  avoid  great  waste  and  damage.  After  dis- 
tributing metal  a  stone  roller  of  1  ton  weight  is  used  to  secure  a  fair  surface.  In  the 
matter  of  "blinding"  I  am  convinced  that  where  the  subsoil  is  retentive  and  the 
surrounding  ground  wet,  spongy,  and  of  a  clay  nature,  the  less  blinding  the  better 
for  the  road.  A  smooth  and  beautiful  surface  may  be  quickly  secured,  but  the  dete- 
rioration is  equally  rapid.  The  men  appointed  for  surface  repair  have  much  to  do 
with  the  road's  success  and  should  be  selected  with  great  care. 

(9)  Foot  roads.— The  provision  of  foot-paths  is  important,  but  seems 
not  generally  provided  for.  When  made  the  refuse  of  the  road  and 
gravel  are  used. 

(10)  Depots.— Or  all  important  roads  depots  of  stone  occupying  a 
small  space,  more  or  less  frequently,  along  the  margin  of  the  road  are 
provided,  where  the  stone  is  broken,  generally  by  hand,  and  kept  ready 
for  use. 

(11)  Effect  on  property  valuation. — To  this  inquiry  the  prompt  reply 
was:  "Koads  are  the  life  and  necessity  and  hope  of  all  Scottish  indus- 
tries, and  their  value  increases  rather  than  diminishes  with  railroad 
extension.    Property  would  without  them  be  comparatively  valueless." 

(12)  Cost  of  maintenance.— The  cost  of  maintaining  the  public  roads 
in  this  district  averages  £18  per  mile,  and  is  provided  for  by  a  tax 
averaging  Gd.  on  the  pound  of  rentals,  equal  to  about  2  per  cent.    They 

,are  under  the  supervision  of  a  surveyor  appointed  for  each  district,  a 


416  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

master  of  works  for  each  town  of  importance,  all  other  labor  being 
employed  for  brief  periods  or  for  special  work.  Wages  of  "  surface 
men,"  18*.  per  week  ($4.50). 

(13)  Cost  of  construction.— The  cost  of  construction  of  an  ordinary 
public  road  eighteen  feet  wide  would  be,  in  Scotland,  about  £300  per 
mile.  Any  increase  in  cost  would  depend  on  increased  width  of  road, 
distance  of  quarry,  and  method  of  foundation.  As  in  many  other  things, 
the  cheaper  the  construction  the  more  costly  the  maintenance. 

Such  is  my  response  to  the  Department  circular  of  November  8, 1890, 
based  on  as  complete  information  as  is  available  to  me;  yet  it  is  sent  with 
hesitation  as  being  to  some  extent,  perhaps,  crude  and  incomplete. 

James  D.  Keid, 
Commercial  Agent. 

U.  S.  Commercial  Agency, 

Dunfermline,  January  1,  1891. 


GLASGOW. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BROWK.* 

The  streets  of  Glasgow  are  the  best  paved  of  any  city  with  which  I 
am  acquainted ;  the  roads  of  Scotland  are  certainly  very  superior,  and 
as  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  observe,  better,  as  a  whole,  than  those  of 
the  other  countries  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

SCOTCH  HIGHWAYS. 

Road  system.— The  country  road  system  of  Scotland  may  be  regarded 
as  a  growth  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  public  and  as  a  result  of  experi- 
ence in  carefully  providing  for,  by  studying  the  best  methods,  the  pub- 
lic needs,  its  present  state  of  excellence,  approaching  perfection,  not 
having  always  existed,  though  for  scores  of  years  Scotland,  even  in  the 
Highlands,  has  been  famous  for  her  good  roads. 

A  hundred  years  ago  the  population  in  some  districts  was  already 
becoming  quite  dense,  and  the  need  of  good  roads  and  how  to  build 
them  naturally  commanded  the  attention  of  the  public  and  officials. 
Sixty  years  ago  and  before  the  country  was  interwoven  with  a  net- 
work of  railways  and  when  traffic  and  travel  were  already  considera- 
ble on  the  great  stage  routes  to  Loudon,  as  well  as  to  other  leading 
centers, good  roads  were  more  than  a  luxury;  they  became  a  necessity 
and  required  to  be  perfected  and  kept  up  at  any  cost.  What  wonder, 
then,  that  the  roads  now  are  in  excellent  condition  everywhere. 

*  In  connection  with  this  report  I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  W.  H.  Hill  for  valuable  doc- 
uments, and  to  John  L.  Imrie,  esq.,  a  farmer  residing  near  Glasgow,  for  much  prac- 
tical information. 

L.  W.  0. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  417 

Comparatively  few  new  roads  are  now  being-  built,  because  not  needed, 
but  the  old  ones  are  constantly  beiug  improved  by  cutting  down  high 
grades,  filling  in  the  low  places,  renewing  the  top  dressing,  etc. 

This  cutting  down  and  leveling  of  the  roads,  when  done  by  contract, 
costs  20  to  28  cents  per  cubic  yard,  which  cost  includes  removal  and 
dumping  into  the  low  places  if  the  distance  is  not  too  great. 

A  considerable  force  of  men  is  kept  constantly  employed  improving 
and  repairing  the  roads,  the  counties  or  shires,  for  road  purposes,  be- 
ing divided  into  divisions,  these  being  subdivided  into  districts,  the 
latter  embracing  from  15  to  30  or  more  miles  of  road.  The  districts  are  in 
turn  subdivided  into  sections,  upon  which  squads  of  men,  from  three  to 
six  in  number,  according  to  the  needs  of  the  road,  are  kept  constantly 
at  work  the  year  round. 

A  heavy  steam-roller,  10  to  L5  tons,  plays  an  important  part  in  road 
repairing  as  well  as  road  making,  and  though  of  comparatively  recent 
introduction  is  now  regarded  as  essential,  the  larger  or  15-ton  roller 
being  considered  the  better  and  more  economical.  One  roller,  with  its 
complement  of  men,  does  its  part  of  the  work  upon  several  of  the  above- 
described  sections.  Cost  per  diem  of  using  these  rollers  will  be  con- 
sidered hereafter. 

CONSTRUCTING  NEW  ROADS. 

The  first  step  in  constructing  a  new  road  is  to  lay  tile  on  each  side  of 
-  the  roadbed,  the  tile  as  a  rule  being  laid  3  feet  below  the  surface  and 
ranging  in  size  from  3  inches  to  6  or  more  inches,  the  cost  of  laying, 
exclusive  of  the  tile,  being  for  3-inch  tile  (reducing  to  United  States 
currency)  3  cents,  6-inch  tile  4  cents,  and  9-inch  about  6  cents  per  yard. 
The  latter  size  is  seldom  used. 

In  preparing  the  roadbed  the  upper  or  surface  soil  to  the  depth  of  8 
to  12  inches  is  first  removed ;  upon  this  exposed  surface  or  bed  a 
foundation  is  laid,  called  "  bottoming,"  which  consists  of  large  cobble 
or  broken  stone,  carefully  set,  the  stone  foundation  thus  formed  being 
6  to  10  inches  deep,  according  to  size  of  stone  used,  the  cost  in  a  great 
measure  depending  upon  the  accessibility  of  stone.  Upon  this  rough  ■ 
roadbed  or  foundation  is  scattered  fine  broken  stone  called  metal,  and 
fine  enough  to  pass  through  a  2-inch  ring,  to  the  depth  of  4  inches,  in 
addition  to  filling  up  interstices  of  the  bed-stone.  This  metal  costs  from 
'  72  cents  to  $1.G8  per  cubic  yard,  according  to  quality,  the  latter  price 
being  paid  for  a  choice  quality  almost  equal  to  granite  in  hardness  and 
durability. 

The  whole  is  made  a  compact  mass  by  throwing  on  gravel,  sand,  or 
the  refuse  of  the  broken  stone  heaps,  and  if  these  are  not  attainable  in 
sufficient  quantity,  sometimes  soil  nearest  approaching  sand  is  used  ; 
this  is  wet  down,  a  large  quantity  of  water  being  used,  and  rolled  many 
times  over,  until  the  whole  becomes  almost  as  firm  as  a  stone  pavement 
sufficiently  smooth  for  a  delightful  carriage  road  and  nearly  perfec- 
tion for  carting  purposes. 
33a 27 


418  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

This  roadbed  is  built  from  16  to  30  feet  wide,  according  to  volume 
of  travel  expected,  and  in  the  case  of  the  narrower  width  is  about  7 
inches  higher  in  the  middle  than  on  the  sides  and  in  the  broader  width 
about  1  foot  higher  in  the  middle.  A  sufficient  depression  is  made  on 
either  side  to  carry  off  the  surface  water. 

This,  I  am  sure,  will  be  accepted  as  pretty  nearly  a  model  country 
road,  but  it  is  not  all  of  the  road  for  in  addition  there  is  built  on  one 
or  both  sides  of  the  road  a  footpath  from  2£  to  4  feet  wide,  this  being 
a  feature  of  all  the  newer  roads  and  many  of  the  old  ones.  This  foot- 
path or  sidewalk  is  made  by  simply  throwing  up  the  soil  a  few  inches 
higher  than  the  side  of  the  road  and  covering  it  with  coal  ashes  or 
cinders,  gravel,  or  like  substance,  and  after  being  worn  for  a  little 
time  is  almost  equal  in  dryness  to  the  city  sidewalk  and  is  quite  as 
comfortable  to  walk  upon. 

Roads  thus  built  are  durable  iu  character,  yet  do  require  repair,  and 
to  keep  them  in  a  high  state  of  repair  and  excellence,  as  heretofore 
stated,  a  considerable  force  of  men  is  constantly  employed.     ' 

REPAIRING  OF  ROADS. 

Keeping  the  roads  in  proper  repair  consists  in  keeping  them  clean, 
removing  dirt,  droppings,  and  rubbish  of  all  kinds,  and  in  filling  up 
depressions  with  fresh  metal,  rolling  down,  etc.  In  this  connection  it 
may  be  well  to  state  that  the  roller  is  employed  upon  all  parts  of  the 
road,  even  when  new  metal  is  not  spread,  it  being  considered  very  useful 
in  keeping  the  road  solid  and  preventing  depressions,  which  would; 
require  filling  up.  The  cost  of  these  repairs  is  very  considerable,  as 
will  be  seen  from  the  following : 

I  take  at  random  from  the  tables  of  estimated  cost  before  me — the 
sixth  district  of  the  couuty  of  Lanark.  The  district  comprises  16 J  . 
miles  of  road  upon  which  there  is  a  heavy  traffic.  The  estimated  cost 
of  management  and  maintenance  for  the  year  1891  is  as  follows : 

£     s.  a. 

Metal  (fine  broken  stone)  1,627    5    9J 

Surface  work 589  9    6? 

Tools 15  7    4 

Removing  mud,  etc 194  6    0 

Footpaths  and  borders 85  16 

Drains,  gratings,  etc 349  7  .ftj 

Repairs  on  walls,  fences,  etc 105  13    2 

Improvement  on  Carmunnock  road 665  0    0 

Cost  of  working  steam  road  roller,  including  driver's  wages,  fuel,  carting 

water,  etc 239  14 

Sundries. 18  3 


Total 3,890    4    8 

Equal  to  $18,906.52  United  States  currency. 

From  this  total  there  should  be  deducted  the  cost  of  the  improve- 
ment of  Carmunnock  road,  which  leaves  a  balance  of  £3,225  4s.  S#.orf 
in  round  numbers,  $15,675,  nearly  $965  per  mile  of  road. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  419 

Twelve  men  are  employed  upon  the  roads  of  tbis  district.  Of  these 
twelve  men  two  receive  $6.07  each  per  week,  one  $4.86,  two  $4.62  each, 
six  $4.38  each,  and  one  $4.14  per  week. 

The  following  table  shows  the  cost  per  diem  of  the  roller  wages,  viz : 

1  engine  driver $1.04 

I  assistant 68 

I  watchman 64 

1  man  blinding  metal 72 

2  men  for  water,  at  72  cents  each 1.44 

2  men  for  sweeping,  at  72  cents  each 1.44 

Foreman  or  surfaceman  of  the  district,  $1  (say  half  his  time) 50 

Cartage : 

2  water  carts,  at  $2. 16  each 4.32 

1  cart  for  blinding,  $2. 16  (but  as  this  would,  without  the  roller,  be  required, 

say  to  one-third  the  extent) 1,44 

Materials: 

Coal 30 

Oil,  packing,  eto 16 

Brooms 16 

Interest  and  depreciation  at  15  per  cent,  per  annum  on  cost  of  roller, 
$2,433,  and  for  repairs  and  insurance,  $364.50.  Deduct  from  last  item 
52  Sundays  and  42  days  for  frost,  in  all  94  days,  the  charge  in  respect 
to  above  is  per  working  day  $1.30. 

To  the  expense  of  management  the  following  items  should  be  charged, 
being  approximate  cost  of  management  for  a  county  : 

Salary  of  secretary  and  treasurer,  £600 ;  surveyor,  £400  j  collectors 
commission,  2£  per  cent. ;  carriage  hire  and  expenses  of  inspectors,  say, 
£100 ;  printing,  stationery,  advertising,  postage,  etc.  Total,  say, 
£1,500,  nearly  $7,500. 

The  official  machinery  made  use  of,  construction  of  committees,  of 
county  council,  for  road  management,  quite  unlike  our  own,  and  as  I 
think  rather  cumbersome,  is  not  considered  essential  to  this  report  and 
is  therefore  omitted. 

It  may  be  an  interesting  item  to  note  the  length  of  time  some  of  the 
men  are  employed.  In  the  district  of  which  I  have  given  a  detailed 
report,  one  man,  Andrew  Hamilton,  has  been  continuously  in  service 
50  years.  He  is  now  70  years  old  and  receives  $6.06  per  week.  An- 
other man  has  worked  26  years,  one  16  years,  one  14,  and  the  other 
eight  from  7  years  down  to  6  months. 

TAXATION  FOR  ROAD  PURPOSES. 

The  assessment  is  made  upon  the  rental  value  of  real  estate,  and  at 
the  rate  of  Qd.  to  S>d.  per  pound  sterling,  paid  in  part  by  the  owner  and 
part  by  the  occupier,  usually  one  half  by  each.  Take  the  8d.  per  pound 
rate,  allowing  £2  ($9.73)  as  the  minimum  rental  value  of  farming  land, 
and  the  valuation  of  our  farm  lands  would  surely  average  that  much 
or  more,  we  have  $25.60  aunual  tax  upon  a  farm  of  80  acres,  for  repair 


420  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

and  maintenance,  after  first  cost  is  paid.  When  our  people  are  ready 
to  pay  such  a  price,  we  can  surely  have  first-class  macadamized  roads, 
equal  to  those  of  Scotland. 

As  to  the  question  of  enhanced  value  of  real  estate  on  account  of 
improved  roads,  I  can  only  conjecture.  I  am  informed  by  intelligent 
farmers  that  the  rental  value  of  farm  lands  is  at  least  5  per  cent, 
higher  where  the  roads  are  such  as  I  have  been  describing  than  where 
the  roads  are  but  ordinary  or  poor.  The  land  for  the  most  part  is 
owned  by  landlords  and  seldom  changes  hands;  but  it  is  safe  to  assume 
that  the  value  is  increased  from  20  to  25  per  cent,  by  good  roads. 

STREETS  OF  GLASGOW. 

Pavements  in  use  in  Glasgow  are  of  three  kinds,  viz,  granite  or  whin- 
stone,  macadam,  and  wood.  The  latter,  however,  has  not  been  exten- 
sively used,  hardly  sufficient  to  be  worth  mentioning,  is  considered  a 
failure,  and  when  worn  out  will  doubtless  be  replaced  by  one  of  the  oth- 
ers. I  think  there  is  less  than  a  mile  of  wood  paving  in.  the  city,  hence 
its  construction  is  not  described. 

A.  B.  McDonald,  esq.,  city  engineer,  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  in- 
formation in  relation  to  Glasgow  street  paving  and  other  courtesies 
as  well,  writes  me  that : 

The  whole  of  the  streets  within  the  city  of  Glasgow  with  the  exception  of  the  old 
turnpike  and  Statute  Harbor  roads  have  in  the  first  place  been  formed  and  paved  by 
the  proprietors  at  their  own  expense,  principally  with  flat  topped  rongh  whinstones 
called  rubble  whinstone  causeway.  Turnpike  roads  were  originally  formed  and  main- 
tained out  of  funds  raised  by  the  levy  of  tolls,  the  description  of  paviug  used  being 
what  is  known  as  macadam.  These  streets  when  taken  over  by  the  city  authorities  to 
be  maintained  out  of  city  rates  have  been  gradually  remade  and  repaved  to  suit  the 
altered  requirements  in  regard  to  traffic,  gradient,  and  nature  of  occupancy  of  abut- 
ting buildings. 

TRAFFIC. 

Mr.  McDonald  further  says: 

In  determining  the  most  suitable  material  for  paving,  heavy  and  light  traffic  is- 
calculated  on  "  actual  teaming,"  not  the  weight  of  any  load  which  may  be  expected 
to  pass  over  it,  as  all  the  roads  paved  with  square  dressed  sets  are  expected  to  bear, 
with  safety,  the  passage  of  loads  of  from  60  to  80  tons  carried  on  four-wheel  bogies. 

Theneavy  traffic  is  principally  on  the  main  thoroughfares  and  the  streets  in  the 
portion  of  the  city  occupied  by  warehouses,  stores,  and  business  premises.  These  as 
a  rule  are  paved  with  square  dressed  granite,  exception  being  made  in  such  portions 
of  streets  as  front  law  courts  or  infirmaries,  where  wood  blocks  or  macadam  are  laid 
for  the  prevention  of  noise. 

The  light  traffic  is  of  two  classes,  one  a  combination  of  goods  and  carriage  traffic 
and  the  other  solely  carriage  traffic.  The  first  embraces  the  streets  partly  occupied 
for  residential  and  business  purposes,  in  which  the  paving  material  is  whinstone,  the 
latter,  for  residential  purposes  alone,  being  paved  partly  with  whinstone  and  partly 
with  macadam. 

PAVING  MATERIAL. 

The  granite  used  for  paving  sets  in  Glasgow  is  a  close-grained  porphyry  from  the 
Scotch  quarries,  Situated  on  Loch  Flyne  and  Loch  Etive,  and  has  been  proved  to  be 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  421 

the  most  durable  material  for  paving  purposes  to  be  found  in  the  country.  Under 
heavy  I  raffle  it  has  been  found  to  last  for  30  years  without  requiring  to  be  lifted,  and 
when  dressed  and  relaid,  is  expected  to  last  for  another  25  years,  before  being  broken 
up  for  macadam,  or  laid  iu  streets  subject  to  light  traffic.  The  granite  metal  largely 
used  in  macadamized  roads  is  from  tbe  same  quarries. 

The  granite  used  for  water  cbannels,  not  being  subject  to  the  same  wear  as  the 
street,  is  brought  from  the  Dalbeattie  and  Ardshiel  quarries ;  it  is  larger  in  grain  and 
softer  iu  quality,  but  of  a  lasting  nature. 

The  whinstone,  principally  from  quarries  arouud  the  city,  is  heavy  and  close- 
grained,  and  while  not  so  lasting  as  granite,  lasts  as  long  under  the  lighter  traffic  to 
which  it  is  subjected  in  the  minor  thoroughfares  where  whin  paving  is  adopted.  It 
is  not  so  slippery  as  granite,  and  on  this  account  is  used  in  several  of  the  heavy  traffic 
streets  where  the  gradient  is  pretty  heavy.  Whin  metal  from  the  same  quarries  is 
also  largely  used  for  macadamizing  purposes. 

The  securing  of  a  sure  foothold  for  horses  is"an  important  factor  in  determining  the 
sizes  of  sets  for  paving  purposes,  and  on  this  account  no  paving  blocks  now  being 
used  exceed  in  breadth  4£  inches  or  in  length  more  than  9  inches.  In  some  cases  they 
are  now  laid  as  narrow  as  3  inches;  but  with  such  a  breadth  there  is  the  disadvantage 
that  when  they  become  worn  and  require  to  be  lifted  they  will  not  redress  to  advan- 
tage, while  a  stone  4  to  4£  inches  broad  can  be  depended  on  to  redress  and  relay  well. 
At  street  junctions  where  a  foothold  is  required  in  all  directions  the  sets  are  square 
instead  of  oblong,  not  exceeding  4$  inches  on  the  top.  The  depth  of  the  stone  may 
vary  from  7  to  5  inches,  and  in  the  case  of  junctions  where  the  form  of  the  stone  does 
not  admit  of  much  depth  they  may  be  from  6  to  4  inches  deep.  The  same  remark 
as  to  after  facility  for  redressing  and  economy  holds  good  in  regard  to  depth. 

Water  channels  are  of  dressed  stone  from  12  to  14  inches  broad,  6  to  7  inches  deep, 
and  of  an  average  length  of  3  feet.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  sizes  of 
8ets7etc,  are  those  now  used.  On  many  of  the  streets,  the  pavements  having  been 
laid  many  years  ago,  the  sizes  are  larger. 

In  all  cases,  whether  as  a  paved  or  macadamized  road,  it  is  consid- 
ered of  the  utmost  importance  to  secure  a  properly  consolidated  foun- 
dation. For  this  purpose  the  roadway  is  excavated  to  the  required 
depth  and  to  the  levels  and  curves  of  the  intended  surface,  all  soft 
places  being  rammed  solid,  or,  when  necessary,  such  as  over  drains  and 
pipes  recently  laid,  cut  6  inches  deeper  and  filled  up  with  concrete. 
As  I  have  watched  the  work  going  on  no  part  of  the  work  has  so  much 
impressed  me  as  the  thoroughness  with  which  the  roadbed  is  prepared. 

The  specifications  herewith  sent,  furnished  me  by  Engineer  McDon- 
ald, fully  describe  the  manner  of  carrying  on  the  various  works  con- 
nected with  the  paving  of  the  streets,  while  the  schedule  attached  gives 
the  prices  paid  under  the  present  contract. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  use  of  both  cement  and  asphalt  for  paving 
purposes,  the  former  being  generally  preferred  for  use  iu  bottoming, 
but  for  grouting  paving  sets  the  latter,  because  it  sets  in  a  few  hours 
and  allows  the  more  rapid  use  of  the  street.  For  this  reason  in  some 
cases  it  is  necessary  to  use  asphalt  for  both  bottoming  and  grouting 
purposes. 

MACADAMIZED   STREETS. 

For  macadamized  streets  the  same  care  is  observed  in  excavating  to 
the  required  depth,  which  in  this  city  varies  from  18  to  20  inches  below 
the  intended  finished  surface.    In  forming  a  first-class  macadamized 


422  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

road  Mr.  McDonald  says  "  a  coatin  g  of  engine  ashes  or  some  similar 
substance  2  inches  deep  should  be  laid  over  the  excavated  surface 
wherever  the  soil  is  of  a  non-porons  nature;  where  of  saud  or  gravel  or 
other  absorbent  material  the  ashes  may  be  dispensed  with."  Hereto- 
fore this  has  not  always  been  done.  Upon  this  is  laid  a  bottoming  oi 
rough  stones  (sand  stones  if  possible)  9  inches  deep  and  not  more  than 
4  inches  broad  on  the  head  when  laid,  all  carefully  hand  set  and  so  lap- 
ping in  the  joints  as  to  present  the  appearance,  when  completed,  of  a 
dry  stone  wall  laid  flat,  the  open  joiuts  being  filled  with  the  small  chip- 
pings  and  the  surface  even,  no  stone  projecting  beyond  another.  On 
this  is  laid  a  coating  of  from  4  to  6  inches  of  2J-inch  metal,  which, 
after  being  blended  with  sand  and  watered,  is  gone  over  with  a  15-ton 
steam  road  roller  to  be  consolidated;  a  second  coating  of  2-inch  metal 
mixed  with  a  proportion  of  small  ground  whin  or  granite,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  material  with  which  the  road  is  to  be  finished,  is  then 
put  on  and  again  watered  and  rolled. 

As  the  road  consolidates  under  the  rolling  12-inch  metal  is  laid  on 
and  rolled  in  until  the  necessary  finished  level  has  been  attained.  A 
proportion  of  road  scrapings  is  used  where  it  can  be  got  along  with  the 
ground  chips  for  the  purpose  of  binding  the  metal. 

It  is  found  that  granite  metal  makes  a  more  perfect  road  and  does  not 
require  so  much  cleansing  as  the  whin. 

It  is  considered  desirable  in  all  macadamized  roads  that  the  sides 
should  be  paved  with  square  dressed  sets  with  properly  laid  channel 
stones. 

The  cost  of  forming  a  macadamized  roadway  as  described,  including 
rolling  complete,  varies  from  3s.  6d.  to  4s.  (84  cents  to  96  cents)  per 
square  yard. 

Mr.  McDonald  says:  "  No  street  is  considered  as  permanently  paved" 
until  it  is  causewayed  with  square  dressed  sets.  The  money  required 
for  this  work  is  borrowed  under  parliamentary  powers,  the  interest 
upon  same  as  well  as  the  annual  amount  required  as  sinking  fund  being 
chargeable  against  the  rate-payers.  The  rate  of  interest  is  partly  3£ 
and  3£  per  cent. ;  the  sinking  fund  upon  the  amount  of  debt  to  be  repaid, 
as  at  the  passing  of  the  roads  and  bridges  act,  1878,  is  2£  per  cent.,  and 
upon  all  sums  borrowed  since  passing  of  said  act  5  per  cent. 

The  total  amount  expended  in  permanently  paving  the  streets  in 
Glasgow  from  May  15, 1856,  till  May  31, 1890,  has  been  £538,714  15s.  U. 

The  net  cost  of  repairing  the  streets  in  Glasgow  during  the  year  end- 
ing  31st  May,  1890,  was  £18,585  7s.  Id. 

The  number  of  miles  of  streets  maintained  by  the  road  authority  in 
Glasgow  is  142,  this  being  exclusive  of  suburbs,  which  would  nearly 
double  the  amount. 

L.  W.  Brown, 

Consu 

United  States  Consulate, 

Glasgow,  March  2,  1891 


" 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  423 

Specification  for  executing  the  paving  work  required  by  the  magistrates 
and  council  of  glasgow  (police),  including  the  supplying  of  the  new 
paving  sets,  channel  stones  or  wheelers,  and  all  the  materials  and 
workmanship,  for  the  period  of  three,  five,  or  seven  years. 

The  paving  operations  to  be  commenced  within  6  weeks  from  date  of  acceptance 
of  offer,  and  the  streets  finished  and  open  for  traffic  within  such  period  as  may  be 
from  time  to  time  fixed  by  the  statute  labor  committee. 

Paving  stone*.— Each  set  must  be  properly  dressed,  squared,  and  level  on  the  tops 
and  beds,  the  sides  and  ends  to  be  parallel  and  square.  The  sets  must  be  of  the  sizes 
as  marked  on  the  schedule,  truly  gauged,  and  approved  of  by  the  master  of  works. 
No  bulges  or  hollows  will  be  allowed  on  any  pretext  whatever. 

Channel  stones  ortvheelers. — To  be  neatly  axed,  perfectly  straight  and  square  on  the 
upper  surface,  the  sides  aud  ends  perfectly  straight,  parallel  and  square  off  the  sur- 
face, and  the  bed  parpend  with  the  same.  The1  stones  to  be  10,  12,  13,  14,  and  15 
inches  broad,  and  5,  6,  and  7  inches  deep.  The  average  length  to  be  3  feet  6  inches, 
aud  no  stone  to  be  less  than  2  feet  6  inches  long. 

Crossings. — Paving  sets  for  crossings  to  be  axed  on  the  top,  but  in  every  other  way 
to  be  the  same  as  those  already  described,  and  of  the  sizes  as  marked  in  the  schedule. 

(Note. — These  are  never  required.  The  ordinary  sets  above  specified  are  found 
to  do  sufficiently  well.) 

Eemoval  of  present  paving  stones  or  macadamising. — The  present  pavingstones,  which 
remain  the  property  of  the  magistrates  and  council,  to  be  carted  away  in  sections  by 
the  contractor  to  ground  or  streets  as  directed  by  the  statute  labor  committee.  The 
square  sets  intended  to  be  relaid  to  be  redressed  to  the  sizes  as  specified  in  the 
schedule  of  rates,  and  to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  the  master  of  works,  the  redress- 
ing to  be  done  at  such  place  as  the  master  of  works  may  direct,  the  contractor  being 
bound  to  cart  the  stones  to  the  street  in  which  they  are  to  be  used  after  they  have 
been  redressed. 

Excavation. — After  the  present  paving  sets  have  been  removed,  the  street  to  be  ex- 
cavated to  the  depth  of  12J,  13£,  14f,  or  15^  inches  (to  suit  the  different  depths  of 
stones)  below  the  intended  finished  level ;  the  necessary  transverse  curve  or  rise  from 
the  sides  to  the  center  being  given  to  the  bed.  Where  the  streets  are  to  be  paved 
with  redressed  stones,  the  street  to  be  excavated  to  the  depth  of  the  sets  in  the  same 
proportion  as  above  stated. 

Where  the  streets  are  macadamized,  the  contractor  to  remove  the  macadamized 
material  and  excavate  the  streets  to  the  depths  before  stated.  The  macadamizing 
may  be  used  for  bottoming,  so  far  as  found  suitable  for  that  purpose,  but  it  must  be 
thoroughly  screened  in  order  to  remove  any  sand  or  mud. 

Bottoming. — After  the  ground  has  been  carefully  prepared  to  the  required  sections, 
a  bed  of  the  best  whinstone  metal,  b"  inches  in  depth,  broken  to  pass  through  a  2-inch 
ting,  shall  then  be  laid  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  roadway,  be  thoroughly  grouted 
with  a  mixture  of  the  best  British  bitumen  and  pitch  oil,  aud  thoroughly  beaten  with 
a  rammer  while  being  grouted,  the  finished  surface  to  be  perfectly  smooth.  The  whin- 
stone  metal  must  be  thoroughly  dry  before  being  grouted  with  bitumen. 

In  the  event  of  the  board  deciding  that  a  concrete  bottoming  be  substituted  in  place 
of  the  foregoing,  it  shall  be  composed  of  1  measure  of  the  best  Portland  cement  to  1 
measure  of  clean  sharp  river  sand  and  3  measures  of  Whinstone  Metal,  broken  to 
pass  through  a  2-inch  ring,  all  properly  mixed  previous  to  being  laid  on  the  roadway. 
The  surface  of  the  compound,  when  placed  in  its  position,  must  be  perfectly  smooth 
and  to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  the  master  of  works.  The  contractor  to  state  whose 
Portland  cement  is  to  be  used. 

Causewaying. — The  whole  prepared  surface  to  bo  paved  with  square  dressed  6ets, 
assorted  according  to  size,  both  as  to  width  and  depth,  before  being  laid,  and  set  on 
abed  of  sharp  clean  river  sand,  in  no  place  less  than  H  inches  in  depth.  The  sets 
to  be  laid  (close  up,  hard  to  hard  on   the  sides  and  ends,  and  properly  banded)  in 


424  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

straight  aud  regular  courses  across  the  street  between  the  channel  stones,  and  to 
levels  shown  on  the  sections,  proper  molds,  carefully  set  every  shift,  being  used  if 
required  for  guiding  the  workmen,  the  whole  to  be  afterwards  well  grouted  with 

Portland  cement  aud  bitumen,  and  beaten  down  with  a  beater  not  less  than pounds 

in  weight,  and  regrouted,  as  also  blinded  with  gravel,  one-fourth  inch  in  depth.  If 
considered  necessary  by  the  master  of  works,  the  contractor  is  bound  to  put  on  blind- 
in"-  a  second  time.  The  master  of  works  to  gi  ?e  instructions  as  to  size  of  sets  to  be 
used  in  every  street. 

Grouting.— Cement  grouting  to  be  composed  of  one  measure  of  best  Portland  cement 
to  two  measures  of  clean  sharp  river  sand,  all  properly  mixed. 

For  bitumen  bottoming  aud  grouting,  the  bitumen  shall  be  manufactured  from 
pure  coal-tar  pitch  from  gasworks,  and  the  oil  shall  be  of  1.000  to  1.10  specific  gravity. 
Sufficient  oil  shall  be  used  to  produce  a  plastic  grout.  The  contractor  shall  also  be 
careful  to  see  that  the  grout  is  boiling  hot  when  used.  The  contractor  to  intimate 
to  the  master  of  works  the  name  of  the  parties  from  whom  the  bitumen  is  obtained. 

When  the  master  of  works  considers  it  necessary  that  chips  of  the  same  class  of 
material  as  the  paving  set  should  be  used  in  the  filling  in  of  the  joints,  the  chij 
must  first  be  passed  through  a  half-inch  riddle,  then  be  thoroughly  kiln  dried,  and 
afterwards  passed  over  a  riddle  of  one-qnarter-iuch  mesh  to  remove  all  sand  and  dust, 
and  laid  in  the  joiuts  in  two  layers.  Previous  to  the  chips  being  put  between  the 
joints,  bitumen  shall  be  run  in  to  the  depth  of  1  inch,  the  first  layer  of  chips  shall  then 
be  put  in,  and  thoroughly  grouted  with  the  bitumen,  the  second  layer  of  chips  to  fill 
the  joints  level  with  the  surface,  and  to  be  thoroughly  grouted  as  directed.  One  ton 
of  chips  shall  not  do  more  than  240  square  yards. 

Labor,  carriage,  etc.— The  contractor  to  find  all  labor,  tools,  and  plant,  carriage, 
sand,  whiustone  metal,  gravel,  bitumen,  cemeut,  paving  sets,  and  all  other  materials 
required  for  the  execution  and  completion  of  the  contract. 

Watching  and  lighting. — The  contractor  to  be  bound  to  provide  a  sufficient  number 
of  watchmen  and  lights,  and  become  responsible  for  any  damage  that  may  be  done 
to  life  or  property  in  consequence  of  his  operations,  or  from  deficiency  of  watch- 
men or  lights. 

Maintenance.— The  contractor  to  be  bound  to  maintain  the  work  for  6  months  after 
its  completion,  and  to  deliver  the  same  over  to  the  board  in  a  proper  state  of  repair 
at  the  end  of  that  period. 

Materials  and  workmanship. — The  materials  to  be  of  the  best  quality,  from  any 
quarry  or  quarries  that  may  be  approved  of  by  the  committee.  The  workmanship  to 
be  of  the  best  description,  and  to  the  entire  satisfaction  of  the  master  of  works,  or  of 
any  person  appointed  by  him  to  superintend  the  work,  who  shall  have  power  to  ex- 
clude or  reject  any  defective  material  or  workmanship  ;  and,  in  the  event  of  the  con- 
tractor delaying  or  refusing  to  replace  the  materials  or  renew  the  work,  the  committee 
shall  have  power  to  do  so  at  his  expense. 

The  contractor  to  lodge  specimens  (carriage  free)  of  all  the  different  sizes  of  stones 
specified,  at  the  master  of  works'  office,  6  days  before  offers  are  lodged.  These  stones 
will  become  the  property  of  the  magistrates  aud  council,  and  will  be  held  as  samples 
of  the  dressing  of  the  stones  to  be  supplied  under  the  contract. 

Payment. — Payment  to  be  made  to  the  .extent  of  90  per  pent,  on  the  value  of  work 
done  monthly,  the  work  to  be  measured  when  finished,  and  the  balance  to  be  paid 
when  the  master  of  works  shall  have  certified  that  the  work  has  been  done  and  main- 
tained as  before  specified,  and  delivered  over  in  terms  of  contract.  Should  any  re- 
pairs be  necessary  at  the  end  of  the  period  fixed  on  for  maintenance,  the  same  sha 
be  made  good  by  the  contractor,  and,  in  the  event  of  his  failing  to  do  so,  the  commit- 
tee shall  have  power  to  order  the  same  to  be  done ;  the  expense  so  incurred  to  be 
chargeable  against  contractor,  and  to  be  deducted  from  any  balance  which  may 
be  due  to  the  contractor  at  the  time.  One-half  of  measurer's  fee  to  be  paid  by 
contractor. 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  425 

Alterations. — The  committee  reserve  power  to  make  whatever  alter- 
ations, additions,  or  deductions  they  may  consider  necessary ;  the  price 
of  such  alterations,  additions,  or  deductions  to  be  regulated  by  the  rates 
of  prices  contained  in  the  contractor's  tender. 

Completion.— The  contractor  to  proceed  with  the  different  portions  of 
the  works  as  directed  ;  and  should  it  appear  to  the  master  of  works 
that  at  any  particular  time  the  work  is  not  being  proceeded  with  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  secure  its  completion  within  the  time  specified,  the  com- 
mittee shall  have  power  to  take  the  work  out  of  the  contractor's  hands, 
and  complete  the  same  at  the  contractor's  expense. 

Power  of  dismissal. — Should  the  master  of  works,  or  inspector  ap- 
pointed by  him,  be  dissatisfied  with  the  method  of  conducting  the  work, 
or  of  the  workmanship  thereof,  as  conducted  by  any  foreman  or  workman 
employed  by  the  contractor  or  contractors,  they  shall  have  the  power 
to  order  his  or  their  instant  dismissal. 

Disputes,  etc. — In  the  event  of  any  difference  of  opinion  or  dispute 
arising  between  the  master  of  works,  or  his  inspector,  and  the  con- 
tractor, the  same  shall  be  referred  to ,  whose  decision  shall  be 

final  and  binding  on  both  parties. 

Contract. — The  contractor  or  contractors  will  require  to  enter  iuto  a 
deed  of  contract,  based  on  the  foregoing  specification,  and  the  accepted 
tender,  containing  the  above  and  the  usual  conditions,  and  to  pay  one- 
half  the  expenses  thereof. 

Tenders  to  be  lodged  with  Mr.  Lang, "clerk  to  the  magistrates  and 

council  (police),  74  Hutchinson  street,  on  or  before  the ,  indorsed 

"  Tender  for  paving  work."     No  tender  will  be  received  after  12  o'clock 
of  said  date. 

The  magistrates  and  council  do  not  bind  themselves  to  accept  the 
lowest,  or  any  tender. 

Office  of  public  works, 

74  Hutchinson  street,  Glasgow, . 

TENDER. 

, ,  18-. 

To  the  MAGISTRATES  AND   COUNCIL  OF  GLASGOW   (POLICE): 

Gentlemen  :  do  hereby  offer  and  agree  to  execute  the  work 

with  connected  the  paving  of  streets  in  the  different  districts  of  the  city, 
as  pointed  out  by  the  master  of  works,  for  the  periods  of  three,  five,  or 
seven  years  from  the  acceptance  of  this  offer,  with  new  granite,  whin,  or 
old  redressed  stones,  all  in  conformity  with  the  specification  thereof, 
and  at  the  following  schedule  rates. 
Your  obedient  servant, 


426 


STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


Schedule  of  rates  for  executing  the  paving  ivorh  required  by  the  magistrates  and  council  of 
Glasqow  (police),  including  the  supplying  of  the  new  paving  sets,  channel  stones,  or 
wheelers,  and  all  the  materials  and  workmanship,  for  the  period  of years. 


BOTTOMING  WHERE  REQUIRED. 


».  d. 


Whinstone  bottoming:,  6  inches  deep  (including  cutting),  grouted  with  bitumen 
as  described,  including  all  materials  and  workmanship  '(removal  of  present 
caviseway  or  macadam  included  in  all  paving  work) per  sq.  yard..  3    0 

Concrete  bottoming  (including  cutting),  6  inches  deep,  as  described,  including 
all  materials  and  workmanship  (removal  of  present  canseway  or  macadam  in- 
cluded in  all  paving  work) per  sq.  yard..  2  10 


No 

Sizes. 

Granite  sets,  as  described 
in   specification,     per 
square  yard,  grouted. 

Whin  sets,  as  described 
in    specification,   per 
square  yard,  grouted. 

Redressing  and  relaying 
old  granite andwhin  sots 
(belonging  to  the  mag- 
istrates and  council). as 
described   in   specifica- 
tion, per   square  yard, 
grouted. 

Breadth. 

Depth. 

With  bitumen. 

With 
cement 
only. 

With  bitumen. 

With 

cement 

only. 

With  bitumen. 

With 
chips  in 
joints. 

With 

bitumin 

only. 

With 

chips  in 
joints. 

With 

bitumen 

only. 

With 
chips  in 
joints. 

With 

bitumen 

only. 

With 
cement 
only. 

1 
2 

4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 

Inches. 
3 
3 
3 
3 

3* 

34 

34 

3i 

3  to  4 

3  to  4 

4  inch  c 

Any  siz 

Inches. 
5 
6 
7 
8 
5 
6 
7 
8 
5 
6 

ibes 

«.  d. 
(*) 

11  6 

12  6 
(*) 
(*) 

11  6 

12  6 
<*) 

10    2 
10  10 

9    4 

8.  d. 
(*) 

11  7 

12  7 
(*) 
(*) 

11  7 

12  7 
(*) 

10    3 
10  11 

9    5 

s.d. 

"io'ii' 

12    0 

'io'ii' 

12    0 

10    3 
8  10 

«.  d. 

p: 

9    1 
(*) 
(*) 

8  8 

9  1 
(*) 

7  9 

8  2 
7    4 

«.  d. 

(*) 

8  9 

9  2 
(*) 

(*) 

8  9 

9  2 
(*) 

7  10 

8  3 
7    5 

».  d. 
... „„. 

8    7 

8    7 
"if"  2 

7    7 
6  10 

«.  d. 
2    3 
2    4 
2    5 
2    6 
2    3 
2    4 
2    5 
2    6 
2    4 
2    4 
2    4 
tl     9 

t.  d. 

2    4 
2    5 
2    6 
2    7 
2    4 
2    5 
2    6 
2    7 
2    5 
2    5 
2    5 
tl  10 

t.d. 
1    9 
1    9 

1  11 

2  0 
1    9 
1    9 

1  11 

2  0 
1    9 
1  10 
1  11 

tl    2 

1  Not  used  at  present. 


Without  redressing. 


CHANNEL  STONES  OR  WHEELERS,  AS  DESCRIBED  IN  SPECIFICATION. 


No. 

Grouted  with  bitnmen, 
5  to  7  inches  deep. 

Grouted  with  cement,  5 
to  7  inches  deep. 

Granite. 

Whin. 

Granite. 

Whin. 

1 

«.  d. 

1    5| 
1    7j 

8.    d. 

1    3J 
1    5i 

8.  d. 
1    4J 
1    6J 
1    6k 
l    84 
l  104 

*.   d. 
1   24 
1    44 
1    64 
1    84 
l  104 

•> 

3 

1     7i              1    74 
19}               1    94 
1  ll|  1 

R 

Extra  excavation  over  depths  specified,  2  shillings  per  cubic  yard. 

New  granite  referred  to  in  above  schedule  of  rates  to  be  from 

New  whin  referred  to  in  above  schedule  of  rates  to  be  from 

(Name  of  party  tendering  to  be  signed  in  full) . 

(Address) . 


DISTRICT  OF  LEITH  AND  EDINBURGH. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WALLACE  BRTTOE. 

Edinburgh  and  the  adjoining  seaport,  Leith,  have  two  distinct  and 
fceparate  corporations,  but,  in  appearance,  they  are  one  large  city, 
bound  together  and.  interlaced,  by  their  connecting  lines  of  busy  com- 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  427 

municatiou  which  extend  over  a  wide  area.  The  population  according 
to  latest  official  estimate  is,  respectively,  Edinburgh,  275,436,  and  Leith, 
80,736 ;  total,  356,172. 

The  streets  and  roads  within  the  municipal  boundary  of  Edinburgh 
are  under  the  superintendence  of  the  town  council  of  said  city,  and 
those  within  the  Leith  municipality  are  superintended  by  the  corpora- 
tion of  Leith. 

CITY  STREETS  AND  ROADWAYS. 

The  following  statement  sets  forth  the  materials  used  and  the  meth- 
ods employed  in  making  the  streets  and  roadways  of  Edinburgh  and 
Leith,  the  cost  of  building  and  maintenance  of  same,  and  other  informa 
tiou  relative  thereto : 

(1.)    HEAVY  TRAFFIC   STREETS. 

Granite  and  ichinstone  paving. — The  ground  forming  the  carriageway 
in  Edinburgh  streets  is  excavated  to  the  depth  of  about  15  inches 
under  the  level  of  the  proposed  finished  surface  of  the  carriageway.  A 
foundation  of  cement  concrete  6  inches  thick  is  then  laid  down  and  beat 
solid,  and  adjusted  to  the  requisite  levels.  The  concrete  is  usually 
composed  of  small  broken  stones  and  cement  in  the  proportions  of  five 
measures  stones,  one  measure  cemeut,  and  two  measures  fine  sand,  or 
gravel,  the  stones  being  bedded  or  built  on  a  cushion  of  sand  1  inch 
deep,  which  is  laid  on  the  concrete.  In  Leith  the  concrete  is  sometimes 
formed  of  broken  whinstone,  gravel,  or  ballast  and  lime,  in  the  propor- 
tions of  one  measure  of  slacked  lime  to  one  measure  of  broken  stone  and 
one  of  gravel ;  then  over  the  concrete  a  layer  of  sand  about  1£  to  2 
inches  thick  is  laid  down,  and  upon  this  sand  the  paving  stones  or  sets 
are  laid.  The  paving  stones  or  sets  are  squared  blocks  of  granite  or 
whinstone,  8  to  14  inches  long,  7  inches  deep,  and  generally  4  inches 
thick.  When  the  paving  stones  have  been  laid  to  the  proper  lines  or 
levels,  and  as  the  work  proceeds,  the  whole  surface  is  grouted,  that  is, 
the  joints  are  filled  up  with  lime  mortar,  composed  of  one  measure  of 
slacked  lime  to  two  parts  of  fine  gravel.  The  whole  of  the  sets  are 
then  beaten  down  about  a  half  inch  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch  with 
heavy  beaters  and  the  surface  of  the  paving  adjusted.  The  curvature 
of  such  carriageway  is  three  quarters  of  an  inch  or  thereby  on  3  feet 
from  channels  to  center. 

The  cost  of  streets  paved  in  this  way  is,  for  granite,  $2.43  to  $2.92 
and  for  whinstone,  $1.70  to  1.94  per  superficial  square  yard.  Granite 
paving  sets  cost  at  the  quayside  in  Leith,  including  all  dues,  $5.60*  to 
$6.07  per  tou  of  2,240  pounds,  and  18  cents  to  24  cents  per  ton  will  lay 
them  on  the  ground  for  the  pavers.  Whinstone  sets  delivered  at 
works  cost  $3.16  per  ton. 

Wood  paving. — In  Princess  street,  Edinburgh,  a  leading  thoroughfare 
of  that  city,  the  carriage  traffic  is  very  great,  and  one  section  or  side  of 


428  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

it  to  the  extent  of  200  yards  is  laid  with  Scotch  grown  beech  wood  blocks 
in  place  of  the  granite  or  whinstone  already  described,  and,  so  far  as 
experience  yet  goes,  it  has  given  satisfaction  during  the  2  years  it  has 
been  in  use.  But  about  16  years  ago  other  streets  of  Edinburgh  were 
laid  with  pine  or  Baltic  redwood  blocks,  and  such  paving  has  not 
proved  satisfactory.  Some  of  the  wood  in  those  streets  was  removed 
after  8  or  10  years'  wear,  and  the  streets  were  repaved  with  stone. 
Wood  paving  is  very  favorably  accepted  by  shopkeepers  and  residents, 
where  it  is  laid  on  account  of  the  comparative  noiselessness  of  the 
traffic  upon  it,  but  it  is  not  so  durable  and  therefore  not  so  economical 
as  stone.  Wood  also  leads  to  much  more  expense  in  its  maintenance. 
The  wood  blocks  used  are  of  similar  dimensions  as  the  stone,  namely, 
about  9  inches  long,  7  inches  deep,  and  3  to  4  inches  thick.  The  man- 
ner of  laying  the  wood  in  Edinburgh  streets  is  the  same  as  that  of  lay- 
ing the  stone  pavement. 

The  paving  of  two  streets  in  Leith  has  been  made  of  pitch  pine  and 
redwood.  The  blocks  used  were  9  inches  long,  6  inches  deep,  and  3 
inches  thick,  laid  upon  a  foundation  of  concrete,  composed  of  one  part 
of  Portland  cement  to  four  parts  of  ballast  or  gravel  6  inches  in  thick- 
ness. The  wood  blocks  forming  the  pavement  were  placed  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  apart  from  each  other  and  the  interstices  filled  with 
liquid  bitumen.  These  cost  for  pitch  pine  9s.  6d.  ($2.31)  and  for  red- 
wood Ss.  Gd.  ($2.07)  per  superficial  square  yard. 

Val  de  Travers  paving. — In  one  case  a  street  in  Leith  was  paved  with 
Val  de  Travers  compressed  rock  asphalt  2£  inches  thick,  laid  upon  a 
foundation  of  Portland  cement  concrete  9  inches  thick.  This  paving 
has  stood  ail  kinds  of  traffic  for  18  years,  and  is,  even  now,  in  fair 
condition,  and  has  proved  to  be  a  very  great  sanitary  improvement 
in  the  locality.  The  cost  of  such  paving  was  15s.  ($3.65)  per  superficial 
square  yard,  including  all  excavations,  concrete,  and  paving.  It  was 
maintained  by  the  contractors  for  3  years  after  construction  free  of 
charge.  For  15  years  the  cost  for  maintenance  was  about  2$d.  (5 
cents)  per  superficial  square  yard  over  the  whole  area  paved.  This 
system  is,  however,  better  for  level  streets  than  for  any  gradient,  as  it 
is  too  smooth  for  horses  to  get  sufficiently  secure  footing. 

(2.)  MEDIUM  TRAFFIC  STREETS. 

If  the  foundation  or  substratum  of  the  carriageway  be  of  a  suitable 
character,  such  as  firm  sand  or  gravel,  the  concrete  is  dispensed  with, 
iu  which  case  the  cost  of  paving  will  be  reduced  by  about  48  cents  to 
54  cents  per  superficial  square  yard,  or  the  cost  of  the  concrete  and  ex- 
cavations. 

(3.)  LIGHT  TRAFFIC   STREETS. 

Common  whinstone  paving. — The  mode  followed  in  paving  streets 
wherein  there  is  light  traffic  iu  Edinburgh,  is  as  follows  (that  in  more 
private  parts  of  the  city  is  generally  causeway  of  a  commoner  class 


EUROPE — UNITED    KINGDOM.  429 

of  whinstone  blocks,  with  less  dressing  upon  them  than  on  the  blocks 
where  the  traffic  is  heavy) :  The  ground  having  beeu  carefully  pre- 
pared— but  without  any  concrete  foundation — such  causeway  is  laid 
upon  it,  the  joints  or  interstices  in  some  cases  being  filled  with  bitumen 
or  Portland  cement  grout.  The  cost  of  such  work  is  about  97  cents  to 
$1.21  per  superficial  square  yard.  Other  light  traffic  or  private  streets 
and  roads  are. "  macadamized." 

Macadamized  roads. — Macadamization,  or  the  process  of  covering 
roads  with  broken  stone,  came  into  use  in  Scotland  early  in  the  present 
century,  having  been  invented  by  John  Loudon  Macadam,  a  Scottish 
surveyor,  and  his  system  was  so  designated  after  his  name.  His  sys- 
tem was  made  known  in  two  works,  entitled,  respectively,  A  Practical 
Essay  on  the  Scientific  Eepair  and  Preservation  of  Public  Roads  and 
Remarks  on  the  Present  State  of  Road  Making.  According  to  Mac- 
adam's invention  excellent  roads  were  formed  by  placing  in  a  suit- 
ably prepared  road  layers  of  broken  granite  or  other  hard  stone,  which 
became  hardened  into  a  solid  mass  by  the  .traffic  passing  over  them. 
For  this  invention  he  was,  in  the  year  1827,  granted  a  sum  of  £10,000 
($48,665)  by  the  British  Government. 

Throughout  Edinburgh  the  process  adopted  for  macadamizing  streets 
or  roads  having  light  traffic  is,  in  laying  the  foundation,  to  adjust, 
equalize,  and  thoroughly  beat  down  and  otherwise  prepare  the  bottom 
ground  to  the  same  curvature  as  the  intended  finished  surface,  the  rise 
being  from  channels  or  sides  to  the  center  of  the  carriage  way  of  1 
iilch  on  3  feet  or  thereby.  Then  broken  whinstone  or  "road  metal," 
as  it  is  termed,  is  laid  down  from  8  to  10  inches  deep,  the  material  being 
blinded — that  is,  filled  up  and  rolled — with  road  scrapings.  Ordinary 
scrapings  of  a  macadamized  road  make  the  best  blind,  being  of  a  ce- 
menting or  binding  nature,  and  this  is  finished  and  left  smooth  for 
traffic  by  the  application  of  horse  rollers. 

The  city  of  Edinburgh  possesses  a  20-ton  steam  roller  which  has  been 
used  in  preparing  macadamized  roadways  for  traffic,  but  it  is  found 
unsuitable.  Horse-rollers,  varying  from  2  to  3  tons,  each  drawn  by 
two  horses,  are  found  more  suitable  for  the  purpose. 

In  the  suburban  streets  and  roadways  of  Edinburgh  where  "  road 
metal"  is  used  the  cost  of  macadamizing  is  from  60  cents  to  73  cents 
feer  superficial  square  yard. 

The  first  cost  of  building  or  constructing  and  paving  those  private 
streets  and  roadways  is  assessed  upon  the  proprietors  on  both  sides  of 
the  street  or  way,  in  proportion  to  the  lineal  frontage. 

The  ordinary  public  streets  of  Edinburgh  extend  108  miles ;  private 
streets  and  suburban  roadways  about  20  miles. 

Throughout  Leith  the  method  of  constructing  streets  or  roads  for 
light  traffic  on  Macadam's  principle  is  as  follows:  The  carriageway  is 
excavated  to  the  depth  of  about  10  inches  under  the  intended  surface 
thereof,  and  when  this  has  been  done  a  stratum  or  layer  of  broken 


430  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

stones  about  the  size  of  4-inch  cubes  is  laid  down.  Upon  this  is  placed 
a  layer  4  inches  deep  of  broken  whinstone,  or  "  metal,"  as  it  is  usually 
termed,  about  2-inch  cubes.  Upon  this  metal  is  laid  a  layer  of  finer 
metal  about  the  size  of  a  walnut  and  2  iuches  in  thickness,  and  the 
whole  well  blended  with  crushed  gravel — a  material  which  is  obtained 
from  the  stone-breaking  machines  when  making  metal.  The  whole  is 
then  rolled  and  consolidated  with  a  heavy  roller.  This  costs  in  the 
first  construction  about  73  cents  per  superficial  square  yard.  The  prin- 
cipal part  of  constructing  streets  is,  in  the  first  instance,  done  by  con- 
tract. The  rate  of  73  cents  per  square  yard  superficial  includes  the 
cost  of  the  water  channels  and  curbing  at  the  sides  of  roads.  The  ex- 
pense of  engineering,  preparation  of  plans,  superintending,  or  measur- 
ing work,  is,  however,  not  in  any  case  included  in  the  rates  given,  but 
if  such  were  allowed  for,  a  sum  equal  to  5  per  cent,  at  least  on  the  cost 
would  require  to  be  added. 

(4)  MAINTENANCE. 

Granite  paved  streets. — The  cost  of  maintaining  granite-paved  streets 
for  the  first  10  years  after  construction  is  very  small,  indeed  almost  nil, 
and,  from  that  time  onwards  to  a  period  from  20  to  25  years  after  con- 
struction, the  annual  cost  per  yard  for  maintenance  will  not  exceed  4 
cents,  and  at  the  end  of  that  time  the  paving,  as  a  rule,  requires  re- 
newal, and  the  material  taken  from  it  may  be  used  in  paving  quiet 
streets. 

Whinstone-paved  streets.— The  cost  of  maintaining  whin  stone-paved 
streets  for  the  first  5  years  after  construction  is  almost  nil,  but  from 
that  time  onwards  till  about  15  years  after  construction  the  mainte- 
nance may  be  taken  at  4  cents  per  yard  per  annum,  and  when  repaved 
the  old  material  may  be  broken  up  and  used  for  repairs  of  roads,  the 
making  of  concrete,  etc. 

Macadamised  roads.— With  respect  to  macadamized  roads — being 
those  constructed  for  lighter  traffic — the  cost  of  maintenance  may  be 
taken  at  6  cents  per  superficial  yard  per  annum,  but  this  rate  will  no 
doubt  be  varied  according  to  circumstances,  such  as  the  state  of  the 
weather  and  the  amount  of  traffic. 

There  are  not  any  of  the  roads  in  or  immediately  around  Leith  where 
the  traffic  may  be  said  to  be  really  light  in  the  sense  that  there  are  no 
vehicles  passing  over  them  carrying  goods  or  general  merchandise  of  a 
heavy  character,  but,  on  the  contrary,  they  are  all  liable  to  have  any 
kind  of  traffic,  at  times,  carried  over  them. 

(5)  ASSESSMENT  OF  FIRST  COST. 

All  the  streets  and  roads  within  the  boundary  of  the  city  of  Edin- 
burgh, both  carriageways  and  footways,  are  maintained  by  the  magis- 
trates and  council  out  of  the  municipal  assessment  of  usually  5d.  (10 
cents)  per  pound  ($4.8665)  on  the  rental  of  the  city. 

In  constructing  public  streets  of  any  large  extent  the  cost  is  gene 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  431 

ally  defrayed  by  borrowing  money  on  the  security  of  the  municipal  rates 
or  assessment  and  repaying  the  loans  in  20  years.  In  this  way  the 
assessment  is  not  so  greatly  increased  and  felt.  The  assessment  for 
maintaining  the  roads  and  streets  of  the  town  of  Leith  at  present  is 
4<?.  (8  cents)  per  pound  ($4.8665)  on  the  valued  rental,  exclusive  of  the 
value  of  the  Leith  docks,  which,  by  statute,  are  exempted  from  assess- 
ment for  roads  and  streets. 

The  cost  of  the  first  construction  of  roads  or  streets  upon  lands  laid 
out  by  the  proprietors  or  owners  of  same  for  the  erection  of  dwelling 
houses  or  other  buildings  thereon  is  paid  by  such  proprietors  or  own 
ers,  or  by  their  tenants  or  lessees  who  have  acquired  such  lands,  and, 
if  the  work  of  construction  be  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  corporation,  the 
maintenance  of  such  roads  or  streets  is  thereafter  assumed  by  the  cor- 
poration, and  the  expense  is  paid  out  of  the  general  assessment  for  that 
purpose. 

The  cost  of  land  upon  which  the  streets  or  roads  above  referred  to 
have  been  formed  has  in  no  instance  been  taken  into  account  in  the 
prices  stated  for  their  construction  and  maintenance. 

Subjoined  is  a  statement  kindly  supplied  to  me  by  the  city  road  sur- 
veyor, showing  the  amounts  estimated  under  the  several  headings  for 
wages,  materials,  etc.,  expended  on  the  Edinburgh  streets  and  roads 
for  the  current  year  (from  May  15, 1890,  to  May  15, 1891). 

Wages : 

Breaking  stones =. $1,581.61 

Labor  on  macadamized  roads 10,462.98 

Labor  on  causewayed  streets 19,320.00 

Forming  and  repairing  cesspools 2, 043.  93 

Works  on  depots 2,919.90 

Foot  pavements  and  footpaths 851.64 

Public  safety 97.33 

Total  wages 37, 277. 39 

Materials,  cartage,  etc. : 

Material,  macadamized  roads 12,166.25 

Cartage,  macadamized  roads 4,379.85 

Stone,  causewayed  streets 5,839.80 

Sand  and  gravel,  causewayed  streets 4,379.85 

Cartage,  causewayed  streets '- 6, 5C9. 78 

Cesspools  and  channels 2,919.90 

Depots,  repairs,  and  furnishings 486.65 

Implements  and  repairs 2.189.92 

Public  streets,  contract  work 29, 199.00 

Improvements 486.65 

Private  streets 9,733.00 

Foot  pavements,  contract  work 26.765,75 

Footpaths,  gravel  and  cartage 973.  30 

Granolithic  footpaths,  public  street 13,626.20 

Public  safety 973.30 

Total  materials,  etc 120,689.20 

Grand  total 157,966.59 


432    STREETS  AND  HIGHWAYS  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 
COUNTRY  ROADS  OR  HIGHWAYS. 

The  materials  used  and  the  methods  employed  in  making  and  main- 
taining the  country  roads  within  this  consular  district  and  other  in- 
formation pertaining  to  same  are  as  follows : 

THE  MIDLOTHIAN  ROADS. 

Edinburghshire,  or,  as  otherwise  named,  the  county  of  Midlothian, 
occupies  an  area  of  358  square  miles  or  229,120  acres.  This  area,  in 
the  management  of  its  roads,  is  divided  into  four  districts,  namely,  the 
Edinburgh  suburban,  the  Lasswade,  the  Calder,  and  the  Galawater 
district,  each  having  its  board  of  road  trustees,  under  whose  care  the 
roads  in  the  respective  districts  are  maintained  and  who  control  the 
expenditure  required  upon  them. 

In  this  county  there  have  been  two  methods  used  in  making  and- 
maintaining  its  roads  or  highways,  viz,  those  of  Telford  and  of  Macadam. 
Briefly  stated,  the  Telford  system  consisted  of  a  bottoming  of  large 
wedge  shaped  stones  set  on  end,  sharp  edge  uppermost,  with  a  cover- 
ing of  broken  "  metal "  (stones)  on  the  top.  That  of  Macadam  consists 
of  a  bed  of  ■"  metal "  broken  to  a  uniform  size  from  top  to  bottom 
The  latter  system  has"  been  adopted  throughout  the  county  of  Edin- 
burgh for  numy  years  past,  and  on  account  of  its  giving  a  smoother 
surface  to  the  road  is  considered  preferable  to  the  Telford  system.  It 
is  preferred  also  as  avoiding  the  risk  of  the  large  bottoming  stones  used 
in  the  Telford  system  working  up  to  the  top,  which,  it  is  said,  happens 
in  nearly  all  roads  having  pitched  or  paved  foundations.  The  first  cost 
of  macadamizing  a  road  is  usually  from  60  cents  to  70  cents  per  super- 
ficial square  yard. 

The  main  lines  of  roadway  throughout  the  county  of  Edinburgh  are 
from  25  to  30  feet  wide  from  fence  to  fence,  the  greater  width  being 
required  for. roads  of  much  traffic  or  near  the  city;  and  under  the 
"  roads  and  bridges  act "  of  the  year  1878  it  is  ordained  that  no  erection 
shall  be  built  more  than  7  feet  high  within  25  feet  of  the  center  of  the 
roadway.  The  old  parish  roads  in  the  county,  however,  are  often  not 
more  than  15  feet  wide,  but  these  are  frequently  being  made  wider 
where  greater  traffic  or  other  circumstances  require  the  improvement. 
The  roadways  are  maintained  with  whihstone  procured  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, broken  to  a  uniform  size  of  2£  inches,  and  applied  according  to 
the  amount  of  traffic. 

In  the  suburban  district  of  the  county  of  Edinburgh  the  cost  of  main- 
tenance of  macadamized  roads,  including  the  footpaths,  varies  with  the 
traffic  upon  them.  For  instance  the  cost  per  mile  of  roadways  leading 
from  quarries  is  as  high  as  $1,313.95  per  mile,  while  the  average  of 
other  main  lines  leading  from  the  city  into  the  country  is  about  $369.85 
per  mile. 

The  mode  of  constructing  roads  known  in  Great  Britain  as  the  Tel- 


EUROPE UNITED    KINGDOM.  •        433 

ford  system  above  mentioned  was  invented  by  Thomas  Telford,  a  cele- 
brated Scottish  civil  engineer,  who  accomplished  much  of  the  improve- 
ment in  highway  communication  which  was  made  throughout  this  island 
in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 

In  connection  with  the  above  reference  the  following  extract  from 
one  of  Telford's  specifications  of  the  manner  of  constructing  a  road  30 
feet  in  width  by  his  method  may  be  deemed  of  value : 

Upon  the  level  bed  prepared  for  the  road  materials  a  bottom  course  or  layer  of  stones 
is  to  be  set  by  hand  in  form  of  a  close,  firm  pavement.  The  stones  set  in  the  middle 
of  the  road  are  to  be  7  inches  in  depth  ;  at  9  feet  from  the  center  5  inches  ;  and  at  15 
feet  3  inches.  They  are  to  be  set  on  their  broadest  edges  lengthwise  across  the  road, 
and  the  breadth  of  the  upper  edge  is  not  to  exceed  4  inches  in  any  case.  All  the  irreg- 
ularities of  the  upper  part  of  the  said  pavement  are  to  be  broken  off  by  the  hammer, 
and  all  the  interslices  to  be  filled  with  stone  chips  firmly  wedged  or  packed  by  hand 
with  a  light  hammer,  so  that  when  the  whole  pavement  is  finished  there  shall  be  a 
convexity  of  4  inches  in  the  breadth  of  15  feet  from  the  center. 

The  middle  18  feet  of  pavement  is  to  be  coated  with  hard  stones  to  the  depth  of  6 
inches.  Four  of  these  6  inches  to  be  first  put  on  and  worked  in  by  carriages  and 
horses,  care  being  taken  to  rake  in  the  ruts  until  the  surface  becomes  firm  and  consol- 
idated, aftor  which  the  remaining  2 inches  are  to  be  put  on. 

The  whole  of  this  stone  is  to  be  broken  into  pieces  as  nearly  cubical  as  possible, 
so  that  the  largest  piece  in  its  longest  dimensions  may  pass  through  a  ring  of  2£ 
inches  inside  diameter.  The  paved  spaces  on  each  side  of  the  18  middle  feet  are  to 
be  coated  with  broken  stones  or  well-cleaned  strong  gravel  up  to  the  footpath  or 
other  boundary  of  the  road,  so  as  to  make  the  whole  convexity  of  the  road  6  inches 
from  the  center  to  the  sides  of  it,  and  the  whole  of  the  materials  are  to  be  covered 
with  a  binding  of  1^  inches  in  depth  of  good  gravel  free  from  clay  or  earth. 

When  stones  are  very  hard  they  never  make  a  very  smooth  surface.  Limestone 
will  make  a  much  smoother  surface  than  whinstone  and  other  harder  stones,  but  they 
should  not  for  this  reason  be  preferred  to  harder  stones,  for  these  will  wear  longest, 
carriagt-s  will  run  lighter  over  them,  and  the  expense  for  scraping  and  repairing 
will  be  less.  All  the  soft  kinds  of  stones  make  heavy  roads  in  wet  weather,  and  in 
dry  weather  there  will  be  more  friction  upon  roads  made  with  them,  because  there 
will  be  more  dust  on  their  surface. 

The  breadth  of  the  road  which  has  been  described  in  the  foregoing  specification  of 
30  feet  is  recommended  as  fully  sufficient  for  any  road  forming  the  approach  to  a 
very  populous  city.  The  confining  of  a  road  to  this  breadth  contributes  very  much 
to  preserve  the  whole  surface  of  it  from  side  to  side  in  a  good  state,  and  to  diminish 
expense.  For,  when  a  road  is  of  greater  breadth,  the  scraping  and  repairing  of  the 
excess  beyond  30  feet  costs  annually  a  considerable  sum. 

With  respect  to  the  convexity  of  a  road,  it  should  be  so  arranged  that  it  should  be 
slight  in  the  middle.  In  giving  a  convexity  of  6  inches  to  a  road  of  30  feet  in  breadth, 
the  convexity  at  4  feet  from  the  center  should  be  half  an  inch,  at  9  feet,  2  inches,  and 
at  15  feet,  6  inches.    This  will  give  the  form  of  a  flat  ellipse. 

Whenever  the  natural  soil  is  clay,  or  retentive  of  water,  the  pavement  acts  as  an 
nnderdrain  to  carry  off  any  water  that  may  pass  through  the  surface  of  the  road. 
The  component  stones  of  the  pavement  having  broader  bases  to  stand  upon  than 
those  that  are  broken  small,  are  not  so  liable  to  be  pressed  into  the  earth  below,  par- 
ticularly where  the  soil  is  soft. 

Notwithstanding  the  foregoing  apparently  plausible  reasons  in  favor 

of  Mr.  Telford's  system  of  constructing  roads,  it  has  been  discontinued 

inthecounty  of  Midlothian  for  a  considerable  time,  and  that  of  Macadam 

is  preferred.    It  might  be  well  also  to  add  that  in  a  country  of  severe 

33A 28 


434  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

frosts  the  Telford  roadway  might  be  more  readily  upheaved,  from  tho 
nature  of  its  construction,  than  that  of  Macadam. 

The  process  of  macadamizing  the  county  roads  is  very  similar  to  the 
process  uuder  that  name  described  in  the  previous  section  of  this  report 
with  reference  to  city  or  suburban  streets  and  roads. 

A  brief  summary  of  those  accounts  of  the  Midlothian  county  roads, 
estimated  expenditure  for  maintenance  for  year  ending  May  15,  1891, 
exhibits  the  following  results : 

Suburban  district  of  Edinburgh. 

Material,  estimated  expenditure:  Ninety-one  roads,  extending  108  miles 
6  furlongs  9  yards,  required  18,537  cubic  yards  of  metal  (broken  whin- 
stone),  which  cost  from  $1.25  to  $1.88  per  cubic  yard,  amounting  to $25, 920. 88 

Material  and  labor,  total  estimated  expenditure 43, 406.  70 

Deduct  amount  to  be  contributed  by  the  city  of  Edinburgh 9,733.00 

33, 673.  70 
Suburban  district  rental,  £234,250  ($1,139,977.62)  assessment 

thereon  at  fyd.  (13  cents)  per  £1  ($4.8665)  yields $30,874.39 

Allowance  from  British  Government,  say 3,406.55 

34,280.94 

Leaving  for  miscellaneous  expenses 607.24 

Lasswade  district. 

Material,  estimated  expenditure :  Eighty-one  roads,  extending  142  miles 
6  furlongs  10  yards,  required  7,360  cubic  yards  of  metal,  which  cost  from 
99  cents  to  $2.08  per  cubic  yard,  amounting  to 12,192.60 

Material  and  labor  total  estimated  expenditure 23, 746. 67 

Lasswade  district  rental,  £188,027   ($915,033.40),   assessment 

thereon  at6d.  (12cents)  per  £1  ($4.8665)  yields $22,875.83 

Expected  allowance  from  Government :.       1,849.27 

24,725.10 

Leaving  for  miscellaneous  expenses 978.43 


Colder  district. 

Material,  estimated  expenditure:  Eighty-three  roads,  extending  156 
miles  5  furlongs  186  yards,  required  7,705  cubic  yards  of  metal,  which 
cost  from  97  cents  to  $1.50  per  cubic  yard,  amounting  to 10,429.21 

Material  and  labor,  total  estimated  expenditure 19  105.53 

Calder  district  rental,  £164,698  ($801,502.81),  assessment  there- 
on at  5£d.  (11  cents)  per  £1  ($4.8665)  yields $18,367.77 

Probable  allowance  from  Government 1,459.95 

19,827.72 

Leaving  for  miscellaneous  expenses - 722. 19 


EUROPE — UNITED   KINGDOM.  435 

Gala  Water  district. 

Material,  estimated  expenditure:  Seventy -three  roads,  extending  150 
miles  3  furlongs  131  yards,  required  metal  which  cost  from  $1.01  to  $1.74 
per  cubic  yard,  amounting  to $5,951.56 

Material  and  labor,  total  estimated  expenditure 10,825.33 

Gala  Water  district  rental,  £83,402  ($405,866.14),  assessment 

thereon  at  6d.  (12  cents)  per  £1  (4.8665)  yields $10,146.89 

Grant  from  Government,  say 875.97 

11,022.66 

Leaving  for  miscellaneous  expenses 197.53 

Galashiels  district. 

In  further  illustration  of  the  second  section  of  my  report,  I  beg  to 
submit  the  following  account  of  the  country  roads  and  highways  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Galashiels  and  other  southern  portions  of  this 
consular  district. 

The  borough  of  Galashiels  has  a  population  of  19,000.  The  munici- 
pality of  Galashiels  have  the  management  of  their  streets  and  roads 
under  a  local  act,  in  which  it  is  provided  that  streets  or  roads  which 
are  to  be  built  upou  on  both  sides  must  be  40  feet  in  width  between 
building  and  building,  and  those  built  upon  one  side  only,  25  feet. 

Original  construction  of  roads. — The  municipal  authorities,  in  terms 
of  the  statute,  fix  the  levels  of  all  streets  about  to  be  formed  with  a 
view  to  uniformity.  The  road  or  street  is  thereupon  formed,  and,  on 
the  assumption  that  the  total  width  is  to  be  40  feet,  the  road  or  high- 
way is  made  24  feet  in  width.  The  bed  is  excavated  to  the  depth  of  6 
inches,  and  raised  in  the  center  to  the  extent  of  about  4  inches.  "  Metal " 
composed  of  clean  hard  whinstone  and  broken  so  as  to  pass  through  a 
2£-inch  ring,  is  laid  upon  the  bed  6  inches  deep,  and  finished  in  a  neat 
and  uniform  way.  Sometimes  the  metal  is  blinded  with  earth  so  as  to 
facilitate  its  consolidation.  The  cost,  including  the  provision  of  the 
metal,  may  be  stated  at  GO  cents  per  superficial  square  yard. 

Maintenance  of  roads. — Once  every  2  or  3  years  a  layer  of  "  metal " 
3  inches  thick  is  put  upon  roads  where  traffic  is  somewhat  heavy,  which 
is  usually  all  that  is  required  for  their  maintenance.  This  entails  a  cost 
of  about  16  cents  per  superficial  yard.  A  road  upon  which  the  traffic 
is  ordinarily  light  can  have  100  yards  of  its  length  maintained  at  a 
cost  of  $2.43. 

Curbs  and  sewers. — On  each  side  of  the  road  a  curb  and  sewer  are 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  rain  and  other  water  from  the 
streets.  These  occupy  a  space  of  about  2  feet  in  width.  The  curb  is 
composed  of  a  block  of  clean  hard  whinstone  or  granite,  measuring  in 
inches  16  by  10  by  5.  The  sewer  is  composed  of  three  blocks  of  the 
same  material.  Each  block  is  8  inches  wide  and  6  inches  deep.  The 
curbstone  is  placed  ou  its  edge  next  to  the  footpath,  and  the  sewer  stone 
next  to  it  is  laid  with  a  slope  of  about  3  inches,  its  upper  edge  being 
about  1  inch  below  the  top  of  the  curbstone,  while  the  other  two  stones 


436  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

are  laid  with  a  slope  to  the  center  of  the  sewer,  and  in  a  line  with  the 
proposed  contour  of  the  road.  The  various  stones  are  set  upon  a  bed 
of  clean  sharp  sand  or  ashes  4  inches  deep.    ■ 

The  cost  of  the  original  construction  may  be  stated  at  curbstone  32 
cents  and  sewer  39  cents  per  lineal  foot. 

Maintenance  of  curbs  and  seicers.— -These  are  maintained  by  the  renewal 
at  the  same  cost  of  the  parts  in  disrepair.  They  usually  require  no 
repair  for  from  10  to  15  years  after  their  construction. 

Original  construction  of  footpath.— The  footpaths  are  constructed  on 
both  sides  of  the  street  and  are  6  feet  in  width  and  have  a  fall  toward 
the  cnrb  and  sewer  of  three-eighths  of  an  inch  to  the  foot. 

There  are  many  methods  and  different  kinds  of  material  that  may  be 
employed  in  the  construction  of  footpaths,  but  two  of  these  obtain  in 
and  around  Galashiels  ;  these  are  : 

(1)  Formed  with  concrete. — This  is  most  decidedly  the  preferable 
method,  although  the  more  expensive.  The  earth  is  excavated  to  the 
depth  of  12  inches  below  the  upper  edge  of  the  curbstone.  Eight  and 
a  half  inches  of  this  space  is  filled  with  rough  gravel  or  clean  stones 
broken  to  go  through  a  3-inch  ring,  solidly  beaten  down  and  leveled; 
then  follows  a  2-inch  layer  of  concrete  composed  of  four  parts  of  clean 
washed  gravel  to  one  part  of  best  Portland  cement,  well  beaten  down ; 
and  beforeit  sets  the  top  layer  of  1  inch  thick  is  laid.  This  top  layer 
of  concrete  is  composed  of  two  parts  crushed  granite  to  one  part  best 
Portland  cement,  and  is  finished  off  straight  and  smooth.  Thin  slips 
of  wood  are  inserted  across  the  footpath  every  6  to  8  feet  so  as  to  pre- 
vent the  blocks  of  concrete  being  joined.  The  cost  is  about  $1.09  per 
superficial  yard. 

(2)  Causeway  or  method  Icnown  as  hornizing. — The  bed  is  excavated  as 
before  and  the  bottom  filled  with  some  approved  material ;  then  follows 
a  layer  4  inches  deep  of  clean  sharp  sand  or  hard  ashes,  upon  which 
the  stones  immediately  after  referred  to  are  set.  These  stones  are  clean, 
hard  water  or  river  stones  and  are  placed  upon  their  edges  and  pounded 
down  with  heavy  beaters  so  as  to  produce  a  level  surface.  These 
stones  measure  from  1£  to  2  iaches  thick,  from  4  to  5  inches  deep,  and 
from  5  to  8  iuches  long.  The  cost  may  be  stated  at  48  cents  per  super- 
ficial yard.  This  method  is  probably  the  more  durable,  as  in  many 
cases  it  lasts  for  25  years. 

Maintenance  of  footpaths. — This  depends  upon  the  traffic,  but  inordi- 
nary circumstances  no  repairs  would  be  required  for  from  15  to  25 
years.  If  any  portion  of  a  footpath  requires  repair  it  can  be  done  by 
renewing  the  only  part  in  question,  and,  in  the  case  of  concrete,  the 
cost  would  be  about  79  cents  per  superficial  yard,  as  only  the  top  layer 
would  require  removal.  In  the  case  of  the  other  method  it  would  cost 
the  same  as  the  original  work. 

Wallace  Bruce, 

Consul. 
Edinburgh,  January  31, 1891. 


CONTINENT  OF  AMKRTCA. 
BRITISH  NORTH  AMERICA. 

THE  IMPORTANCE  OF  HIGHWAYS. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  TANNER,  OF  PICTOU,  NOVA  SOOTIA. 

It  is  my  opinion  that  when  all  the  inquiries  of  this  circular  have 
been  compiled  it  will  be  found  that  no  known  system  of  road  or  street 
construction  can  be  compared  with  that  of  the  Romans. 

These  roads,  many  of  which  were  constructed  300  years  before 
Christ,  are  good  roads  to  this  day.  Roads  may  come  and  roads  may 
go,  but  the  Roman  road  endures  forever.  The  prime  object  of  the 
Roman  highways  was  to  facilitate  the  movements  of  troops  and  army 
transportation  and  the  quick  concentration  of  troops  at  a  given  point. 
The  soldier,  his  helmet  and  shield,  spear,  and  accouterments  have 
passed  away  ;  the  republic  itself,  the  result  pf  their  prowess  and  valor, 
is  a  thing  of  the  past,  a  dream;  but  the  highways  remain  a  lasting 
monument  to  their  skill  and  civilization,  and  if  modern  times  have  im- 
proved on  the  methods  then  practiced,  but  little  if  any  improvement  at 
all  can  be  traced. 

Enough  can  be  traced  from  ancient  history  to  enable  us  to  form  a  tol- 
erably correct  idea  of  the  methods  of  road  and  street  building  adopted 
by  the  Romans.  The  first  object  sought  was  shortness  between  two 
given  points,  the  commencement  and  the  terminus.  A  straight  line 
was  drawn  from  point  to  point  and  the  road  was  ordered  built  on  this 
line  regardless  of  valleys,  hills,  mountains,  or  other  natural  obstruc- 
tions, and  that  which  engineers  pronounced  impractical,  iudeed  impos- 
sible, was  accomplished  because  it  was  imperative. 

This  being  determined,  two  ditches  on  either  side  of  the  road  to  mark 
the  width  were  dug,  and  the  soil  between  removed  until  a  solid  founda- 
tion was  reached.  This  soil  was  replaced  by  more  solid  material  well 
packed  and  made  thoroughly  compact,  and  every  precaution  taken  that 
the  body  of  the  road  should  be  hard  and  strong. 

This  strength  was  made  perfect  by  four  layers  of  material,  the  lower 

layer  consisting  of  large  flat  stones,  if  convenient ;  if  not,  other  stones 

were  used,  and  these  were  laid  in  mortar.    The  next  layer  was  of  .small 

stones  or  coarse  concrete  ;  the  third  of  liner  concrete,  on  which  was  laid 

stones  of  several  angles  joined  nicely  and  solidly  together,  which  was 

the  fourth  layer.    These  four  layers  constituted  a  thickness  of  from  3 

to  sometimes  7  feet.    On  a  hard,  rocky  foundation  the  two  under  layers 

were  dispensed  with. 

437 


438  STREETS   AND   HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

This  pavement  extended  nearly  the  entire  width  of  the  roadway, 
which  varied  from  13  feet  to  sometimes  more  than  20  feet  in  width,  ac- 
cording to  its  importance. 

This  account  is  taken  principally  from  a  French  work  on  the  ruins 
of  Pompeii  in  my  possession. 

These  are  the  leading  features  in  Eoman  road  and  street  paving  con- 
struction, for  one,  in  my  opinion,  varies  little  from  the  other.  A  high- 
way should  be  made  as  much  for  pedestrians  as  for  horses  and  wagons, 
and  I  shall  treat  this  subject  from  this  standpoint  in  my  reply  to  this 
circular. 

REQUISITES  OF  A  GOOD  HIGHWAY. 

It  is  shortness  from  point  to  point,  a  good  smooth  surface,  capable  of 
sustaining  great  weight  without  becoming  muddy,  and  over  which  man 
and  beast  can  pass  with  comfort  and  ease.  I  have  given  my  opinion  of 
how  such  a  roadway  may  be  secured ;  any  further  details  may  be  found 
with  minuteness  in  any  first-class  encyclopedia,  stated  with  much  more 
clearness  than  I  can  state  them. 

I  had  the  honor  several  years  ago  to  report  upon  the  subject  of  high- 
ways to  the  Department  (Consular  Report  No.  24,  1882,  p.  488). 

This  report  attracted  considerable  attention  at  home  and  was  repro- 
duced and  commented  upon  by  nearly  all  of  our  leading  journals ;  and 
some  of  our  legislatures,  notably  those  of  Illinois,  Georgia,  and  South 
Carolina,  took  up  the  subject. 

I  firmly  believe  that  the  great  hindrance  to  the  prosperity  of  the 
farmers  of  the  United  States  to-day  is  the  lack  of  good  and  substantial 
national,  State,  and  county  farm  roads. 

I  do  not  think  that  this  proposition  can  be  assailed  unless  it  is  to  be 
made  stronger  than  my  feeble  powers  can  state  it. 

Wherever  such  roads  have  been  constructed  they  have  enhanced  the 
value  of  the  farmer's  land,  and  have  given  increased  value  to  all  the 
products  of  his  labor. 

It  is  a  common  mistake  that  the  farmer  reaps  all  the  benefits  from 
good  roads.  While  it  is  unquestionably  true  that  the  farmer  is  bene- 
fited in  a  hundred  and  fifty  ways  by  good  roads,  in  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  anything  which  benefits  the  farmer  benefits  the  entire  com- 
munity. 

Our  farmers  have  to  compete  with  farmers  who  have  the  very  best 
facilities  for  hauling  their  product  to  the  markets  (at  a  minimum  of  labor 
and  cost)  and  to  the  railways.  Highways  in  Europe  enable  the  farmer 
to  carry  immense  loads  to  the  markets  with  one  horse  which  our  farm- 
ers can  not  do  in  some  instances  at  all,  because  the  road  is  simply  im- 
passable. Our  farmers  can  perceive  the  odds  against  them  when  a  dog 
in  Europe  can  draw  a  load  to  the  market  which  a  horse  can  not  do  in 
the  United  States. 

This  is  a  day  of  close  competition  in  everything,  and  the  farmers  of 


AMERICA — BRITISH    NORTH    AMERICA.  439 

our  country  are  realizing  this.  They  have  an  immense  advantage  over 
the  European  farmers,  and  have  reduced  tbe  latter  to  the  practice  of 
the  very  strictest  economy  in  order  to  live  at  all.  With  economy  and 
with  the  advantage  of  the  excellent  highways  the  European  farmers 
eke  out  an  existence,  but  they  have  learned  by  stern  necessity  that 
which  our  farmers  must  learn  for  protection. 

If  a  highway  can  be  provided  by  which  a  farmer  can  haul  an  in- 
creased load  to  the  market  with  one  horse  that  at  the  present  time 
requires  the  services  of  two,  with  a  larger  and  stronger  wagon,  and  if 
this  can  be  done  in  1  day  instead  of  3  or  4,  it  is  as  palpable  as  a  prop- 
osition can  be  that  he  is  benefited  just  in  that  proportion. 

How  much  this  proportion  is  against  our  farmers  will  be  seen  when 
I  state  that  some  of  our  farm  roads  are  absolutely  impassable  at  cer- 
tain seasons  of  the  year,  and  four  horses  could  not  draw  a  load  to  our 
markets  that  one  could  easily  draw  to  any  market  in  Europe. 

The  European  highways  are  crowded  with  pedestrians  and  with 
bicycles.  This  is  true  because  the  condition  of  the  roads  invite  such 
exercise.  In  the  Valley  of  Virginia  we  have  an  excellent  road.  During 
our  civil  war  army  wagons,  cannons,  and  the  tramp  of  soldiers  which 
ground  into  slush  a  common  road  left  this  highway  comparatively  un- 
injured. Farms  along  this  road  are  worth  and  can  readily  sell  for  100 
per  cent,  more  than  farms  on  the  ordinary  country  roads.  The  farmers 
are  in  better  condition,  and  if  you  were  to  tell  them  that  you  meant  to 
deprive  them  of  their  road  there  would  be  consternation  among  them. 

There  is  nothing  more  rational  to  my  mind  than  the  movement  of  the 
farmers  towards  bettering  the  condition  that  environs  them.  But  this 
question  of  good  highways  that  the  Government  will  seemingly  take  up 
for  them,  judging  from  this  circular,  is  a  towering  mountain  before 
their  very  eyes,  whose  top  is  lost  in  the  heavens  compared  with  a 
microscopic  atom  with  anything  else  that  affects  them.  If  they  are 
given  good  roadways  depend  upon  it  half  of  what  they  complain  of  will 
be  removed.  If  railroads  may  be  compared  to  the  arteries  of  a  living 
body,  then  wagon  roads  are  the  veins,  and  each  are  equally  necessary 
in  quickening  and  in  communicating  life  to  the  parts  to  which  they  lead. 

From  this  circular  I  believe  our  Government  is  sensible  of  this  obli- 
gation which  we  owe  our  farmers,  and  which  our  interest  and  civiliza- 
tion imperatively  demand  that  we  should  pay  them. 

More  than  three  hundred  years  before  Christ  the  Komans  recognized 
the  importance  of  good  highways  and  they  saw  that  this  was  a -subject 
of  the  very  first  importance  to  them.  Historians  have  looked  only  to 
battles  and  the  clash  of  arms  and  the  great  and  stirring  events  in  the 
epochs  of  nations,  and  have  attributed  this  cause  and  that  cause  as 
contributing  to  the  national  puissance ;  but,  in  my  opinion,  nothing  was 
more  of  a  factor  in  Roman  conquests  than  the  splendid  roadways  that 
allowed  her  troops  to  be  concentrated  quickly  and  hurled  with  force 
on  the  enemy. 


440  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

More  than  one  hundred  years  ago  English  farmers  arose  and  de- 
manded good  roads,  and  they  continued  to  demand  them  until  they 
got  them. 

There  is  not  a  state  in  Europe  but  has  had  good  roadways  for  at  least 
a  hundred  years. 

We  are  then  at  least  one  hundred  years  behind  Europe,  and  about 
twenty-four  hundred  years  behind  Koine  in  this  important  matter. 

There  is  not  a  question  but  that  we  must  have  good  highways. 

Our  Government  owes  this  to  the  people;  and  believing  this  as 
firmly  as  I  do,  I  have  sketched  out  on  a  map,*  which  I  have  the  honor 
to  forward  in  this  report,  seven  different  routes  of  national  highways. 

I  have  adopted  the  Eoman  plan  of  drawing  a  straight  line  from 
point  to  point ;  and  this,  in  my  opinion,  should  be  strictly  adhered  to 
in  any  system  of  highways  we  may  build.  Influence  should  not  be 
allowed  to  twist,  turn,  distort,  and  crook  such  highways. 

The  first  grand  route,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  map,  is  a  direct  one 
from  Danforth,  on  the  Maine  frontier,  to  St.  Louis,  thence  to  San  Fran- 
cisco. This  route  should  be  the  great  national  highway,  and  it  should 
be  50  feet  wide,  with  a  row  of  shade  trees  on  either  side  and  one  in 
.the  middle  of  the  road,  with  watering  places  with  fresh  running  water 
every  5  miles  along  the  route. 

The  next  route  in  importance  on  the  map  is  that  from  Bangor,  Me., 
via  Portland,  Boston,  Providence,  Hartford,  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Washington,  Spartanburg,  Atlanta,  Montgomery,  and  New  Orleans. 

The  next  in  importance  will  be  from  New  York  or  Philadelphia  direct 
to  Cincinnati,  Louisville,  Memphis,  Austin,  and  thence  to  the  Mexican 
frontier  at  Ivias.  The  next  grand  route  will  be  seen  to  be  from  Chi- 
cago direct  to  Salt  Lake  City,  thence  to  San  Francisco. 

The  next  from  Chicago  to  Cincinnati,  thence  to  Wilmington.  The 
next  from  Duluth  to  Helena,  thence  to  Taconia,  thence  to  San  Fran- 
cisco, thence  to  Yumas. 

The  red  lines  indicate  connecting  routes  of  minor  importance  which 
should  be  built  by  the  States  or  Territories  through  which  they  run. 

I  will  not  go  to  the  trouble  of  defending,  advocating,  or  championing 
this  system.  I  will  allow  the  plan  as  drawn  to  speak  for  itself.  If  we 
want  our  country  settled  up  we  should  offer  facilities  for  people  to  get  to 
it  in  their  wagons  and  on  foot  as  well  as  by  rail.  Good  roads  is  the  best 
invitation  for  people  to  settle  a  country,  and  our  enlightenment  and 
civilization  demand  of  us  to  furnish  this  means  of  communication,  cir- 
culation, and  exchange  of  products. 

Convicts  and  paupers  could  not  be  better  employed  than  in  building 
and  keeping  up  State  highways,  and  this,  it  seems  to  me,  would  be  the 
best  and  most  practical  employment  for  them. 

Lord  Macaulay  attributes  the  wretched  condition  of  the  English 
highways  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  as  "  due  to  the 

*  Map  not  printed. 


AMERICA DOMINION    OF    CANADA.  441 

state  of  the  law,  which  compelled  each  parish  to  maintain  its  own  roads 
with  statute  labor."  As  this  is  the  system  principally  in  vogue  in  the 
United  States,  this  may  also  be  tbe  reason  of  our  bad  roads. 

The  money  expended  on  many  of  our  good  for  nothing  mud  roads  is 
absolutely  thrown  away.  If  we  want  good  roads  we  must  go  to  work 
and  make  them  good,  and  then  it  is  easy  to  keep  them  good;  whereas 
if  they  are  bad  to  commence  with  all  the  money  spent  on  them  is  just  the 
same  as  throwing  it  to  the  dogs.  One  hundred  millions  of  dollars  spent 
in  making  a  first-class  road  saves  two  hundred  millions  in  dribbles  on 
roads  that  remain  bad  in  spite  of  all  amounts  expended  on  them. 

Geo.  C.  Tanner, 

United  States  Consulate,  Consul. 

Pictou,  November  29,  1890. 


DOMINION  OF  CANADA. 

BELLEVILLE. 
REPORT  BY  OONSTJL  DENEEN. 

I  have  the  honor  to  make  the  following  report  concerning  the  streets 
of  Belleville  and  the  roads  of  Hastings  County,  Ontario,  Canada. 

The  ground  on  which  the  city  of  Belleville  is  built  rests  on  a  lime- 
stone formation.  In  many  places  the  stone  crops  out  on  the  surface. 
There  are  38  miles  of  streets  in  Belleville.  To  make  them  limestone 
broken  by  a  crusher  is  employed.  This  stone  costs  $4.50  per  cord  at 
the  crusher.  A  cord  contains  4  cubic  yards  and  20  cubic  feet.  The 
cost  per  cubic  yard  therefore  is  95  cents,  and  the  cost  of  di  awing  and 
spreading  the  broken  stone  on  the  streets  is  about  30  cents  per  yard. 
Whole  cost  per  cubic  yard,  $1.25.  One  cubic  yard  will  suffice  for  4 
square  yards.  The  cost  is  therefore  31£  cents  per  square  yard  when 
the  stone  is  spread  on  the  street.  There  is  a  small  piece  of  square 
stone  pavement  which  cost  $2.75  per  square  yard. 

The  sidewalks  are  made  of  pine  planks,  except  a  small  piece  of  square 
block  Nicholson  pavement.  The  plank  sidewalks  cost  25  cents  per 
square  yard  ;  the  block  pavement  $1.10  per  square  yard.  The  sum  of 
10,000  is  annually  expended  in  building  and  repairing  streets.  It  costs 
$3,500  to  build  new  and  repair  old  sidewalks  each  year.  The  remainder, 
$5,500,  is  devoted  to  building  and  repairing  streets,  culverts,  and  drains. 

There  are  between  400  and  500  miles  of  macadamized  roads  in  Has- 
tings County.  The  stone  of  which  they  are  made  costs  45  cents  a  cubic 
yard.    This  will  sullice  for  4  square  yards'. 

For  these  statistics  I  am  indebted  to  James  Taylor,  supervisor  of 
streets. 

S.  H.  Deneen, 

United  States  Consulate,  Consul. 

Bcllec itle,  December  1,  KS90. 


442  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  MYERS,   OF  VICTORIA. 

Considering  the  recent  date  of  settlement,  the  rough  and  uneven 
character  of  the  surface  of  the  country,  and  the  limited  finances  at 
command,  this  province  is  remarkable,  in  the  older  portions  especially, 
for  its  excellent  roadways,  and  in  all  parts  of  it  for  the  interest  taken 
in  them  and  for  the  amount  of  money  expended  in  their  construction} 
This  has  been  brought  about,  first,  by  the  necessity  here  for  artificial- 
roadways ;  second,  by  the  abundance  and  variety  of  good  material  for 
roadmaking ;  third,  by  the  good  examples-  early  set  by  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company;  fourth,  by  the  Scotch  taste,  euergy,  and  skill  that, 
dominate  largely  in  governmental  affairs  in  this  province. 

I  have  been  unable  to  ascertain  the  exact  per  cent,  of  the  total  rev- 
enues of  the  province  put  into  roads  each  year,  but  it  must  be  a  very 
high  rate,  and  it  has  required  courage  to  make  such  an  expenditure  of 
money.  The  total  receipts  of  the  province  are  less  tbau  $1,000,000  per 
annum,  yet  out  of  this  meager  resource  and  where  the  surface  of  the 
country  is  broken  everywhere  with  rocky  hills  and  narrow  valleys, 
covered  by  a  dense  growth  of  Douglas  and  other  firs,  and  further  ob- 
structed by  dense  underbrush,  etc.,  fine  roads  wind  everywhere,  and  in 
the  vicinity  of  Victoria  and  the  chief  towns  of  the  mainland  they  are 
the  delight  of  tourists,  and  are  among  the  principal  agencies  in  opening 
up  otherwise  inaccessible  forests  and  mines.  How  has  this  been  ac* 
eomplished  H 

COUNTRY  ROADS. 

In  the  first  place  and  chiefly  the  provincial  government  has  entire 
charge  of  all  road  work.  I  emphasize  this  point  because,  m  my  judg- 
ment, it  is  the  key  to  the  success  of  the  system  that  prevails  here. 
Eoad  work  is  not  left  to  local  caprice,  nor  is  it  placed  in  the  hands  of 
incompetent  or  inexperienced  persons.  The  department  of  lands  and 
works  determines  where  a  road  is  needed,  and  then  it  is  laid  out  by  a 
competent  engineer,  and  thus  the  roads  of  the  entire  province  are  re- 
lated to  one  another.  The  government  not  only  determines  where  the 
road  shall  be,  but  how  it  is  to  be  made,  who  is  to  make  it  and  what  the 
cost  shall  be ;  and  then  it  pays  the  bill  out  of  the  public  treasury. 
There  is  no  special  tax  or  special  road  appropriation.  The  work  of  con- 
struction is  under  the  supervision  of  competent  civil  engineers  and 
foremen  who  have  what  may  be  regarded  as  liberal  salaries.  The  lat- 
ter receive  from  $100  to  $150  per  month.  All  work  is  done  thoroughly 
and  with  great  system,  and  the  work  of  one  year  is  the  foundation  for 
the  work  of  the  following  year,  according  to  the  general  plan  of  im- 
provements. 


AMERICA DOMINION   OF   CANADA. 


443 


There  are  two  methods  of  prosecuting  these  public  works.  One  is 
by  contract,  based  on  carefully  prepared  specifications.  Roads  are  gen- 
erally constructed  in  this  way.  The  other  method  is  by  day  labor,  un- 
der the  supervision  of  a  government  foreman,  who  is  appointed  by  the 
department  of  public  works. 

Eoads  are  divided  into  four  classes,  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth. 
A  first-class  country  road  may  be  described  as  follows:  In  width  it  is 
from  18  to  20  feet  between  ditches.  In  making  it  the  trees  and  shrubs 
are  first  cut  away  in  a  strip  30  to  40  feet  wide.  The  ground  is  then 
grubbed,  and  finally  it  is  graded  to  a  uniform  surface,  being  crowned 
in  cross-section  12  to  18  inches  in  the  center.  It  is  then,  paved  with 
suitable  crushed  stone  to  a  depth  of  not  less  than  6  inches,  and  it  may  be 
9  or  12  inches.  The  width  of  this  macadam  is  12  to  15  feet.  Over  the 
top  of  this  stone  is  spread  a  layer  of  good,  coarse  gravel  to  a  depth  of 
6  to  12  inches. 

Such  a  road  costs  from  $3,000  to  $5,000  per  mile,  owing  to  the  size  of 
the  trees  to  be  removed,  the  amount  of  grading  and  blasting,  and  the 
convenience  of  stone  and  gravel.  The  road  from  Victoria  to  Esquimalt 
Harbor,  which  is  a  little  over  3  miles  long,  was  macadamized  at  a  cost 
of  $4,000  per  mile,  but  there  was  extra  good  work  put  upon  it.  In  this 
vicinity  the  ordinary  cost  of  earth  excavation  is  30  cents  per  cubic 
yard,  and  of  rock  excavation  $2.75  per  cubic  yard. 

Second-class  roads  are  simply  cleared  of  the  trees,  grubbed,  and 
graded,  and  are  usually  about  20  feet  wide  in  the  clearing  and  10  to  12 
in  the  grading.  They  are  not  regularly  macademized  or  graveled,  and 
I  the  cost  is  from  $500  to  $1,000  per  mile. 

Third-class  roads  are  forest  cleared  and  stumps  close  chopped,  with- 
I  OHt  further  work.    They  cost  from  $200  to  $500  per  mile. 

A  trail  is  intended  for  pack  animals  only.  The  principal  work  done 
is  to  cut  off  trees  and  bushes  a  few  feet  in  width  through  the  forest 
and  blast  pathways  along  the  sides  of  precipitous  hills  and  mountains. 

The  Government  makes  all  the  principal  trunk  lines  and  nearly  all  of 
the  branches.  It  also  owns  and  operates  steam  machinery,  drills,  and 
rock-crushers.  Where  rock  and  gravel  are  not  available,  corduroy? 
plank,  etc.,  are  employed.  Roads  in  use  are  kept  in  repair  by  annual 
appropriations. 

The  following  table  will  show  the  number  of  miles  of  each  grade  of 
road  in  the  different  districts : 


District. 

First 
class. 

Second 
class. 

Third 
class. 

Trail. 

Victoria 

Mile*. 
61 
34 
26 
66 
228 
467 
204 
162 

Miles. 
21 
22 
40 
54 
127 
151 
121 
32 

Miles. 
15 
12 
27 
44 
50 
61 
52 

Miles. 

Ynlo 

300 

047 

444  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

No  distinction  is  made  as  to  roads  for  heavy  or  light  traffic.  All  the 
roads  are  used  for  all  purposes  required  by  the  convenience  of  the  peo- 
ple. In  building  rock  is  usually  abundant,  often  a  part  of  the  excava- 
tion, and  beds  of  gravel  suitable  abound  in  all  parts  of  the  province. 
If  wood  is  required,  such  as  poles  for  cordaroy,  or  even  plank,  the  sup- 
ply is  almost  limitless. 

These  artificial  roads  add  greatly  to  the  value  of  adjacent  lands  and 
make  settlements  possible  where  without  them  men  could  not  live. 

CITY  STREETS. 

The  streets  and  sidewalks  of  all  incorporated  towns  and  cities  are 
constructed  by  the  corporation,  and  are  paid  for  by  it,  and  the  general 
plan  of  work  is  the  same  as  that  on  first  class  roads.    The  trees  are^ 
removed,  the  ground  grubbed  and  graded.    It  is  then  macadamized  to 
a  depth  of  8  or  10  inches.     Gravel  is  also  used.    The  price  of  earth, 
and  rock  excavations  is  about  the  same  as  in  country  districts.    Thej 
cost  of  macadamizing  8  inches  deep  in  Victoria  is  65  cents  per  square 
yard.    There  are  about  60  miles  of  graded  streets  in  Victoria,  forty  of 
which  are  macadamized. 

Levi  W.  Myers, 

United  States  Consulate,  Consul. 

Victoria,  December  16,  1890. 


CHATHAM. 
REPORT  BY  COMMERCIAL  AGENT  WEBSTER. 

The  roads  in  Chatham  are  made  of  stone,  cedar  blocks,  and  brick. 
The  methods  are  as  follows  :  Limestone  set  on  a  bed  of  sand  10  inches  ■ 
in  depth  has  been  in  constant  use  for  30  years,  its  cost  $1.25  per  square 
yard  for  material  and  labor;  round  cedar  block  pavement  on  a  bed  of 
sand  7  inches  in  depth,  cost  85  cents  per  square  yard ;  its  durability  is^ 
6 years.  Brick  paving  is  anew  branch  here;  it  is  supposed  to  last, 
from  10  to  15  years ;  it  is  made  first  as  follows :  A  bed  of  fine  gravel  ■ 
inches  thick  rolled  with  a  6-ton  roller,  on  which  is  laid  one  layer  of  J 
brick  on  the  sides  ;  on  them  is  spread  2  inches  of  sand,  then  one  layer  of 
brick  on  edge,  after  which  roll  all  with  a  6- ton  roller ;  cost,  $1  per  square; 
yard. 

The  best  brick  is  made  from  iron  slack,  and  is  equal  to  granite,  but 
most  of  the  brick  is  made  from  ordinary  top  clay.  I  will  add  that  this 
town  took  this  pavement  from  Alliance,  Ohio,  where  it  is  giving  good 
satisfaction. 

I  am,  sir, 

W.  H.  H  Webster, 

Commercial  Agent. 

United  States  Commercial  Agency, 

Chatham,  January  6,  1891. 


AMERICA — DOMINION    OF    CANADA.  445 

COATICOOK. 

Owing  to  tbe  primitive  and  ancient  methods  of  building  and  main- 
tainiug  roadways  here  there  is  positively  nothing  to  learn.  I  have  to 
inform  you,  however,  that  since  the  recent  introduction  of  American 
road  machines  the  public  highways  have  been  very  much  improved  by 
their  use. 

Alfred  W.  Street, 

United  States  Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

CoaticooJc,  January  2,  1891. 


MONCTON. 

There  is  neither  street-building  nor  road-making  in  any  part  of  my 
district ;  simply  ordinary  country  roads. 

The  city  council  at  Moncton  are  now  considering  the  advisability  of 
paving  the  main  street,  but  it  is  impossible  to  say  when  such  will  be 
carried  into  effect. 

James  S.  Benedict, 

Commercial  Agent. 
United  States  Commercial  Agency, 

Moncton,  New  Brunswick,  December  11,  1890, 


KINGSTON. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  IWITGHELL. 

I  have  the  honor  to  submit  the  following  report.  The  report  upon 
city  streets  is  almost  entirely  the  work  of  George  Osborne,  esq.,  one  of 
the  city  aldermen,  who  is  giving  great  attention  to  the  improvement  of 
city  streets.  The  information  of  the  public  highways  was  furnished 
by  Thomas  Dawson,  esq.,  for  many  years  of  the  county  council. 

city  streets. 

The  streets  within  the  limits  of  the  city  are  supposed  to  be  macadam. 
Broken  limestone  forms  the  upper  stratum  of  8£  inches ;  some  kind  of 
rotten  soft  stone,  here  called  binding,  is  then  spread  thinly  over  the 
surface,  then  the  whole  is  rolled  in  with  a  heavy  steam  roller.  When 
finished  and  as  long  as  the  weather  is  dry.  the  streets  are  fairly  good, 
but  on  the  approach  of  wet  weather  the  lack  of  stability  is  evident, 
and  false  economy  is  shown  by  the  accumulation  of  mud  formed  on  the 
wearing  surface.  Then  again  the  underlying  stones  sink  into  the 
ground,  causing  holes  to  be  formed  ;  these  holes  hold  water,  the  result 
being  the  road'soon  wears  out  and  has  to  be  constantly  renewed.     In 


446  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

the  first  place,  according  to  the  best  authorities,  limestone  is  unfit  to  use 
on  streets,  because  of  its  soft  nature,  but  it  is  cheaper  than  any  other 
stone  to  crush,  and  is  also  cheaper  to  roll,  but  the  cost  of  repairing  is 
frequent  and  great.  The  constant  renewals  and  the  abundant  and  ex- 
cessive sprinkling,  made  necessary  on  account  of  the  dust,  tax  the  purse 
beyond  endurance.  Added  to  this  the  dust  from  the  limestone  streets  is 
most  unhealthy,  as  we  must  to  some  extent  take  it  into  our  lungs  in 
dry  weather  and  we  breathe  its  emanations  in  wet  weather.  During 
this  year  small  portions  of  the  city  streets  have,  as  an  experiment,  had 
a  covering  of  granite  chips  spread  over  them  about  4  or  5  inches  deep 
and  rolled  in.    How  this  will  last  can  not  be  judged  until  next  year. 

The  quantities  needed  for  laying  down  limestone  macadam  and  the 
cost  in  this  vicinity  are  as  follows : 

On  a  block  264  feet  long  by  35  feet  wide : 

Rough  stone,  about  8£  inches  deep,  30  tons,  at  $4 $120.00 

Gravel,  3  inches  deep,  11  tons,  at  $6 66.00 

Binding  (rotten  soft  stone),  7  tons,  at  $4 28.00 

Spreading  stone 25.00 

Rolling 25.00 

Total 264.00 

Or  24  cents  per  square  rod. 

The  quantities  needed  for  laying  down  granite  macadam  and  cost  of 
doing  same  are  as  follows : 

Rough  limestone,  8%  inches  deep,  30  tons,  at  $4 $120.00 

Granite  chips,  5  inches  deep,  18  tons,  at  $12 216.00 

Binding  (rotten  soft  stone),  7  tons,  at  $4 28.00 

Rolling  and  spreading _ 50.00 

Total 414.00 

Or  39  cents  per  square  yard. 

The  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  the  above  facts  is  that  limestone  for 
streets  is  not  good.  The  binding  is  worse  thau  useless,  as  it  all  has  to  be 
scraped  off  in  wet  weather  or  is  left  on  the  streets  as  mud.  No  opinion  : 
can  be  expressed  on  the  value  of  granite  chips,  as  the  experiment  is 
only  in  its  initial  stage.  Street  building  and  repairing  is  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  city  engineer,  controlled  by  the  city  council.  The  expenses 
are  paid  from  the  city  treasury. 

COUNTRY  HIGHWAYS. 

In  the  province  of  Ontario  the  government  in  surveying  new  town- 
ships, establish  the  principal  roads,  known  as  concessions  and  base 
lines,  and  subsequently  open  "Up  and  construct  roads  leading  from  the 
older  settlements,  known  as  colonization  roads.  This  work  is  provided  for 
from  a  fund  known  as  a  colonization  fund,  set  aside  by  the  provincial  or 
state  government  and  drawn  from  the  provincial  exchequer.  This  fund 
appears  in  the  estimates  of  the  annual  budget.  Such  work  is  usually 
performed  under  the  supervision  of  overseers  appointed  by  the  depart- 


AMERICA — DOMINION   OF   CANADA.  447 

ment,  and  is  strictly  a  government  work.  Subsequently,  as  the  town- 
ship progresses  from  a  colonization  state,  the  roads  come  under  the 
municipal  control  and  are  thenceforward  opened  up  and  kept  in  repair 
by  statute  labor,  being  in  proportion  to  the  assessed  value  of  property, 
the  number  of  days'  labor  according  to  assessed  value,  however,  being 
fixed  by  statute  law,  and  is  not  less  than  50  cents  or  more  than  $1  per 
day,  to  be  regulated  by  local  municipalities.  There  is  also  what  is  known 
as  a  poll  tax,  which  is  an  imposition  of  two  days'  labor  upon  all  males 
between  the  ages  of  21  and  60,  respectively.  This,  however,  is  super- 
seeded  when  a  party  becomes  assessed.  In  many  cases  local  munici- 
palities have  given  to  private  companies  the  right  to  build  macadamized 
roads  and  draw  tolls  therefrom.  This  system  is  a  relic  of  a  bygone  age 
and  is  fast  disappearing.  Each  local  municipality  strikes  in  their  esti- 
mates a  certain  sum  for  roads  and  bridges,  to  provide  planking  for 
bridges,  dig  and  construct  particular  culverts,  or  other  extreme  repairs 
which  may  arise  from  time  to  time. 

M.  H.  Twitchell, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Kingston,  December  23,  1890. 


MONTREAL. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  KNAPP. 

CARE  AND  MAINTENANCE. 

The  establishment,  care,  and  maintenance  of  the  streets  of  the  city  of 
Montreal  are  under  the  supervision  and  control  of  the  mayor  and  board 
of  aldermen  of  the  city. 

A  subcommittee  of  the  board  numbering  seven  aldermen  compose 
what  is  termed  the  road  committee.  This  committee  has  the  special 
supervision  of  the  road  department,  at  the  head  of  which  is  the  city 
surveyor.  But  while  the  said  committee  has  special  supervision  ol 
that  department,  still  the  mayor  and  board  of  aldermen  have  the  gen- 
eral supervision  and  control  of  that  department  and  of  all  matters  re- 
lating to  the  establishment,  care,  and  maintenance  of  the  streets  of  the 
city. 

The  city  of  Montreal  has  for  2  years  last  past  spent  and  is  still  spend- 
ing large  sums  of  money  in  the  improvement  of  her  streets. 

During  the  year  1890  nearly  $460,000  was  spent  in  repaying  certain 
streets,  and  for  this  purpose  there  was  used  four  kinds  of  pavements, 
namely:  "The  wood-block  pavement,"  "the  block  »tono  pavement, " 
"the  Trinidad  asphalt  pavement,"  and  "  the  Sicilian  rock  asphalt  pave- 
ment." 


448  STREETS    AND   HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  manner  of  laying  each  of  the  above  kind  of  pavements  and  the 
cost  of  the  same  were  in  detail  as  follows: 

WOOD-BLOCK  PAVEMENT. 

The  blocks  used  for  this  pavement  were  the  Tamarae  blocks,  live 
wood,  sawed  on  all  faces,  made  from  3-inch  plank  of  the  following  di- 
mensions, viz:  3  inches  thick,  5 inches  wide,  and  6  inches  deep. 

The  foundation  for  these  blocks  was  made  by  excavating  the  subsoil 
and  other  matter  to  a  sufficient  depth  and  making  a  solid  foundation. 

Upon  this  foundation  there  was  laid  Portland  cement  concrete  6 
inches  thick. 

The  concrete  was  of  the  following  proportions  :  One  measure  of  Port- 
land cement,  3  measures  of  clean,  sharp  river  sand,  and  8  measures  of 
broken  stone  or  macadam,  which  was  new  and  broken  to  2^-inch  cubes, 
and  was  made  and  mixed  as  follows  :  One  measure  of  cement  and  3  of 
sand,  mixed  dry,  and  then  made  into  a  mortar  with  20  per  cent,  of 
water ;  3  measures  of  new  broken  stone  was  then  immediately  incorpo- 
rated with  the  mortar,  and  rapidly  mixed,  and  spread  and  thoroughly 
compacted  by  ramming  gently  with  a  wooden  rammer  (about  9  inches 
square),  until  free  mortar  appears  upon  the  surface,  which  must  be  per- 
fectly smooth  and  cambered  to  the  same  level  as  the  finished  road  sur- 
face. This  was  allowed  to  remain  7  days  before  the  paving  blocks  were 
placed  upon  it. 

Upon  this  foundation  the  wood  paving  blocks,  creosoted,  were  laid 
close  together  and  on  the  surface  a  coating  of  hot  coal  tar  and  pitch 
was  poured  until  the  blocks  would  absorb  no  more ;  over  this  a  coating 
of  fine  roofing  gravel  about  1  inch  in  thickness  was  spread. 

There  was  during  the  year  1890  40,471£  square  yards  of  this  pave- 
ment laid  in  all,  at  a  total  cost  of  $120,486.  Of  this  26,243  square 
yards  was  laid  by  contract  work,  at  an  aggragate  cost  of  $80,512,  or  an 
average  cost  of  about  $3.06f  per  square  yard,  and  14,228|  square  yards 
by  day  work,  at  an  aggregate  cost  of  $39,974,  or  an  average  cost  of 
about  $2.81  per  square  yard. 

BLOCK-STONE  PAVEMENT. 

The  paving  blocks  used  in  this  kind  of  pavement  were  of  granite  and 
Belgium  porphyry,  in  length  from  8  to  14  inches,  in  width  from  3  to  4£ 
inches,  all  being  of  a  uniform  depth  of  6  inches. 

The  foundation  for  these  blocks  was  made  by  excavating  the  soil  for 
a  sufficient  depth  and  making  a  solid  foundation. 

Upon  that  foundation  was  laid  Portland  cement  concrete  6  inches 
thick.  The  concrete  was  of  the  same  preparation  as  that  used  for  the 
wood-block  pavement  above  described.  On  this  was  laid  a  bed  of  clean, 
sharp  river  sand  2  inches  thick.  Upon  this  foundation  the  stone 
blocks  were  laid.  Each  row  of  block  stone  were  of  uniform  width  and 
depth,  and  so  laid  that  all  longitudinal  joints  were  broken  by  a  lap  of 


AMERICA DOMINION    OF    CANADA.  449 

at  least  2  inches,  and  the  joints  not  more  thau  half  an  inch.  The 
blocks  were  then  consolidated  by  ramming  until  they  were  in  a  firm, 
unyielding  bed,  with  uniform  surface,  and  when  thus  laid  the  joints 
were  immediately  filled  with  cement  grout  until  the  sand  beneath  the 
blocks  absorbed  no  more  and  the  joints  filled  flush  with  the  surface  of 
the  pavement.  The  whole  surface  of  the  pavement  was  covered  with 
clean,  sharp  river  sand  to  a  depth  of  1  inch. 

There  was  laid  during  the  year  1890  32831  square  yards,  or  1£  miles, 
of  this  pavement,  at  an  aggregate  cost  of  $133,722,  or  an  average  cost  of 
$4.07£  per  square  yard. 

ROCK  ASPHALT  PAVEMENTS. 

The  foundations  for  these  pavements  was  made  of  the  same  depth, 
the  same  materials,  and  in  the  same  way  as  the  foundation  for  the  wood- 
block pavement  above  described,  to  which  reference  is  hereby  made. 
Upon  such  foundation  the  paving  asphalt  was  carefully  spread  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  give  uniform  and  regular  grade  and  thickness,  the 
wearing  asphalt  surface  being  2 J  inches  thick  when  compressed. 

Of  these  pavements  there  was  laid  during  the  year  1890  30,619 
square  yards,  viz:  Of  the  Trinidad  asphalt  8,147  square  yards,  or  one- 
third  of  a  mile,  at  an  aggregate  cost  of  $27,954,  or  an  average  cost  of 
$3.43  per  square  yard;  of  the  Sicilian  rock  asphalt  22,472  square  yards, 
or  1  mile,  at  an  aggregate  cost  of  $89,213,  or  an  average  cost  of  $3.97 
per  square  yard. 

Of  the  above-mentioned  pavements  the  block-stone  pavement  is  con- 
sidered best  for  heavy  traffic,  while  the  asphalt  is  considered  best  for 
light  traffic. 

The  cost  of  paving  the  streets  of  Montreal  is  paid  by  the  city  and  not 
assessed  against  the  property  on  the  streets. 

The  cost  of  the  above  described  paving  was  paid  by  a  loan  negotiated 
by  the  city,  and  no  part  of  the  same  was  levied  against  the  property 
adjacent  to  the  streets  so  paved. 

The  cost  of  paving  and  maintaining  the  streets  and  roads  of  Montreal 
during  the  year  ]890  was  as  follows: 

Paving $459,437 

Cleaning  52,864 

Removal  of  snow 17,557 

Repairing 99,641 

Watering 15,745 

It  may  be  proper  to  add  that  the  city  of  Montreal  is  spending  and 
contemplates  the  further  expenditure  of  large  sums  of  money  in  widen- 
ing, paving,  and  otherwise  improving  its  streets  and  roads  in  a  manner 
most  enterprising  and  creditable  to  the  city. 

Permit  me  to  add  that  this  report  is  confined  to  city  streets,  for  the 
reason  that  the  country  roads  in  the  province  of  Quebec  embrace 
many  road  districts,  each  under  local  management.  The  maintenance 
33A 29 


450  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

of  these  roads  and  the  cost  of  the  same  depend  upon  the  climate,  the 
soil,  and  the  requirements  of  traffic  in  each,  and  as  I  am  informed  that 
the  same  circular  of  inquiry  has  been  forwarded  to  the  several  consular 
officers  in  the  province,  it  is  assumed  that  they  will  forward  to  the  De- 
partment full  and  complete  reports,  being  in  possession  of  more  detailed 
and  accurate  information  as  to  the  roads  in  their  respective  localities 
than  is  this  consulate-general. 
All  of  which  is  respectfully  submitted. 

Chas.  L.  Knapp, 

Consul-  General. 
United  States  Consulate-General. 

Montreal,  March,  9,  1891. 


MORRISBURG. 

REPORT  BY  COMMERCIAL  AGENT  SOHOF1ELB, 

MACADAMIZED  COUNTRY  ROADS. 

I  have  talked  with  a  number  of  farmers  from  different  sections  of  my 
consular  district  as  to  the  best  kind  of  roads  for  the  country,  the  mode 
of  making  them  last  longest,  and  the  way  they  are  kept  iu  repair,  etc., 
and  they  all  agree  that  macadamizing  made  as  follows  is  the  most  suit- 
able for  this  section  of  country : 

First  prepare  the  place  where  the  road  is  to  be  made,  say  12,  18,  or 
more  feet  wide,  as  may  be  required  j  then  put  on  12  inches  at  least  of 
stone  in  the  center  of  the  road  and  6  inches  on  the  sides.  The  travel 
will  be  in  the  center  of  the  road.  The  stone  to  be  made  fine  by  a 
crusher  not  larger  than  will  pass  through  a  2-inch  ring.  Then  cover  with 
line  gravel  ox  coarse  sand,  if  the  same  can  be  had.  This  will  help  to 
cement  the  stones  together  and  make  them  even,  hard,  and  dry.  Then 
there  must  be  good  deep  ditches  on'  each  side  of  the  road,  to  let  the 
water  pass  off  and  keep  the  road  dry.  As  the  stone  settles  in  the  dirt 
put  on  more  stones  to  prevent  holes  in  the  road. 

EXPENSE   OF  ROADMAKING. 

The  first  cost  is,  say,  from  $6  to  $8  per  rod.  Sometimes,  in  a  bad 
place,  it  will  cost  more. 

Some  of  the  roads  are  kept  in  repair  by  money  from  toll  gates,  some 
by  the  statute  labor  of  the  parties  living  along  the  road,  some  by  a  tax 
on  the  county,  some  in  one  way  and  another  as  the  different  townships 
may  see  fit. 

GENERAL  EFFECTS  OF  GOOD  ROADWAYS. 

Good  roads  are  a  great  benefit  to  any  country  and  enhance  the  value- 
of  the  laud.  They  give  the  inhabitants  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  the  ben- 
efit of  going  to  market  to  sell  their  produce  and  get  their  supplies.    In 


AMEKICA DOMINION    OF   CANADA.  451 

good  sections  of  the  country  villages  are  built  up,  manufactories  in  a 
small  way  started,  stores,  post-offices,  schools,  and  other  public  build- 
ings erected,  and  when  they  have  a  water  power  mills  are  built.  This 
benefits  the  inhabitants,  the  country  improves,  travel  is  opened.  All 
this  from  good  roads.     Without  them  a  country  will  not  improve  much. 

TOWN  AND  VILLAGE  STREETS. 

In  towns  and  villages  the  public  traveled  roads  are  made  as  in  the 
country.  The  sidewalks  are  mostly  built  of  wood,  as  follows:  Prepare 
the  ground,  say  4  to  12  feet  wide,  as  may  be  required  ;  theu  lay  some 
stringers  12,  18,  or  more  feet  long,  4  to  8  or  10  inches  square,  to  keep  the 
covering  from  the  ground ;  then  put  on  2-inch  deal  plank  and  nail  to  the 
stringers.  In  some  places  flag  stones  are  used  and  in  other  places  gravel, 
but  in  this  section  of  the  couutry  plank  is  mostly  used.  Good  ditches 
must  be  opened  on  the  sides  of  the  roads  to  let  the  water  pass  off  so  as 
to  keep  the  planks  dry.  Where  it  can  be  done  deep  underground  sluices 
are  made  to  let  the  water  off.  These  streets  are  properly  made  and  kept 
in  repair  by  a  tax  laid  on  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns  or  villages. 

W.   A.   SCHOFIELD, 

Commercial  Agent. 
United  States  Commercial  Agency, 

Marisburg,  December  29,  1890. 


NOVA  SCOTIA. 

REPORT  BT  CONSUL-GENERAL  FETE,  OF  HALIFAX. 

Referring  to  the  street  and  roadway  circular  of  November  8  last, 
from  the  Department  of  State,  I  have  to  say  in  reference  to  the  roads 
in  Nova  Scotia  that  for  the  most  part  they  have  been  constructed  in  a 
manner  similar  to  that  usually  employed  in  the  country  towns  of  New 
England,  and  are  probably  in  about  the  same  average  condition. 
Within  a  few  years,  however,  the  importance  of  the  subject  of  building 
and  keeping  them  in  repair  has  engaged  public  attention,  and  the  road 
system  of  Nova  Scotia  has  materially  improved. 

streets. 

The  city  of  Halifax,  with  its  population  of  40,000,  is  the  only  city  or 
town  within  the  province  where  the  streets  are  constructed  with  engineer- 
ingskill.  Generally  it  is  built  upon  and  courses  along  a  continuous  range 
of  hillside  for  a  distance  of  over  2  miles.  The  principal  streets  run  nearly 
parallel  with  its  slope  and  the  shore.  The  cross  streets,  laid  off  at  right 
angles  to  them,  ascend  with  inclinations  varying  from  1  foot  in  10  to  1  in 
15.  In  the  suburbs  the  gradients  are.  much  less,  the  ground  in  some 
directions  being  nearly  level.     The  cost  of  maintaining  the  streets  where 


452  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

the  gradients  are  so  steep  is  greatly  increased.  The  rainfalls  wash 
away  the  binding  materials.  The  wear  from  horses,  feet  increases  ac- 
cording tot  the  power  required  for  hauling.  Even  when  well  constructed 
such  streets  require  to  be  often  repaired. 

The  Macadam  system  of  street  making  is  that  generally  adopted.  It 
is  partly  founded  on  a  clay-slate  rock  in  situ,  partly  on  a  substratum  of 
broken  slate  and  in  some  instances  the  "  Telford  "  bottoming  pavement  is 
introduced.  The  Macadam  system  is  considered  the  best  for  the  steep 
gradients,  for  although  it  is  liable  to  be  torn  by  the  horses'  feet,  it  at 
the  same  time  gives  a  more  reliable  foothold  than  a  material  likely  to 
wear  to  a  more  slippery  surface. 

For  the  streets  where  the  surface  is  more  nearly  level  and  the  traffic 
greater  the  city  contemplate  the  employment  of  paving.  The  city  en- 
gineer recommends  porphyry  and  granite  paving  iu  the  usual  form  of 
dressed  cubes,  8  inches  by  4£  inches  by  6  inches,  to  be  laid  on  a  sub- 
stratum of  concrete.  The  material  for  part  of  these  blocks  has  been 
contracted  for  at  the  following  prices :  Belgium  porphyry  blocks,  per 
square  yard,  $2.08  j  Nova  Scotia  granite,  from  the  Shelburn  quarry, 
$1.75.  A  quantity  of  each  is  to  be  employed  to  test  the  comparative 
merits,  and  that  giving  the  best  satisfaction  after  trial  will  be  adopced. 
The  ground  work  is  to  be  prepared  and  the  blocks  set  in  place  by  "  day's 
work,"  under  the  supervision  of  the  city  engineer. 

The  material  used  for  macadamiziug  consists  of  a  tough  quartzite  or 
whiustone,  to  be  had  within  easy  distance  of  the  city  at  low  cost.  The 
stone  is  broken  principally  by  pauper  or  convict  labor.  The  poor  of  the 
city  are  thus  furnished  with  employment  by  the  "Poor  Association" 
during  the  winter  when  nothing  better  is  offered.  Able-bodied  con- 
victs in  the  city  prison  are  also  made  to  perform  such  work.  The  city 
pays  the  association  7  cents  per  bushel  for  the  broken  stone,  and  to  the 
city  prison  3  cents  per  bushel.  There  are  nearly  24  bushels  in  a  cubic 
yard  of  broken  stone.  The  demand  for  this  broken  stone  is  becoming 
greater  than  the  supply,  aud  a  stone  crusher  is  to  be  put  in  operation 
forthwith. 

Very  few  new  streets  are  being  built  in  the  city  at  the  present  time. 
Repairs  are  made  by  "  day's  work."  The  wages  paid  for  such  labor  is 
from  $1  to  $1.10  per  day. 

In  the  year  18S7-'SS  the  sum  expended  on  the  streets  of  Halifax  was 
$19,230,  and  on  street  cleaning  and  watering,  $12,923.     In  1888-'89  tl*e 
street  expenditure  was  $22,484,  and  for  cleaning  aud  watering,  $14,75(5. ' 
This  does  not  include  repairs  to  city  property,  from  $1,500  to  $1,700 
more  in  each  of  those  years. 

For  a  great  part  of  the  information  obtained  for  this  report  I  am  in- 
debted to  Martin  Murphy,  esq.,  provincial  government  engiueer,  an 
intelligent  and  efficient  officer,  who  has  certain  supervision  over  the 
construction  of  roads  and  bridges  iu  Nova  Scotia.  Having  read  some  of 
his  published  papers  on  road  and  bridge  building,  I  was  the  more  de- 


AMERICA DOMINION    OF    CANADA  453 

sirous  of  consulting  him,  and  applying  to  liim  for  certain  information 
on  the  subject  of  this  report  he  kindly  furnished  it  in  writing.  To  a 
considerable  extent  I  have  adopted  the  language  used  in  his  written 
answer  to  my  inquiries. 

PUBLIC  ROADS. 

Following  is  what  he  says  on  the  subject  of  building  public  roads  in 
Nova  Scotia : 

Nova  Scotia,  with  a  present  population  of  about  460,000,  an  extreme  length  of  350 
miles,  breadth.  120  miles,  and  an  area  of  20,907  square  miles,  is  provided  as  follows: 
The  length  of  main  roads  in  1880  was  6,493,  and  of  second-class  roads  9,761  miles. 
Present  length  of  main  roads,  estimated,  6,800  miles,  second-class  roads,  10,000  miles. 
Total,  16,800  miles. 

The  province  is  divided  into  eighteen  counties  having  twenty-four  municipalities, 
six  of  the  counties  having  two  municipalities  in  each. 

In  1379  au  act  of  incorporation  conferred  on  every  county  and  sessional  district  all 
the  usual  municipal  governing  powers,  embracing  laying  out,  construction,  and 
maintenance  of  roads  and  bridges,  the  appropriating  and  apportioning  of  road  and 
bridge  moneys,  employment  of  statute  labor,  and  the  regulation  of  ferries  and  public 
wharves.  Since  then  the  municipalities  have  received  au  annual  appropriation  from 
the  government  of  from  $90,000  to  $120,000  towards  the  maintenance  of  roads  and 
bridges. 

In  1883  the  old  wooden  bridges  then  existing  had  become  so  bad  that  an  act  author- 
izing a  provincial  loan  of  $500,000  was  passed  for  rebuilding  them  with  more  perma- 
nent material,  such  as  stone  and  iron.  The  reconstruction  was  carried  out  by  the 
provincial  government.  Encouraged  by  the  successful  operation  and  results  of  this 
measure,  the  government  provided  two  further  grants  of  $250,000  each  in  the  years 
1885  and  1887,  respectively,  making  an  expenditure  of  $1,000,000  for  the  building  of 
these  bridges  in  a  more  substantial  form. 

In  1889  the  roads  throughout  the  province,  under  the  supervision  of  the  municipal 
councils,  had  become  so  bad  that  *  *  *  it  became  necessary  to  make  a  special 
appropriation  of  $300,000  for  better  construction  and  repairs.  The  government  took 
the  work  in  hand,  employed  more  skillful  supervision,  and  effected  such  improvements 
on  the  great  roads  that  in  the  session  of  1890  a  further  appropriation  of  $300,000  was 
granted,  to  be  expeuded  in  like  manner. 

The  means  available  for  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  roads  in  Nova  Scotia 
are  derivable  from  statute  labor  and  from  government  appropriation.  The  former 
source,  although  quite  a  factor  if  judiciously  applied,  is  becoming  almost  useless  in 
the  hands  of  municipal  authorities.  Owing  to  the  limited  means  at  the  command  of 
the  government  for  annual  grants  to  roads  the  question  of  keeping  them  in  good 
order  becomes  *ie  of  "  how,  with  limited  means,  the  best  and  most  perm.imeut  results 
can  be  obtained."  With  such  results  in  view  one  must  be  guided  by  the  locality, 
the  facility  of  obtaining  suitable  materials,  and  the  traffic  which  the  road  is  intended 
to  accommodate.  The  nearest  approach  to  the  solution  of  this  problem  will  be  found 
by  the  employment  of  skillful  supervision. 

In  a  published  article  written  by  Mr.  Murphy  not  long  ago  on  "  Our 
common  roads,"  in  referring  to  the  transverse  form  of  roads,  he  says : 

Engineers  differ  as  to  the  most  advantageous  form  of  cross  sections,  some  recom- 
mending a  convex  curve  approaching  to  the  segment  of  a  circle  or  semi-elipse,  whilst 
others  prefer  two  plains  gently  sloping  towards  the  side  gutters  and  meeting  on  the 
middle  of  the  road  by  a  short  connecting  convex  surface.  There  are  objections  to 
both  forms  in  certain  situations.     In  the  former,  the  convex  road  thoy  are  that  tho 


454  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

water  will  stand  in  the  middle;  "that  carriages  will  keep  in  or  near  the  middle  and 
cause  undue  or  excessive  wear  along  one  line  in  order  to  run  on  the  level  and  avoid 
the  tendency  to  overturn  near  the  side  ditches.  In  the  latter  that  if  carriages  will 
not  run  along  the  center  there  must  be,  owing  to  the  transverse  inclination  or  fall 
from  the  apex  or  center  towards  the  gutter,  an  undue  tendency  for  the  carriages  or 
vehicles  to  slide  upon  the  road  surface.  Regularity  of  section  and  evenness  of  surface 
is  of  much  more  consequence  than  the  slight  difference  between  curves  and  straight 
lines.  It  is  essential  that  the  rain  should  flow  freely  off  the  surface  for  the  proper 
and  economical  maintenance  of  a  road.  Water  standing  in  ruts  or  depressions  must 
be  avoided;  it  greatly  increases  wear,  deepens  and  enlarges  hollows,  and  weakens 
or  destroys  the  whole  crust  of  the  road.  Such  a  cross  section  should  therefore  be 
given  as  will  throw  the  rain  water  off  quickly,  and  the  necessary  inclination  to  prac- 
tically effect  the  purpose  must  vary  with  the  different  material  of  which  the  road  is 
composed.  We  can  not  have,  as  in  Great  Britain,  one  typical  form  of  road,  or  method 
of  road-making,  because  we  must  adapt  ourselves  to  the  materials  at  hand  or  within 
easy  distance. 

It  is  necessary  to  give  a  somewhat  greater  convexity  to  a  new  road  than  it  is  in- 
tended to  have  eventually ;  the  middle  consolidates  more  by  the  traffic  and  the  sur- 
face material  is  scattered  towards  the  sides,  so  that  however  carefully  it  is  rolled  or 
attended  to  the  road  will  flatten  as  it  consolidates. 

Copies  of  drawings  to  show  the  forms  of  cross  sections  of  roads  as 
proposed  by  the  provincial  engineer  are  herewith  submitted.  Fig.  1 
represents  a  cross  section  of  Telford  pavement,  which  can  be  made 
rapidly,  and,  with  the  drainage  shown,  forms  a  good  road.  Fig.  2  is  a 
cross  section  covered  with  gravel  or  broken  stone.  Fig.  3  is  a  clay 
road  with  a  6-inch  gravel  covering,  8  to  10  feet  in  width,  with  a  cente 
drain  of  stones.  Fig.  4  is  a  clay  road  with  a  center  drain  of  poles 
where  stone  can  not  be  had.  Fig.  5  is  a  cross  section  of  road  over  a 
bog  or  marsh. 

Eoads  with  a  drain  running  along  the  center,  with  outlets  to  tbe  side 
ditches,  have  beeu  tried  on  wet  and  soft  ground,  with  favorable  results 

For  general  purposes,  where  the  traffic  is  heavy,  a  well-drained  road 
with  the  Telford  pavement  and  macadam  covering  is  recommended. 

Liberal  sums  have  been  expended  in  bridge  building  within  a  few 
years.  Iron  bridges  in  many  cases  have  taken  the  place  of  the  old 
wooden  structures.  Generally  the  superstructures  have  been  built  on 
American  plans,  and  in  several  cases  American  companies  have  built 
them  on  contract.  Concrete  as  a  substitute  for  stone  for  bridge  sup- 
ports has  been  used  to  some  extent,  and  with  marked  success.  The 
concrete  hardens  and  improves  with  age,  and  it  is  believed  that  its  use 
will  be  extended  as  its  merits  become  better  known. 

Wakefield  G.  Frye, 

.    Consul-  General. 

United  States  Consul  ate -General, 

Mali/ax,  January  27,  1891. 


AMERICA — DOMINION   OF    CANADA. 


455 


456  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

PORT  STANLEY  AND  ST.  THOMAS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  HUXHER. 

CITY   STREETS. 

The  consular  district  of  Port  Stanley  and  St.  Thomas  is  composed  of 
Elgin  County,  and  portions  of  the  adjoining  counties,  in  the  province  of 
Ontario.  The  county  seat  in  Elgin  County  is  St.  Thomas,  a  city  with 
about  11,000  inhabitants. 

In  this  city  there  are  three  classes  of  streets,  viz,  cedar-block  pave- 
ment, gravel,  and  graded  earth. 

The  cedar-block  pavement  costs  about  85  cents  per  square  yard,  and 
its  lifetime  is  about  12  years;  during  that  time  very  little  repairs  are 
necessary. 

The  graveled  streets  cost  about  50  cents  per  square  yard,  but  the 
cost  of  maintenance  is  very  large.  They  are  very  objectionable  on  the 
principal  streets  on  sanitary  grounds,  as  it  is  almost  impossible  to  keep 
a  smooth  surface  and  have  the  water  run  off. 

Graded  earth  streets  are  only  used  for  streets  where  there  is  but  little 
travel. 

The  whole  system  of  road  making  is  carried  through  on  the  frontage 
system.  A  majority  of  the  owners  on  the  street  has  full  power  to  de- 
cide what  kind  of  roadway  shall  be  put  down,  and  the  cost  is  assessed 
against  the  property  fronting  on  the  street  in  accordance  with  their 
frontage  measurement. 

The  cedar  blocks  used  are  7  inches  long,  laid  on  6  inches  of  coarse 
sand  or  gravel,  the  surface  being  made  the  shape  of  the  roadbed  and 
then  rolled  with  heavy  rollers. 

The  ouly  village  of  any  importance  in  the  district  is  Aylmer,  with  a 
population  of  about  1,100.  In  regard  to  the  streets  in  this  village,  as 
also  in  the  other  villages  in  the  district,  the  manner  of  making  them 
and  holding  them  in  repair  is  the  same  as  in  St.  Thomas.  Outside  of 
Aylmer  there  are,  however,  so  far  as  I  know,  no  paved  streets. 

COUNTRY  ROADS. 

Very  little  is  to  be  said  in  regard  to  the  country  roads  and  highways 
in  the  consular  district  of  Port  Stanley  and  St.  Thomas.  The  so-called 
"  gravel  road"  from  Port  Stanley  to  the  north  line  of  Elgin  County,  a 
distance  of  about  13  miles,  is  leased  out  to  an  association  which  has  to 
keep  the  road  in  repair,  and  therefore  collects  toll.  The  same  is  the  case 
with  the  road  between  St.  Thomas  and  Aylmer,  a  distance  of  about  12 
miles.  It  has  been  tried  to  abolish  the  tolls  on  these  two  roads,  but  as 
the  association  is  unwilling  to  give  up  the  lease,  it  can  not  be  done  be- 
fore the  lease  expires. 

The  other  roads  are  opened  by  the  county,  and  consist  mainly  of 
graded  earth  roads,  in  some  places  covered  with  gravel.    The  repairs 


AMERICA DOMINION    OF    CANADA.  457 

are  done  by  statutory  work,  viz,  each  farm  is  assessed  a  certain  number 
of  days'  work  a  year  on  the  road.  The  work  consists  mainly  in  filling 
up  mudholes  and  smoothing  the  surface  of  the  road. 

F.  A.  HlTSHER, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Port  Stanley  and  St.  Thomas,  December  22,  1890. 


PORT  HOPE. 
IiEPORT  BY  COMMERCIAL  AG  EXT  STTAFFER. 

In  the  district  immediately  covered  by  this  commercial  agency  the 
streets  in  the  towns  are  in  some  instances  macadamized,  but  in  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  simply  built  up  of  gravel.  These  are  generally  scraped 
with  a  road  scraper  in  the  spring  and  fall,  and  the  result  is  that  even 
with  a  minimum  amount  of  drainage  facilities  the  roads  are  generally 
good  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

There  are  some  block  and  asphalt  pavements  but  not  over  large  areas 
and  only  in  the  large  cities  of  the  province,  and  in  these  this  class  of 
pavement  is  not  considered  a  success  by  reason  of  the  severity  of  the 
winters. 

In  the  rural  districts  the  roads  are  built  up  of  gravel  put  on  from 
year  to  year,  and  this  generally  forms  a  good  road  during  ordinary  aver- 
age weather.  In  wet  seasons,  however,  they  suffer  much  from  soakage ; 
and  as  the  construction  is  generally  done  by  "statute  labor" it  is  not 
as  a  rule  very  thoroughly  or  effectively  done.  Where  the  soil  or  ground 
bed  is  either  very  light  or  of  a  clayey  nature  this  class  of  road  suffers 
much  in  both  the  spring  and  fall;  in  many  cases  when  the  frostis  going 
out  of  the  ground  the  roads  are  quite  impassable. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  ascertain  the  average  cost  of  constructing 
the  roads  built  as  they  are  in  the  way  above  indicated. 

There  are  no  cities  within  this  commercial  agency,  except  by  courtesy. 

L.  M.  Shaffer, 


United  States  Commercial  Agency, 

Port  Hope,  December  31,  1890. 


Commercial  Agent. 


PORT  sarnia. 

IiEPORT  BY  CONSUL  PACB. 
CITY  STREETS. 


In  reference  to  city  streets  nothing  in  the  way  of  novelty  can  be 
reported  from  this  or  other  cities  in  western  Ontario.  We  have  here 
the  ordinary  wooden  pavement  made  by  standing  cedar  blocks  on  end 


458  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS   IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

and  filling  tbe  interstices  with  sand  and  gravel;  formerly  a  coating  of 
Lot  tar  was  applied  to  tbe  blocks  before  introducing  tbe  gravel ;  now 
tbe  tar  is  generally  omitted;  latterly  in  putting  down  these  pavements 
tbe  excavation  made  to  receive  the  blocks  is  first  covered  with  white 
pine  boards,  closely  joined  together.  This  plau  is  doubtless  an  im- 
provement over  the  former  method  of  placing  the  blocks  upon  sand 
merely.  The  subject  of  street  paving  receives  considerable  attention 
just  now  in  tbis  country,  and  different  methods  are  being  tested.  An 
experiment  was  tried  iu  this  town  about  a  year  ago  in  the  endeavor  to 
introduce  tbe  "asphalt"  pavement.  This  process  consisted  first  in  a 
layer  of  broken  stone  or  cobblestone,  a  coatiug  of  hot  tar,  then  a  coat- 
ing of  fine  gravel,  and  finally  a  coating  of  a  combination  of  "asphalt" 
and  sand,  applied  hot ;  this  last  coating  is  heavily  pressed  by  a  large 
heated  iron  roller.  I  witnessed  the  construction  of  one  such  pavement, 
which  has  now  been  laid  about  14  months,  and  its  present  condition 
is  not  such  as  would  impress  one  favorably  with  this  method.  The  cob- 
blestones remain  almost  entirely  denuded  of  tbe  coating  of  asphalt  and 
sand  to  wbich  they  were  originally  subjected.  This  pavement  may 
have  been  improperly  constructed,  or  possibly  tbe  material  forming  tbe 
combination  of  "asphalt"  and  sand  may  have  been  improperly  mixed; 
wbatever  may  have  been  the  cause,  it  is  apparent  the  result  in  this 
particular  case  is  a  failure.  Cedar  pavements  in  this  climate  when 
properly  laid  endure  about  10  years,  yet  many  of  the  blocks  require  to 
be  replaced  at  the  end  of  7  or  8  years ;  much  of  course  depends 
upon  the  quality  of  the  cedar  used,  and  great  care  should  be  observed 
in  selecting  tbe  lumber  upon  wbich  the  blocks  are  made  to  rest.  If 
tbe  material  is  sound  and  free  from  what  is  known  as  sap,  a  cedar  pave- 
ment, properly  constructed,  ought  to  last  10  years  and  even  more. 

COUNTRY  ROADS. 

Tbe  country  roads  of  Ontario  and  especially  in  tbe  older  settled  por- 
tions of  tbe  province  are  really  very  excellent  roads.  Their  manner  of 
construction  is  simple,  although  it  differs  somewhat  in  the  different  lo- 
calities. In  the  vicinity  of  stone  quarries  broken  stone  or  the  refuse 
from  the  quarry  is  used  as  the  first  layer  iu  constructing  a  roadbed ; 
this  material  is  thoroughly  pounded  into  the  earth  and  coarse  sand  aud 
gravel  are  added,  making  a  mass  several  inches  in  thickness.  At  first 
the  loose  sand  and  gravel  is  almost  impassable  for  loaded  vehicles,  but 
the  continued  tramping  of  horses'  feet  and  the  frequent  pressure  which 
it  receives  from  passing  wheels  soon  renders  tbe  roadbed  smooth  and 
hard.  Iu  localities  remote  from  stone  quarries  and  where  cobblestone 
are  not  easily  obtained,  ordiuary  sand  and  gravel  is  the  sole  material 
used  in  forming  a  road  bed.  Whatever  may  be  the  material  used, 
whether  broken  stoue  or  cobblestone,  with  sand  aud  gravel  combined, 
or  sand  aud  gravel  without  the  foundation  named,  it  is  essential  that 


AMERICA — DOMINION    OF    CANADA.  459 

the  roadway  should  be  properly  constructed  with  reference  to  grading 
and  ditching  or  drainage.  This  is  accomplished  by  excavating  deep, 
flaring  ditches  at  each  side  of  the  roadway  (where  the  road  passes 
•  through  level  or  flat  land),  and  the  construction  at  intervals  of  wooden 
or  stone  culverts  or  sluiceways,  in  order  that  the  surplus  water  may 
be  turned  aside  or  conducted  away  from  the  roadbed.  When  broken 
stone  or  cobblestone  is  used  as  a  foundation  an  excavation  is  made  in 
the  center  of  the  roadway,  between  the  two  ditches,  to  the  depth  of 
several  inches  and  as  wide. as  may  be  required  to  build  the  road  ;  this 
excavation  is  filled  with  broken  stone  or  cobblestone,  in  the  manner 
before  described,  with  the  addition  of  sand  and  gravel,  and  when  the 
roadbed  is  completed  it  shows  gradually  sloping  sides  from  tlie  center 
each  way  to  the  ditches  on  the  margin  of  the  road. 

In  many  instances  very  durable  and  substantial  roads  are  constructed 
without  the  use  of  broken  stone  or  cobblestone,  and  these  roads  are 
built  in  the  easiest  and  simplest  mauner  possible.  No  excavation  is 
made  in  the  center  of  the  road  to  receive  the  material ;  the  sand  and 
gravel  are  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  road  without  preparation  pre- 
cisely as  they  leave  the  gravel  pit;  the  gravel  is  strewn  over  the  surface 
to  the  depth  of  from  4  to  6  inches.  The  ditches  and  culverts  and  even 
the  grading  should  be  as  carefully  constructed  in  this  method  as  the 
other;  but  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  this  process  of  road  building  is 
much  cheaper,  both  in  material  and  labor,  than  if  cobblestone  or  broken 
stone  are  used  as  a  foundation.  The  loose  sand  and  gravel  thus  spread 
over  the  surface  of  the  road  soon  becomes  hardened  and  smooth  by 
the  tramp  of  horses'  feet  and  the  continued  passing  of  vehicles;  a  new 
coating  of  gravel  is  applied  each  year  for  a  few  years,  and  thus  the 
hollow  places  become  filled  and  the  roadbed  itself  becomes  more  solid- 
ified. Iu  fact,  roads  built  after  this  method  and  properly  cared  for  soon 
become  practically  indestructible.  During  the  first  2  or  3  years  after 
the  gravel  is  applied  hollow  places  will  appear  here  and  there,  in  the 
roadway,  occasioned  perhaps  by  the  more  yielding  quality  of  the  earth 
in  some  spots  than  in  others.  These  hollow  places  are  filled  with  a 
fresh  supply  of  gravel,  perhaps  once  each  year,  until  the  whole  road- 
way assumes  an  unyielding  surface,  as  firm  and  as  smooth  as  the 
neighboring  rocks.  Whilst  driving  over  these  magnificent  country 
roads,  observing  their  solidity  and  comparative  cheapness  of  construc- 
tion, I  have  often  thought  our  city  street-pavers  might  learn  useful 
lessons  in  the  art  of  road  building  from  these  unpretentious  tillers  of 
the  soil. 

Sam'l  D.  Pace. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Port  8amia,  January  15,  1891. 


460  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

QUEBEC. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  RYDER. 

COUNTRY  ROADS. 

The  ordinary  country  roads  throughout  the  Province  of  Quebec  areJ 
not  on  such  an  improved  scale  as  to  invite  favorable  comparison  with 
any  of  our  most  unfrequented  roadways  in  the  United  States. 

Iioads  over  which  there  is  travel  to  any  great  extent  are  usually 
"turnpike,"  and  these  have  been  largely  absorbed  by  a  "turnpike 
trust."  The  stock  was  eagerly  subscribed  to,  as  the  investment  was 
considered  a  desirable  one,  but  such  a  heavy  debt  was  contracted  at 
the  formation  of  the  monopoly  that  it  has  been  struggling  under  the 
load  ever  since,  and  has  been  unable  to  pay  dividends  to  any  extent. 

These  companies  have  been,  in  many  instances,  subsidized  by  the 
provincial  government  to  a  considerable  amount.  It  was  one  of  the* 
promises  of  the  present  administration,  made  during  the  recent  cam-, 
paign,  that,  in  the  event  of  success  at  the  polls,  all  turnpike  roads  and 
toll  bridges  should  be  purchased  by  the  Government  and  made  free. 

An  exit  can  not  be  made  out  of  this  city  without  passing  through  one 
or  more  toll  gates  controlled  by  this  trust,  where  the  fee  charged  varies 
from  10  to  25  cents  per  vehicle  for  each  gate.  As  a  general  rule  these 
turnpike  roads  are  very  good;  they  are  usually  the  original  roadways 
made  by  the  Government,  which  have  been  acquired  by  a  stock  com- 
pany under  charter. 

These  roads  are  built  much  the  same  as  an  ordinary  macadamized 
road,  being  excavated  to  the  depth  of  2  feet,  and  then  filled  with  large 
stones  for  about  18  inches,  the  crevices  being  filled  with  smaller  stones, 
then  broken  stones  about  the  size  of  walnuts  are  used  to  even  the  sur- 
face, and  the  whole  covered  with  a  stone  dressing  and  graded  so  as  to 
afford  sufficient  drainage  for  all  surface  water  to  flow  toward  the  ditches 
on  either  side.  This  is  thoroughly  rolled  with  an  ordinary  horse  road- 
roller,  weighing  about  4,000  pounds.  After  properly  constructing  these 
roads  there  is  a  very  small  outlay  for  repairs,  as  the  travel  is  not  of  a 
heavy  class  of  teams,  excepting  during  the  harvest  season.  The  cost  of 
building  turnpike  roads  after  this  plan  is  about  $1.25  per  square  yard. 

CITY  STREETS. 

The  streets  in  this  city  are  of  two  distinct  classes,  and  may  be  styled 
the  "  ancient"  and  the  "  modern."  The  former  are  located  in  the  older 
portion  of  the  city,  called  the  *•'  lower  town."  These  are  planked  with 
3-inch  pine  deals  laid  lengthwise,  and  are  very  narrow,  the  entire  width 
(both  for  carriage  and  foot  travel)  being  from  8  to  12  feet.  Where  there 
is  a  footwalk  it  is  made  by  placing  3  by  4  pieces,  3  feet  long,  and  cov- 
ering, with  3-iuch  pine  planks,  one  side  of  street  only.  This  style  of 
roadway  was  decided  upon,  as  there  was  only  surface  drainage,  and 


AMERICA — DOMINION    OF   CANADA.  461 

every  refuse  was  washed  to  the  river  over  this  planking.  It  is  very 
slippery,  and  no  uncommon  sight  to  see  a  horse  slide  on  "  all  fours"  for 
a  distance  of  25  feet  before  being  able  to  recover  his  footing.  These 
pavements  are  being  slowly  replaced  by  stone  blocks,  and  are  to  be 
seen  only  in  the  most  primitive  portions  of  the  city. 

The  upper  town  is  better  provided  with  good  roads.  The  system 
which  has  been  adopted  is  open  to  criticism  from  a  sanitary  point  of 
view,  and  involves  much  labor  and  expense.  The  city  engineer  has 
made  a  special  study  of  the  matter  of  street-paving,  and  considers 
this  the  best  adapted  to  the  needs  of  Quebec,  the  most  durable  and 
also  the  least  expensive. 

The  street  is  excavated  to  the  depth  of  2  feet,  properly  graded  and 
rolled  with  a  horse  road-roller;  then  a  foundation  is  made  of  wooden 
flooring  of  l£-inch  boards  laid  longitudinally  and  crossed  at  right  angles 
by  a  second  flooring  of  inch  boards,  so  as  to  conform  more  readily  to  the 
required  crown  of  the  roadway.  These  are  laid  with  one-half  or  three- 
fourth-inch  spaces  between,  so  that  should  any  surface  water  penetrate 
it  will  not  remain  and  freeze,  but  run  through  and  be  absorbed  by  the 
subsoil  after  passing  through  the  layer  of  sand  which  is  strewn  over  the 
flooring  to  the  depth  of  one-half  an  inch,  which  is  to  prevent  the  blocks 
coming  in  contact  with  the  flooring.  This  double  flooring  is  the  means  of 
distributing  the  weight  of  passing  loads  over  an  extended  area,  and  also 
prevents  any  local  settlement  of  the  surface.  On  the  flooring  is  laid 
blocks  of  red  tamarack  about  12  inches  long,  as  sawn  from  the  log, 
about  10  to  15  inches  in  diameter,  and  placed  on  end.  In  the  spaces 
formed  around  the  blocks  small  pieces  of  wood  are  forced,  thus  filling  in 
and  tightening  the  mass.  The  interspaces  remaining  are  then  filled 
with  a  grouting  made  of  sand,  cement,  and  tar,  or  a  mixture  of  finely- 
sifted  coal  ashes  and  cement.  The  surface  is  evenly  rolled  and  covered 
with  sand,  which  is  allowed  to  remain  uutil  every  cavity  is  filled,  when 
the  street  is  swept  clean  to  the  blocks. 

These  wiads  are  very  durable ;  pavements  laid  35  years  ago  were  re- 
cently taken  up,  and  the  tamarack  blocks  had  not  shown  any  signs  of 
decay,  but  had  worn  down  to  about  one-half  their  origiual  length.  The 
surface  was  as  hard  as  stone.  It  is  said  that  there  is  more  resistance 
to  this  surface  (to  traffic)  than  stone,  because  stone,  under  the  influence 
of  water  and  the  constant  teaming,  wears  away  like  a  grindstone ;  the 
1  vertical  pores  of  the  wooden  blocks  fill  with  grit,  and  the  fibers  of  the 
,  wood,  like  the  bristles  of  a  brush,  sway  to  and  fro  with  the  traffic  in 
opposite  directions  without  breaking. 

The  blocks  are  used  in  their  green  state,  with  bark  on,  which  pre- 
vents the  wood  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  filling,  and  the  bark 
lasts  lor  many  years.  Great  precaution  is  taken  to  cut  down  the  tree 
in  proper  season,  after  its  sap  has  all  been  reduced  to  fiber  and  before 
(lie  spring  sap  begins  its  ascension  through  the  pores  of  the  wood. 


462  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  cost  of  this  block  pavement'  is  from  $1.50  to  $1.75  per  square 

yard. 

Frederick  M.  Eyder, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Quebec,  Canada,  December  22,  1890. 


MEXICO. 
NORTHERN  MEXICO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  SUTTON,  OF  NUEYO  LAREDO. 
CITY  STREETS  OF  MONTEREY. 

The  only  city  in  this  consular  district  which  has  paved  streets  is  that 
of  Monterey,  the  capital  of  the  State  of  Nuevo  Leon.  In  that  city  are 
some  13  miles  of  stone  pavements.  This  paving  is  done  by  the  city, 
and  as  much  of  the  work  is  by  convict  labor  it  is  not  possible  to  give 
close  approximate  values  of  the  cost. 

In  the  better  class  of  this  work  the  process  of  making  is  as  follows: 
The  ground  being  leveled,  with  a  slope  to  the  center  of  the  street, 
coarse  gravel  is  spread  over  it,  and  cobblestones  averaging,  say,  6  inches 
in  diameter  are  packed  in,  and  more  gravel  with  mortar  packed  in 
around  to  hold  them  in  place.  In  the  center  or  on  the  side  is  a  narrow 
trench  to  carry  off  the  water  from  showers.  This  is  often  made  by  lay- 
ing a  long  flat  stone  underneath,  with  two  others,  one  on  each  side,  on 
edge,  setting  up  high  enough  to  carry  the  current.  The  cobblestones 
are  held  in  place  by  setting  thin  slabs  of  limestone  on  edge,  and  then 
running  at  au  angle  from  the  center  down  to  the  sidewalk.  In  the  cli- 
mate of  Monterey  this  pavement,  when  well  made,  lasts  a  long  time, 
but  from  necessity  is  extremely  rough.  There  is  not  a  paved  street  in 
the  city  of  Monterey  which  is  not  so  rough  as  to  make  carnage-riding 
extremely  uncomfortable.  Enough  of  the  black  soil  gets  on  the  stones 
to  make  them  extremely  slippery  when  wet. 

The  sidewalks  are  usually  narrow  and  set  6  to  8  inches  above  the 
level  of  the  street.  Limestone  slabs  are  set  on  edge  outside,  while  the 
sidewalk  itself  is  made  of  the  same  stone  laid  flat,  or  small  cobble- 
stones, or  of  a  sort  of  mortar  called  here  tepachil.  The  latter  is  the 
most  durable.  It  is  also  much  better  suited  for  walking.  It  is  made 
by  preparing  a  subbed  of  6  inches  of  good  sized  stones  with  gravel  to 
fill  in  the  interstices;  above  this  >a  fine  sand  is  laid  on  and  pounded 
down,  and  on  this  a  sort  of  mortar  made  of  fine  sand  and  lime  is  sprea 
and  pounded  down.  When  this  is  nearly  dry  it  is  hand-rubbed  with 
piece  of  fine-grained  stone  until  it  is  water  proof  aud  quite  smooth. 

Most  of  the  houses  in  Monterey  are  only  one  story,  and  the  ground 


AMERICA MEXICO.  463 

floor  is  made  largely  of  this  same  tepachil.  I  saw  recently  the  floors  of 
oiie  house  which  were  laid  of  tin's  material  more  than  30  years  ago,  had 
been  in  use  every  day,  on  which  no  repairs  had  ever  been  made,  and 
whieh  are  apparently  as  good  as  when  first  made.  Water  can  he  freely 
sprinkled  on  it,  it  will  hold  great  weights,  and  is  an  admirable  floor  in 
all  respects,  except  that  it  is  cold  and  in  damp  weather  the  dampness 
which   rises  from  it  is  a  fruitful  cause  of  rheumatism  and  similar  dis- 


small  stones  above  are  mixed  and  pounded  in  with  mortar.  I  asked  of 
various  persons  the  cost  of  sidewalks  and  floors,  and  found  that  the 
price,  always  very  low,  varies  from  $1  to  $3  per  square  meter,  according 
to  the  care  taken  in  the  work,  depth  of  foundation,  etc.  In  some  houses 
the  dirt  was  removed  to  the  depth  of  6  feet,  and  large  stones  packed 
in  as  closely  a3  possible,  and  the  interstices  filled  with  gravel,  and  above 
finely  sifted  sand.  The  mortar  was  more  carefully  made  and  pounded 
and  also  given  more  time  to  dry.  There  is  an  abuudauce  of  limestone, 
which  splits  in  good  shape  for  pavements,  aud  labor  is  so  cheap  that  the 
prices  for  the  work  are  very  low.  I  noticed  that  one  of  the  new  smelt- 
ers has  on  its  main  floor  this  tepachil  and  that  it  serves  its  purpose.ad- 
mirably. 

There  is  a  great  need  for  smooth  streets  in  Monterey,  and  the  lime- 
stone could  be  laid  in  small  blocks  in  its  native  mortar  so  as  to  make 
excellent  streets.  This  tepachil  floor  is  used  in  many  portions  of  north- 
ern Mexico.  Formerly,  flooring  could  not  be  obtained,  aud  now  it  is  so 
expensive  that  its  use  is  very  much  restricted. 

In  this  city,  Nuevo  Laredo,  all  the  paving  done  consists  in  leveling 
the  streets  aud  spreading  gravel  on  top.  The  sidewalks  here  are  of 
brick  or  flat  stones,  or  tepachil.  Each  person  makes  his  own  sidewalk, 
and  there  are  no  strict  rules  enforcing  uniformity  of  height,  width,  or 
material.  Mostly  they  are  very  narrow,  rough,  and  only  better  than 
the  mud  or  fine  dust. 

COUNTRY  ROADS  OR  HIGHWAYS. 

The  highways  of  northern  Mexico  are  in  a  very  primitive  condition. 

i  Owing  to  the  great  geographical  area  and  the  sparseness  of  population 

:  it  has  not  been  possible  to  expend  much  money  in  bridging  streams  or 
improving  the  original  condition  of  the  first  roads.  In  the  time  of  the 
Spanish  dominion,  considerable  was  done  in  making  a  few  main  high- 
ways from  one  principal  city  to  another.  Until  within  a  very  few  years 
little  attention  has  been  paid  by  the  Mexican  authorities  to  this  very 

I  important  matter.  Streams  have  been  forded  and  bad  places  in  the 
roads  avoided  by  going  different  routes.     During  the  last  6  or  8  years 

!  the  matter  has  received  more  attention,  and  several  of  the  States  iu 

Northern  Mexico  have  made  good  beginnings  on  some  roads  which  were 

it  needed.     Ju  this  work,  however,  they  have  been  greatly  hampered 


464  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

by  lack  of  funds,  as  all  the  available  taxes  are  usually  expended  for 
other  purposes. 

The  Federal  Government  has  taken  measures  to  bring  this  subject 
to  the  attention  of  the  State  authorities,  and  while  very  little  has  beeu 
done,  comparatively  speakiug,  and  the  roads  as  a  whole  are  in  a  lament- 
able condition,  yet  the  public  and  official  mind  is  fairly  awakened  to 
the  need  of  improved  roads,  and  if  funds  were  available  the  work 
would  be  promptly  taken  in  hand.  The  railways  have  now  reached  so 
many  of  the  principal  cities  that  side  roads  and  roads  from  mines,  ha- 
ciendas, etc.,  to  railway  connections  are  of  special  importance. 

Owing  to  the  geographical  and  financial  condition,  Mexico  has  a  much 
more  valid  excuse  for  the  neglect  to  improve  the  highways  than  has 
the  United  States.  In  the  latter,  especially  in  the  older  States,  there 
has  been  for  many  years  sufficient  money,  but  no  educated  public  sen- 
timent as  to  the  great  importance  of  the  work. 

Within  the  last  few  years  several  states  in  northern  Mexico  have  ap- 
propriated sums  of  money  to  build  bridges  and  repair  others  and  im- 
prove portions  of  the  highway.  Some  municipalities  have  also  made  a 
beginning  in  this  direction.  So  far,  it  can  not  be  said  that  any  well- 
considered  system  has  been  adopted  and  continued  in  this  work. 

Warner  P.  Sutton, 

Consul  General. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Nuevo  Laredo,  February  11,  1891. 


NOGALES. 

BJEPOBT  BY  CONSUL  SMITH. 
CITY  STREETS. 

The  materials  used  for  street  construction  in  this  place,  are  the  ordi- 
nary gravel,  rock,  aud  dirt,  but  no  special  effort  is  made  to  put  and 
keep  the  streets  in  repair.  This  system  of  construction  prevails  in  all 
the  important  towns  of  this  consular  district,  and  as  there  is  but  little 
pleasure  driving  in  these  towns,  there  is  but  little  use  for  better 
streets. 

COUNTRY  ROADS  OR  HIGHWAYS. 


all 
;le   I 

er 


The  country  roads  are  all  natural  highways  and  for  the  most  part 
are  very  good,  considering  that  but  little  work  is  done  on  them.  There 
are  now  and  then  bridges  crossing  streams,  but  generally  the  streams 
are  small  and  are  forded.  The  natural  roads  of  this  country  are  quite 
noted  for  their  excellence,  and  for  the  most  of  the  year  are  smooth  and 
hard.  They  usually  follow  the  open  canons  and  often  in  making  a 
journey  of  20  miles,  one  encounters  nearly  every  point  of  the  compass? 


AMERICA MEXICO.  465 

or  in  other  words,  the  roads  are  tortuous,  and  frequently  one  travels 
4  or  5  miles  to  make  a  distance  of  2  in  an  air  line. 

Delos  H.  Smith, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Nogales,  December  2,  1890. 


PASO  DEL  NORTE. 

No  macadamized  or  paved  streets  in  this  city.    They  are  kept  in  re- 
pair by  prisoners  under  the  direction  of  police  officers. 
No  improved  public  roads  in  this  consular  district. 
But  little  work  of  any  kind  done  on  them  except  by  volunteer  work, 
as  necessity  requires,  and  by  prisoners  from  the  city  jail. 

A.  J.  Sampson, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Paso  del  Norte,  December  3,  1890, 


PIEDRAS  NEGRAS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  FEGH£T. 

Within  the  limits  of  this  consular  district,  excepting  perhaps  the 
city  of  Parras,  there  is  not  a  paved  street  or  roadway.  In  Parras 
cobblestones  were  used  and  at  an  early  date,  so  that  an  estimate  of 
cost  would  be  difficult  to  arrive  at.  The  towns  and  villages  of  this  dis- 
trict have  simple  dirt  roads,  with  a  footpath  at  each  side,  generally 
made  of  packed  soil.  These  roads  are  very  dusty  or  very  muddy,  ac- 
cording to  prevalence  of  drought  or  rain. 

In  the  country  no  attempts  are  made  at  road-making,  save  an  occa- 
sional bit  of  turnpike  and  ditch  in  low,  undrained  spots. 

Generally  it  can  be  stated  that,  in  this  consular  district,  there  are  no 
paved  streets  or  maintained  country  roads,  as  in  the  United  States, 
and  hence  my  inability  to  report  anything  of  value  to  those  desiring 
information  upon  the  streets  and  roadways  of  foreign  countries. 

Eugene  O.  Fechet, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Piedras  Negras,  December  23,  1S90. 
33a 30 


466  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

SONORA. 

REPORT  BY  COXSUL  WILLARD,  OF  QVAYMA8. 

In  this  consular  district  (Sonora)  there  is  but  little  to  report  as  to  the 
construction  of  "  city  streets  and  country  roads  or  highways  which  is 
germane  to  the  subject  of  improved  roads." 

CITY   STREETS. 

The  streets  of  the  cities  and  towns  of  Sonora  can  not  be  said  to  be 
expensive  to  construct  or  keep  in  repairs.    The  cities  and  town  sites, 
as  a  rule,  are  located  on  level  or  comparatively  level  ground,  the  * 
soil,  according  to  the  locality,  being  of  rock,  sand,  gravel,  and  clay.    In 
the  four  important  cities  of  Sonora  (Hermosillo,  Guaymas,  Ures,  and 
Alamos),  whose  united  population  will  not  exceed  50,000  people,  there 
are  but  few  improved  streets,  and  they  will  not,  in  the  aggregate,  ex-jj 
ceed  8  miles.    The  streets  that  are  improved  are  paved  with  cobble- 
stones, and  flat  stones  laid  in  sand,  and  are  not  fitted  or  intended  forJ 
heavy  traffic.    As  a  rule  these  paved  streets  are  confined  around  the 
public  squares  or  parks  (generally  located  in  the  center  of  the  city)  and  - 
approaches  to  the  same,  suitable  for  light  traffic  only ;  when  repairs 
are  needed  the  city  authorities  (city  council  or  ayuntamiento)  order  it 
done,  authorizing  the  expenditures  necessary  for  the  purpose. 

COUNTRY  ROADS  AND  ROADWAYS. 

The  highways  and  roads  throughout  this  consular  district  can  be 
classified  as  natural  roads,  and  seldom  laid  out  with  engineering  skill,* 
The  bridlepath  or  trails  made  and  used  when  the  country  was  first 
populated  (or  old  Indian  trails)  from  one  small  settlement  to  another 
became  (in  the  course  of  time  as  the  population  increased  and  wagons 
were  introduced,  the  trees  and  undergrowth  of  bushes  were  cut  away'  I 
to  widen  the  bridlepaths  and  trails)  roads  over  which  the  cumbrous 
ox  carts  and  wagons  which  were  first  used  could  pass.  The  persons 
who  made  most  use  of  the  roads,  with  their  wagon  trains,  made  the 
necessary  repairs  to  keep  them  trausitable.  As  land  was  of  .little 
value,  and  most  of  it  (at  one  time)  public  land,  there  was  no  difficulty 
or  question  as  to  the  u  right  of  way."  The  land  not  being  fenced  or  in- 
closed, excepting  to  small  extent  near  the  settlements  once  established, 
these  bridlepaths  and  roads  became  highways  for  public  trade.  To  day 
in  Sonora  these  roads  between  the  villages,  towns,  and  cities  are  kept 
in  repair  principally  by  the  owners  of  freight  teams  and  stages.  The 
country  not  being  fenced,  if  a  portion  of  the  road  from  excessive  rains 
or  other  causes  becomes  impassable,  a  road  is  made  around  the  bad 
places  by  cutting  away  the  brush  and  trees  and  leveling  the  ground  so 
that  wagons  can  pass.     When  streams  of  water  are  met  (there  are  no 


AMERICA — MEXICO.  467 

large  rivers  in  Sonora)  they  are  forded  at  the  shallow  places.  In 
among  the  valley  lauds  (which  are  the  only  lands  cultivated)  if  the 
land-owner  wishes  to  utilize  what  has  been  used  as  a  highway  he  must 
provide  a  roadway  for  the  public  around  the  edge  or  border  of  the 
land,  or  fence  on  either  side  of  the  road  (before  used).  In  some  parts 
of  Sonora  work  has  been  done  on  roads  by  the  authorities  of  the  district 
calling  on  the  owners  of  the  laud  to  assist  in  grading  or  straightening 
the  same.  In  other  parts  a  road  tax  is  levied  on  the  landed  proprietor 
and  is  paid,  either  in  money  or  work,  for  a  few  repairs  indispensably 
necessary.  There  are  no  macadamized  roads  or  toll  roads,  or  bridges 
over  which  tolls  are  charged,  in  Sonora.  There  are  bridges,  but  there 
are  none  over  one  span,  and  these  principally  over  irrigating  ditches, 
the  said  bridges  erected  by  the  owners  of  the  ditches. 

As  this  consular  district  is  but  sparsely  populated,  and  the  roads  over 
which  the  freight  wagons  and  stages  travel  not  being  in  mountainous 
districts,  no  especial  road  laws  are  carried  out  systematically  by  the 
State  government. 

A.  WlLLARD, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

OuaymaSj  December  1,  1890. 


TAMPICO. 
REPORT  BY  CONSVL  LIEBERKNEOET. 

There  is  not  a  street  in  this  city  fit  for  a  carriage  to  drive  over.  The 
streets  are  all  paved  with  small  cobblestones  and  set  not  over  6  inches 
in  the  ground,  without  any  kind  of  a  foundation. 

There  are  no  country  roads  whatever  in  this  section  of  country,  nor 
wagons  or  carriages.    Everything  is  carried  on  horse  or  mule  back, 
and  by  water  in  canals. 
Trails  take  the  place  of  roads  here. 

A.  Lieberknecht, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Tampico,  March  16,  1891. 


TUXPAN. 


The  streets  of  this  port  are  such  crude  affairs,  being  rocks  of  all 
Khi4.es  and  sizes  simply  laid  in  earth,  having  no  Uniformity  as  to  level, 
and  being  left  entirely  to  the  property  owner  who  is  obligated  to  clean 
and  repair  not  only  the  sidewalks  but  to  the  center  of  the  street, 
public  roadways  are  not  more  than  paths  which,  owing  to  the  entire 


468  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

traffic  being  done  by  pack  mules  and  Indian  porters,  are  only  kept 
open  by  the  people  living  on  same  who  are  required  by  law  to  work  3 
days  every  year  cleaning  out  weeds  and  overhanging  boughs. 

These  roads  are  never  graded,  and  no  vehicle  could  or  ever  has 
passed  over  them  j  in  fact,  during  the  rainy  season  they  are  almost  im- 
passable by  man  or  beast. 

John  Drayton, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Tuxpan,  December  6, 1890. 


CENTRAL  AMERICA. 

NICARAGUA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  NEWELL,  OF  MANAGUA. 

CITY   STREETS. 

After  thorough  inquiry  and  careful  investigation  I  have  to  report  that 
the  streets  and  roadways  of  Nicaragua  are  of  the  most  primitive  char- 
acter. 

The  streets  show  that  very  little  labor  has  been  expended  upon  them. 
The  nature  of  the  earth  forming  the  streets  is  such — volcanic  forma- 
tion— that  it  makes  a  good  hard  street  without  the  necessity  of  artificial 
means  being  used  to  improve  it.  So  hard  and  firm  is  this  earth  that, 
notwithstanding  the  long  rainy  season  of  the  country,  it  does  not  form 
into  mud ;  the  water  flows  over  it  as  if  it  were  asphalt  or  macadam- 
ized. 

The  streets  of  nearly  all  the  cities  of  Nicaragua  are  laid  out  and 
made  in  the  same  way.  They  all  have  "the  peculiarity  of  running  for  a 
short  distance  on  a  perfect  level,  then  rapidly  rising  by  a  steep  incline 
to  a  second  level,  and  so  on.  This  steep  incline  is  paved  with  cobble 
stones  or  broken  pieces  of  rock,  so  as  to  enable  teams  and  horsemen  to 
ascend  or  descend  without  danger. 

In  the  city  of  Leon  an  attempt,  in  a  small  way,  has  been  made  to  pave 
some  of  the  streets.  Cobble  stones,  and  square  blocks  of  stones,  some- 
what similar  to  Belgian  blocks,  have  been  used,  but  the  distance  paved 
would  not  exceed  the  length,  on  any  one  street,  of  500  feet. 

So  little  expense  attends  the  building  or  maintenance  of  the  streets 
of  Nicaragua  that  it  is  almost  reduced  to  a  cipher. 

COUNTRY  ROADS. 

The  country  roads  are  made  by  cutting  down  the  trees  and  the  small 
undergrowth,  and  removing  from  the  way  of  the  proposed  road  the  large 
rocks.    Outside  of  this  manner  there  is  no  other  adopted  in  this  coun- 


SOUTH    AMERICA.  469 

try.    The  cost  of  building  roadways  in  Nicaragua  it  is  impossible  to 
arrive  at,  as  there  is  no  data  kept  of  these  matters. 

William  Newell, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Managua,  March  5,  1891. 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 

BRAZIL. 

BAHIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BURKE. 
COUNTRY  ROADS. 

There  are  no  country  roads,  and  but  very  little  can  be  said  of  "  city 
streets." 

Communication  between  towns  where  there  are  no  railways  to  the 
interior  is  by  water  in  small  boats  or  cauoes,  or  by  bridle  paths  on  don- 
keys, mules,  or  horseback.  To  go  in  a  carriage  of  any  description  5, 
10,  20,  40,  or  any  number  of  miles,  few  or  many,  into  the  interior,  is 
a  thing  unheard  of  and  unknown;  and  this  for  two  very  good  reasous, 
viz:  First,  there  are  no  roads  for  a  carriage,  and  in  the  second  place 
there  are  no  carriages,  excepting  those  owned  by  livery-stable  proprie- 
tors, and  these  are  rarely  used  except  for  funerals,  weddings,  and  bap- 
tisms. 

In  this  city  of  200,000  inhabitants,  perhaps,  there  are  not  over  five 
families  that  have  their  own  turnout.  All  the  merchandise  sent  from 
this  city  to  the  interior  of  the  State  must  be  taken  to  some  seaport  in 
small  craft  and  then  sent  by  rail,  by  river,  by  donkey,  mule,  or  horse  to 
its  destination.  Very  little  is  sent  by  rail,  as  the  number  of  miles  of 
railway  in  this  State  and  Sergipe  is  very  limited,  so  that  nearly  all  the 
merchandise  imported,  as  well  as  the  exported,  products  must  betaken 
by  water  up  or  down  the  river,  and  by  donkey  or  mule,  simply  because 
there  are  no  roads. 

From  the  city  of  Bahia  to  the  southwestern  part  of  the  State  it  re- 
quires at  least  30  days  to  make  the  journey.  The  journey  by  rail  is  450 
kilometres,*  thence  by  horse  or  muleback  to  the  San  Francisco  Kiver, 
up  the  river  in  a  small  boat,  then  again  by  mule,  donkey,  or  horseback 
till  the  town  in  the  interior  is  reached. 

Some  idea  of  the  difficulties  ami  vexatious  delays  in  traveling  in  this 
country  may  be  obtained  when  it  is  known  that  to  cover  a  distance  some 


1  kilometre  =  0.021.55  of  a  mile. 


470  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

200  miles  less  than  from  New  York  to  Chicago  (24  hours),  it  takes  30 
days  in  this  district — days  of  discomfort  not  only  in  the  actual  travel- 
ing, but  also  in  the  eating,  drinking,  and  sleeping.  The  people  are  very 
hospitable,  so  it  is. not  from  this  cause  the  discomfort  in  traveling 
arises.  It  is  simply  because  actual  comfort  in  going  from  town  to  town, 
such  as  one  finds  iu  the  States,  has  never  existed  here;  consequently 
neither  the  country  nor  the  people  can^ive  what  it  has  not.  When  one 
leaves  the  rail  or  the  boat  he  simply  mounts  his  horse,  mule,  or  donkey, 
having  provided  a  guide  if  not  familiar  with  the  country,  and  follows  the 
trail,  for  it  is  nothing  more,  till  he  reaches  his  destination. 

Women  who  find  it  necessary  to  travel  must  adapt  themselves  to  the 
same  conditions  as  the  men. 

"CITY  STREETS. 

Of  the  streets  of  the  city  of  Bakia,  I  can  say  that  in  general  the 
pavement  is  very  bad  and  very  rough. 

The  principal  street  in  the  lower  and  in  the  upper  town  is  the  best 
paved  in  the  city.  Nearly  all  the  other  streets,  with  a  very,  very  few 
exceptions,  are  wretchedly  paved  and  very  badly  kept. 

About  20  years  ago  the  principal  street  in  the  lower  and  upper  city 
was  paved  with  stone,  brought  from  Eio  de  Janeiro.  It  is,  I  should  say, 
the  ordinary  paving  stone  consisting  of  blocks  from  8  to  12  inches  in 
length,  from  3  to  6  wide,  and  from  4  to  G  deep.  There  was  no  attempt 
at  system  in  paving  the  other  city  streets  evidently,  as  all  sorts  and  all 
sizes  of  stone  are  seen.  One  street  called  Ladeira  da  Barra  was  mac- 
adamized recently,  and  a  sidewalk  of  the  same  kind  made  and  covered 
with  Portland  cement,  to  give  it  a  smooth  surface.  There  is  very  little 
teaming  done  in  the  city.  Nearly  all  the  merchandise  in  the  lower  city, 
is  moved  on  the  heads  of  negroes,  or  on  a  four-wheeled  vehicle,  small 
wheels,  all  of  the  same  size.  These  wagons,  if  such  they  may  be  called, 
are  chiefly  employed  in  removing  merchandise  from  the  custom-house 
to  the  different  stores  or  import  houses.  This  wagon  is  drawn  by  negroes. 
There  is  also  in  use  a  two-wheeled  cart,  called  a  carroca,  drawn  by  a 
mule,  upon  which  may  be  placed  4  or  5  barrels  of  flour  or  its  equivalent 
in  weight  of  some  other  article  or  product.  This  little  four-wheeled 
wagon  and  the  carroca  constitute  the  entire  wagon  traffic  of  the  city, 
so  that  a  street  well  paved  will  last  here  for  years  without  repair. 
Whenever  heretofore  any  street  required  paving  the  work  was  done 
under  contract  from  the  municipal  government.  Bepairs  whenever 
made  were  under  police  authority,  but  now  a  company  has  been  formed 
under  the  name  of  "Companhia  de  Calceteiros,"  or  paving  company. 
This  company  has  received  from  the  municipal  government  instructions 
as  to  what  shall  be  done  in  the  line  of  paving  the  streets,  where  it  shall 
be  done,  what  new  streets  shall  be  laid  out,  which  ones  shall  be  repaired, 
prices  paid  for  work,  etc. 


SOUTH   AMERICA.  471 

The  wages  established  by  the  day,  a  day  of  10  hours,  are  as  follows : 

Milreis.* 

Superintendent 3 

Assistant 2| 

Foreman 2 

First-class  pavers 2 

Becond-class  pavers If 

Third-class  pavers  1| 

Attendants .• 1£ 

Payment  to  employed  must  be  made  weekly.  If  any  work  should  be 
doneuuder  contract  by  this  company  the  prices  fixed  are  from  400  reis 
(21.8  cents)  to  1,800  reis  (93.3  cents)  per  square  metre,  depending  upon 
the  size  of  the  stone  laid.  If  flagstones  are  laid  for  walks  the  price  is  16 
milreis  per  cubic  meter.  If  the  walk  is  of  brick,  the  price  is  22  milreis 
per  cubic  metre.  The  price  of  the  material  depends  on  whether  it  is 
imporor  or  not,  it  also  depends  upon  where  material  is  obtained ;  the 
difficulty  and  expense  in  getting  it,  the  quality  of  the  stone  employed 
in  construction,  and  other  things  that  have  a  tendency  to  raise  or  re- 
duce the  price. 

Rent  is  naturally  higher  on  the  best  streets  of  the  city,  where,  as  a 
rule,  the  houses  are  in  a  much  better  condition  than  in  the  poorer  city 
streets. 

David  N.  Burke, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Bahia,  January  20, 1891. 


PORTO  ALEGRO.t 

The  street  superintendent  to  the  president  of  the  municipal  council,  translated  and  trans- 
mitted by  Consul  Negley,  of  Bio  Grande  do  Sul. 

In  obedience  to  the  official  order  of  the  29th  of  January  last,  No.  22,  by  which  I  am 
directed  to  answer  the  questions  ashed  by  the  citizen  consul  of  the  United  States  of 
North  America,  I  answer  as  to  the  first  question,  What  material  is  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  streets  ?  In  order  to  give  a  satisfactory  auswer  to  this  question  it 
should  be  boruo  in  mind  that  the  city  is  built  upon  an  eminence,  which  is  divided 
into  tbrco  sections,  a  high  section  in  the  center,  a  low  section  to  the  north,  and  a  low 
section  to  the  south.  In  the  high  section  the  material  employed  is  a  mixture  of  two- 
thirds  sand  and  one-third  clay  for  the  construction  of  the  bed,  because  the  ground  is 
gravelly  and  in  part  rocky,  and  on  this  bed  are  placed  granite  stones  of  irregular 
sizes,  from  15  to  20  centimetres  in  width  ami  from  10  to  15  centimetres  in  depth, 
placed  well  together  one  against  the  other  and  covered  with  a  light  layer  of  sand,  in 
order  to  till  up  the  small  crevices  occurring  in  the  laying  of  the-  stones.  As  to  the  low 
part  of. the  city  in  the  north,  where  the  ground  is  composed  of  a  filling  of  soil,  the 
work  is  the  same,  with  the  dillereuco  that  in  place  of  one-third  clay  for  the  coustruc- 

*1  milreis  =  54.5  cents. 

t Porto  Alegro,  a  city  of  50,000  inhabitants,  situated  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
State  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul. 


472  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

lion  of  the  bod,  it  is  entirely  of  sand.  In  the  southern  section,  where  the  ground  is 
sandy,  the  stones  are  merely  laid  down  in  the  same  way  as  if  the  bed  had  been  artifi- 
cially prepared,  except  that  in  the  clayey  places  the  same  method  of  laying  the 
stones  is  followed  as  iu  the  higher  sections. 

As  to  the  second  qnestiou,  What  does  the  material  cost  ?  Stone,  Rs.  4$000  ($1.60,  ex- 
change at  40  cents  to  the  milreis)  per  cubic  metre;  clay  Rs.  .640  (25  cents)  per  cubic 
metre;  manual  labor  1$100  (44  cents)  per  square  metre;  amounting  to  Rs.  If 600  (64 
cents)  per  square  metre  for  material  and  labor. 

As  to  the  third  question,  In  what  manner  are  the  streets  made  ?  This  is  answered  by 
the  response  to  the  first  question,  adding,  however,  that  the  new  streets  are  made 
17.60  metres  in  width. 

As  to  the  fourth  question,  Is  there  any  difference  between  streets  for  light  traffic  and 
for  heavy  traffic  ?  None,  absolutely.  There  is,  however,  the  inconvenience  that  the 
streets  for  heavy  traffic  are  soon  worn  out,  when  they  are  immediately  reconstructed 
de  novo,  always  by  the  same  system. 

As  to  the  fifth  question,  What  is  the  depth  and  on  what  foundation  are  the  streets 
made  ?  In  the  high  part  of  the  city  where  the  ground  is  gravelly  or  rocky,  30  centi- 
metres, and  in  the  low  section  on  the  north  side,  50  centimetres  depth  of  sand,  and  in 
the  low  section  on  the  south  side  from  15  to  20  centimetres  in  depth. 

As  to  the  sixth  question,  it  is  answered  in  the  second. 

As  to  the  seventh  question,  What  is  the  cost  of  repairing  the  streets  f  Never  less 
than  1  milreis  (40  cents)  per  square  metre,  by  contract. 

As  to  the  eighth  question,  Is  any  assessment  imposed  upon  the  adjoining  property  to 
make  or  to  repair  the  streets  ?  None  for  the  municipal  coffers,  but  the  State  treasury 
collects  a  tax  of  10  per  cent,  on  the  assessed  value  of  the  property,  not  returning  any- 
thing to  the  municipal  coffers. 

Here  is  the  information  that  I  have  been  directed  to  give  to  you. 
Health  and  fraternity, 

The  General  Superintendent. 

Porto  Alegro,  February  13,  1891. 


RIO  GRANDE  DO  SUL. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  NEQLET. 

In  response  to  the  "street  and  roadway"  circular  lately  received  from 
the  Department.  I  beg  to  transmit  herewith  a  report  by  the  city  engi- 
neer of  Pelotas  in  answer  to  some  questions  submitted  by  me  to  him  on 
tbis  subject.  His  answers  will  cover  the  ground  for  the  cities  of  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul  and  Porto  Alegre  as  well  as  for  Pelotas,  as  the  streets  in 
these,  the  three  principal  cities  of  this  State,  are  all  made  in  substan- 
tially the  same  way  and  at  no  great  difference  in  cost.  The  streets  of 
Pelotas  are  perhaps  the  best  of  the  three,  and  are  indeed  better  than  in 
a  majority  of  the  cities  of  the  same  size  in  the  United  States.  I  speak 
of  the  paved  streets.  As  for  highways  there  is  so  little  attempt  at 
improvement  it  is  not  worth  while  to  mention  them. 

Charles  Negley, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Rio  Grande"do  Sul,  February  4,  1891. 


SOUTH    AMERICA.  473 

THE  STREETS  OF  PELOTAS. 
(Inclosnre  in  Consul  Negloy's  report. — Translation.] 

Department  of  the  Public  Works  of  the  City  of  Pelotas, 

Jan wry  24,  1891. 

In  response  to  the  questions  formulated  in  the  request  of  citizen  consul  of  the 
United  States  resident  in  the  city  of  Rio  Grande,  I  have  the  honor  of  presenting  the 
following  points: 

(1)  What  material  is  used  in  the  construction  of  your  streets?— Answer.  As  to  the 
first  question  I  answer  granite,  vegetable  earth,  and  saud. 

(2)  What  does  the  material  cost? — Answer.  As  the  second  question,  15  kilos  of 
stone  cost  G5  reis  (.02£  cent),  15  kilos  of  saud  cost  20  reis  (.008  cent)  and  15  kilos  of 
vegetable  earth  cost  15  reis  (.006  cent),  (Exchange  at  40  cents  to  the  milreis). 

(3)  In  what  manner  are  the  streets  constructed  ? — Answer.  As  to  the  third  question, 
by  filling  in  earth  or  by  paving. 

(4)  Is  there  any  difference  between  streets  paved  for  light  traffic  and  for  heavy 
traffic?  If  so,  -what  ?— Answer.  As  to  the  fourth  question  there  is  no  difference;  they 
are  always  made  so  as  to  give  the  resistance  necessary  for  the  pressure  exerted  by 
vehicles  for  the  transportation  of  freight. 

(5)  What  is  the  depth  and  on  what  foundation  are  the  streets  made  ?— Answer.  As 
to  the  fifth,  the  foundation  is  of  plastic  clay,  impermeable,  merely  covered  by  one 
light  layer  of  vegetable  earth,  which  varies  from  20  centimetres  to  50  centimetres  at 
the  greatest.  As  to  the  method  of  proceeding  :  If  it  is  only  for  filling  in  earth,  tin  re 
is  a  mixture  made  of  sand,  vegetable  earth,  rubbish,  and  clay  and  given  a  convex 
form,  placing  on  the  sides  stone  gutters  or  drains  for  carrying  off  the  waters  ;  if  for 
paving  an  excavation  is  made  of  50  or  60  centimetres,  if  such  should  be  necessary, 
and  filled  with  vegetable  earth  well  packed  to  30  centimetres,  and  on  the  top  of  that 
a  layer  of  sand  as  a  foundation  for  the  stones;  when  the  foundation  is  of  clay,  on  the 
other  hand,  there  is  placed  sand  and  stone,  rough  hewn,  of  the  following  dimensions, 
0.03  centimetre  on  the  upper  face  and  0.12  centimetre  in  depth  at  the  middle  when 
the  stones  are  irregular. 

(6)  What  does  it  cost  to  make  the  streets,  per  square  metre  in  the  first  place  ? — 
Answer.  As  to  the  sixth  this  is  very  variable,  because  in  some  streets  there  is  a  neces- 
sity to  fill  up  more  or  less,  and  in  others  to  excavate  more  or  less.  It  has  been  the 
rule  to  pay  for  a  cubic  metre  of  filling  or  excavation  450  reis  (18  cents)  and  as    much 

\  more  for  transportation.     As  for  the  cost  of  pavement  the   price  at  present  for  a 
i  square  metre  is  1.750  milreis  (70  cents),  ready  for  use. 

(7)  What  does  it  cost  to  keep  the  streets  in  repair? — Answer.  As  to  the  seventh, 
l  the  cost  of  repairing  the  paved  streets  amounts  on  the  average  to  3,500  milreis  ($1,400). 

(8)  Is  there  any  assessment  imposed  upon  the  adjoining  property  either  to  make  or 
;  repair  the  streets? — Answer.  As  to  the  eighth,  yes.  The  owner  of  adjoining  property 
j  is  obliged  to  furnish  the  stone  necessary  for  the  pavement  in  front  of  his  property  as 
j  far  as  the  middle  of  the  street ;  so  also  he  is  obliged  to  make  or  cause  to  be  made  at 
|  his  own  expense  the  sidewalk  along  the  boundary  of  his  property  of  the  height  and 

width  designated  by  the   city  council,  and  if  it  should  happen   that   he  refuses  or 
neglects  to  furnish  the  stone  necessary  he  will  be  punished  by  a  fino  of  1.600  milreis 
(64  cents)  for  each  square  metre  of  pavement  in  front  of  his  property,  which  amount 
will  be  applied  to  the  benefit  of  said  pavement. 
Health  and  fraternity, 

ROMUALDO  DE  ABREU   K  SlLVA. 

Engineer. 


474  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

COLOMBIA. 

BARRANQUILLA. 


There  are  no  roadways  in  this  consular  district.  Aside  from  river 
and  railway  transportation  every  thing  is  carried  upon  the  backs  of 
mules. 

The  streets  of  the  cities  are  entirely  unimproved.  From  this  view  of 
the  subject  in  this  consular  district  there  is  nothing  upon  which  a  report 
can  be  based  as  requested  in  said  circular. 

Johnson  Nickeus, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Barranquilla,  February  23, 1891. 


,rf 


DUTCH  GUIANA. 

REPORT  OF  CONSUL  WTNDHAM. 

The  roads  in  this  town  are  not  made,  but  are  the  existing  shell  reef, 
on  either  side  of  which  the  streets  are  constructed  by  houses  being  built, 
and  these  roadways  are  only  repaired  by  occasionally  dumping  extra 
shells  where  the  road  is  worn  away  too  much. 

The  buildings  on  the  roadside  are  not  allowed  to  encroach  on  the, 
roads,  which  have  to  be  kept  open  a  certain  fixed  breadth. 

In  the  districts  no  roads  exist,  communication  being  only  by  boat  on 
the  rivers  that  intersect  the  colony  and  by  creeks  joining  the  rivers. 

I  fear  it  would  be  impossible  to  give  any  points  on  road-making  from 
this  very  primitive  colony  that  would  interest  the  mayor  of  Boston. 

Wm.  Wyndham, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Paramaribo,  December  22,  1890. 


VENEZUELA. 

REPORTS  BY  CONSUL  BIRD,  OF  LA  GUATRA. 

CITY  STREETS. 

-• 

It  is  assumed  from  some  personal  knowledge  and  from  general  infor- 
mation that  the  streets  of  La  Guayra  and  of  Caracas,  the  capital  of 
Venezuela,'  are  the  best  in  the  Republic.  Most  of  these,  except  in  tlie 
center  of  the  latter  city,  are  very  narrow,  so  much  so  that  they  barely 
afford  passage  way  for  two  coaches  abreast.  They  are  thus  built  in 
order  to  avoid,  in  some  measure,  the  tropical  heat  and  glare  of  the 


SOUTH   AMERICA.  475 

midday  sun,  and  the  overhanging  balconies  of  the  upper  stories  of  the 
houses  also  contribute  to  the  same  effect.  Besides,  it  appears  that  the 
currents  of  fresh  air  forced  through  these  narrow  streets  and  alleys  are 
much  stronger  than  the  feeble  breezes  that  stir  through  the  wider 
thoroughfares. 

In  the  matter  of  street  paving  the  Venezuelans  have  adopted  and 
still  maintain  the  methods  of  their  ancestors,  the  Spaniards,  who  set- 
tled the  country  over  300  years  ago,  and  it  may  be  added  that  these 
methods  have  undergone  no  change,  as  is  observed  from  much  of  the 
old  Spanish  work  still  in  existence  on  deserted  roads  and  streets.  It  is 
true  that  some  asphalt  block  pavement  has  been  recently  put  down  in 
front  of  the  executive  mansion  in  Caracas  that  presents  a  pleasing  con- 
trast to  the  old  style  of  pavement,  but  the  improvement  seems  to  have 
been  confined  to  that  particular  locality,  and  there  is  no  prospect  of  its 
further  extension,  and  it  should  be  stated  that  the  exorbitant  freight 
rates  of  the  railway  from  La  Guayra  to  Caracas,  precludes  the  idea  of 
importing  paving  material.  Nothing  especially  suitable  for  the  purpose 
is  found  in  the  environs  of  Caracas,  and,  therefore,  such  poor  mate- 
rial as  can  be  obtained  must  be  made  use  of.  There  is  an  abundance 
of  good  brick  clay  near  by,  but  uo  facilities  for  vitrifying  the  brick,  as 
.is  practiced  in  the  United  States,  and  hence  this  material  is  unavail- 
able. 

The  street,  after  being  carefully  graded,  is  laid  out  in  long  parallel 
lines,  3  feet  apart,  into  which  cobblestones  set  on  edge  are  planted. 
Cross  lines  of  stone  are  then  set  up  at  intervals  of  3  feet,  so  that  the 
entire  street  is  laid  out  in  3-feet  squares.  These  squares  are  then  filled 
up  with  diagonal  lines  of  cobblestone  set  on  edge,  and,  when  carefully 
executed,  the  paving  presents  a  rather  pleasing  effect.  The  plan  Urns 
explained  is  illustrated  as  follows  : 


r... * ~ ■',.;.   . 


After  this  paving  is  completed  the  entire  work  is  covered  with  a 
heavy  coating  of  sharp  sand  that  fills  the  interstices  of  the  stones  and 
makes  the  pavement  more  solid. 

Owing,  it  is  presumed  to  faulty  preparation  of  the  subsoil,  to  the 
poor  quality  of  stone  used  and  to  the  careless  manner  in  which  it  is  set 
up,  this  pavement  can  not  resist  the  rolling  and  pounding  of  heavy 
traffic,  and,  therefore,  the  business  streets  of  the  city  are  being  con- 
stantly repaired. 


476     STREETS  AND  HIGHWAYS  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 
COUNTRY  ROADS  OR  HIGHWAYS. 

The  northern  limit  of  Venezuela,  traversed  from  east  to  west  by  the 
Cordilleras  and  Pariina  mountain  ranges,  is  very  rugged  and  broken 
for  a  distance  of  70  miles  south  of  the  Caribbean  seaeoast,  and  hence 
the  construction  of  highways  over  stupendous  precipices,  through 
almost  impassable  gorges,  and  around  lofty  mountain  summits  is  a 
work  that  requires  engineering  skill  and  considerable  outlay  of  capital. 
These  prerequisites  have  never  been  contributed  by  the  Government  of 
Venezuela ;  for,  if  we  may  except  the  short  coach  road  from  La  Guayra 
to  Caracas  and  the  few  roads  from  Caracas  to  the  outlying  towns  and 
villages  near  by,  there  are  no  roads  in  this  part  of  the  country  that  can 
be  properly  designated  as  such.  Even  the  best  of  them  are  mere  dirt 
roads  kept  up  in  a  primitive  way ;  and  if,  as  in  the  United  States,  a 
prolonged  rainy  season  should  occur,  they  would  soon  become  impass- 
able. The  road  from  La  Guayra  to  Caracas  above  alluded  to,  although 
well  laid  out  over  great  natural  obstructions,  is  very  badly  kept,  and 
transit  over  it  becomes,  at  times,  difficult  and  dangerous.  The  roads, 
so  called,  south  of  Caracas,  leading  into  the  interior  of  the  country,  are, 
generally  speaking,  miserable  bridle  paths,  over  which  long  trains  of 
donkeys  transport  produce  to  and  merchandise  from  the  city  of  Cara- 
cas. Indeed  it  may  be  confidently  stated  that  there  is  not  a  5-mile 
stretch  of  third-grade  roadway  in  this  consular  district. 

The  old  Spauish  road  from  La  Guayra  to  Caracas,  about  12  miles  in 
length,  now  long  abandoned,  is  a  curious  and  interesting  relic  of  the 
old  colonial  times,  and  suggests  the  idea  that  perhaps  the  aborigines 
of  this  country  had  in  the  Spaniards  quite  as  severe  taskmasters  as 
those  that  weighed  the  straw  and  taled  the  brick  for  the  patient  and 
oppressed  Hebrew.  All  of  this  wide  highway,  except  some  short 
stretches  of  level  land  on  the  mountain  top  and  along  its  side,  has  been 
well  paved  in  the  style  now  used  in  the  city  of  Caracas,  and  much  of  it, 
so  well  and  carefully  done,  is  still  in  a  good  state.  The  scenery  along 
the  line  of  this  old  way  is  exceptionally  fine,  and  the  Spanish  cavalier 
upon  arriving  at  the  top  of  the  mountain,  and  viewing  the  beautiful 
valley  and  city  of  Caracas  at  his  feet,  must  have  felt  quite  as  contented 
as  the  famous  Hebrew  that  gazed  westward  across  the  Jordan  upon  the 
country  reserved  for  his  people. 

From  the  foregoing  statement  it  must  appear  that  none  but  the  most 
primitive  methods  are  employed  in  making  and  maintaining  public 
roads.  All  the  details  of  the  work  are  of  the  simplest  kind,  and  the  ex- 
ecution by  common  laborers  poorly  paid  is  very  inexpensive.  The 
opening  and  improving  of  public  roads  and  highways  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  General  Government,  but  new  roads  are  rarely  or  never 
thought  of,  and  others  are  only  improved  when  thoy  become  impassable. 
Such  a  system,  it  may  well  be  imagined,  contributes  little  or  nothing 
to  the  value  of  lands  contiguous  to  these  roads  and  constitutes  a  serious 


BRITISH    WEST    INDIES.  477 

barrier   to    profitable   commerce    between   Caracas  aud   tbe  interior 
country. 


United  States  Consulate, 

La  Ouayra,  December  10,  1890. 


Winfield  S.  Bird, 

Consul. 


BRITISH  WEST  INDIES. 

ANTIGUA. 
REPORT  BT  CONSUL  BRADFORD, 

Tbere  are  at  present,  in  Antigua,  about  10  miles  of  streets  and  140 
of  roadways,  kept  in  thorough  repair  at  an  annual  cost  of  about 
$15,000,  besides  which  there  is  an  annual  grant  of  $1,200  for  mason 
work  and  repairs  to  bridges.  Construction  and  maintenance  are  both 
carried  on  under  the  provisions  of  the  road  act  of  1880,*  which  is 
very  comprehensive,  and  has,  I  am  given  to  understand,  worked  to  the 
satisfaction  of  both  the  citizens  and  the  government. 

Under  the  act  the  highways  are  divided  into  five  classes:  Class  I 
embraces  the  10  miles  of  streets  j  Classes  it,  hi,  iv,  and  v  are  all 
country  and  suburban  roads.  The  division  was  made  (1)  with  reference 
to  greater  or  less  difficulty,  in  places,  or  obtaining  suitable  stone ;  (2) 
to  the  amount  of  traffic  likely  to  pass  over  a  road ;  and  (3)  to  the  greater 
or  less  liablity  to  drainage  by  heavy  rains.  It  has  been  found  to  sim- 
plify very  much  the  system  of  construction  and  repair,  and  has  worked 
well  dining  the  past  10  years.    ' 

Convict  labor  is  permitted,  within  a  radius  of  1  mile  from  St.  John's, 
on  six  of  the  most  frequented  roads  and  on  that  leading  to  the  naval 
station  at  English  Harbor. 

city  streets. 

Construction. — The  streets  of  St.  John's  are  constructed  and  kept  in 
repair  by  the  superintendent  of  public  works  and  the  cost  defrayed 
out  of  the  ordinary  taxes,  as  in  our  own  cities.  The  method  of  con- 
struction is  as  follows : 

The  surface  earth  is  carefully  excavated  to  a  depth  of  at  least  12 
inches  and  leveled.  This  street  bed  is  then  covered  with  4  inches  of 
"grift  or  similar  durable  material,  and  with  this  layer  the  contour 
of  the  road  way  is  formed,  as  to  the  height  of  the  crown  of  the  street 
and  its  slope  and  level.  In  this  material  no  stone  over  H  inches  in  di- 
ameter is  permitted.  Over  the  grit  an  even  stratum  of  broken  stone 
is  laid  to  a  depth  of  8  inches.  This  is  called  "  metaling."  The  whole 
is  then  covered  with  grit  and   sand,  as   a  binding  material,  spread 

•  Legislative  council,  Leward  rales,    No.  7,  July,  18ti0. 
t  Stone  broken  or  mashed  very  fine. 


478  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

to  a  depth  of  three-quarters  of  an  inch.  A  curb,  composed  of  stone 
blocks  10  by  14  inches  in  diameter  and  8  inches  thick,  strongly  cemented 
together,  separates  this  roadway  from  the  sidewalk,  and  at  its  base  a 
wide  gutter  is  formed.  The  curb  is  composed  of  the  stone  found  on 
the  island— usually  crystalline  limestone— and  the  gutter  is  either  of 
the  same  stone,  of  brick,  or  of  large  square  tiles. 
The  sidewalks  of  the  city  streets  were  intended  to  be  of  a  width  of 

8  feet,  but  the  citizens  have  in  so  many  instances  encroached  upon 
them  by  verandas,  flights  of  steps,  etc.,  that  it  may  be  said  there  are 
no  sidewalks  in  St.  John's.  Some  buildings  project  so  far  as  to  leave 
barely  2  feet  width  between  the  curb  and  the  front  of  the  houses.  It 
is 'understood,  however,  that  this  will  be  corrected.  What  sidewalks 
there  are  are  not  paved,  except  in  a  few  instances  under  the  porticos 
of  prominent  business  houses  where  stone  flags  are  laid.  Drain  pipes, 
12  inches  in  diameter,  and  culverts  are  laid  throughout  the  city,  so 
that  the  streets  are  rarely  flooded,  even  in  the  heaviest  rains. 

The  height  of  the  crown  of  the  causeway  varies  according  to  the 
profile  of  the  surface,  in  some  streets  being  about  6  inches  above  the" 
gutter  level  and  in  others  a  foot,  or  even  more. 

When  the  construction  of  a  street  has  been  thus  completed  it  requires 
at  first  little  attention  beyond  the  smoothing  down  of  wheel  tracks  and 
the  filling  up,  with  broken  stone,  of  ruts  or  hollows  caused  by  vehicles  I 
constantly  following  each  other  in  one  track.    This  filling  up  is  contin- 
ued until  the  roadway  has  become  thoroughly   consolidated,  and  tfl 
must  be  remembered  that  this  desirable  consummation  can  be  obtained 
only  through  the  travel  over  the  street  and  this  constant  supervision, 
for  there  are  no  steam-rollers  and  no  hand-rollers  of  sufficient  size  in; 
the  islands ;  but  once  the  roadway  is  finally  completed  its  endurance 
is  very  great.    It  will  need  absolutely  no  repairs  for  a  very  long  time- 
and  then  but  slight  ones. 

Such  streets  as  I  have  just  described  can  be  constructed  here  for  only 

9  cents  a  square  yard,  and  kept  in  repair  with  the  insignificant  outlay 
of  from  $100  to  $150  a  linear  mile.  They  are  solid  and  firm— never, 
dusty  in  dry  weather  or  muddy  in  wet — and  are,  except  where  out  of 
repair,  so  easy  to  the  pedestrian  that  the  reason  for  the  neglect  of  the 
sidewalks  is  at  once  apparent. 

Repairs. — The  maintenance  of  the  street- ways  in  St.  John's  is  part  of 
the  duty  of  the  superintendent  of  public  works,  who  likewise  designs, 
constructs,  and  repairs  all  bridges,  culverts,  etc.  Repairs  are  made  by 
day  labor,  and  consist  of  filling  up  holes,  ruts,  or  other  defective  places 
in  the  "  macadam."  This  is  done  by  first  breaking  up  the  surface  to  a 
sufficient  depth  over  and  for  some  distance  around  the  site  of  the  de- 
fect, then  removing  this  old  surface  and  spreading  over  the  place  thus 
uncovered  a  layer  of  broken  stone,  averaging  about  2  inches  in 
diameter.  This,  again,  is  covered  with  coarse  sand  and  grit  as  a  bind- 
ing layer,  and  the  street  is  thrown  open  to  traffic.    Where  repairs  are 


BRITISH    WEST    INDIES.  479 

required  throughout  the  whole  width  of  a  street  the  metaling  with 
hard  stone  is  done  only  in  the  middle— say  to  a  distance  of  about  6 
feet  on  each  side  of  the  crown— while  at  the  sides  and  up  to  the  edge 
of  the  gutter  only  light  material,  broken  up  fine,  is  used,  and  for  this 
purpose  the  common  "mud  stone"  of  the  island  is  most  in  vogue, 
covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  sand  and  grit.  The  reason  of  this  is  ob- 
vious, the  traffic  in  the  middle  of  the  street  being  ten  times  as  great 
as  that  at  the  sides,  which  last  is  almost  altogether  pedestrian. 

Where  narrow  streets  or  alleys  are  to  be  repaired  it  is  usual  to  matel 
them  from  gutter  to  gutter. 

The  street  in  front  of  this  consulate  has  just  been  repaired  in  this 
manner,  and,  although  completed  only  a  week  ago,  is  now  in  excellent 
condition  for  travel  of  all  sorts. 

The  cost  of  these  repairs  is  about  from  $100  to  $150  per  mile  an- 
nually. Taking  it  at  the  larger  cost,  it  amounts  to  a  little  less  than  3 
cents  per  square  yard. 

COUNTRY  ROADS  OR  HIGHWAYS. 

As  mentioned  in  the  introduction  to  this  report,  these  roads  are  also 
macadamized,  with  a  few  exceptions.  The  stones  used  in  metaling 
are  such  as  are  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  road  being  constructed,  and 
are  chiefly  hard  crystalline  limestone,  flint,  and  obsidian,  to  which  may 
be  added,  for  volcanic  districts,  trap  rock.  The  stone  for  the  roadbed 
is  broken  up  very  fine  and  mixed  with  grit.  Flint,  obsidian,  or  lime- 
stone is  broken  to  a  size  that  will  pass  through  a  2-inch  ring,  but  vol- 
canic rock  is  crushed  still  smaller,  say  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter. 

Construction?-- In  construction  the  first  thing  after  the  location  and 
leveling  of  the  proposed  road  by  the  surveyor  is  to  pare  off  all  of  the 
surface  mold.  Then  the  roadbed  must  be  made  of  mashed  stone  and 
grit  (or  like  enduring  material),  raking  especial  care  to  see  that  no  stone 
larger  than  2  inches  in  diameter  is  found  in  this  layer.  The  shape  of 
the  road  from  crown  to  side  trench  (ditch)  is  formed  with  this  layer  of 
grit  and  stone.  Natural  hollows,  where  not  too  large,  are  also  filled 
up  with  it  to  the  required  level  of  the  road.  After  this  is  completed 
the  road  is  "metaled"  to  an  uniform  depth  of  at  least  6  inches,  and 
th'S  fiual  stratum  of  stone  is  covered  half  an  inch  or  more  with  grit 
and,  occasionally,  sand  and  gravel  as  a  binder.  Side  trenches  or  ditches 
are  dug,  and,  in  particular  cases,  where  heavy  washings  from  the  win- 
ter rains  may  be  anticipated,  these  ditches  are  faced  with  masonry. 
The  cost  of  the  mason  work  is,  however,  as  before  mentioned,  defrayed 
from  the  special  fund  of  $1,200  per  annum  allowed  for  masonry  and 
bridge  repairs.  The  building  of  the  walls,  culverts,  bridges,  etc.,  is 
done  by  the  government  and  is  not  charged  to  the  road  fund. 

Thus  built,  these  roads  cost,  exclusive  of  bridges,  etc.,  $1,2G0  to 
il,'270  per  linear  mile. 

The  stone  for  the  foundation   and  metaling  can  be  carted  from  a 


480  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

reasonable  distance,  say  from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  a  mile,  broken  il 
up  and  spread  upon  the  road  at  a  cost  of  from  8  cents  to  12  cents  a  i 
barrel  for  limestone,  and  for  from  12  to  16  cents  for  flints  and  harder  A 
kinds  of  rock.  These  latter,  especially  volcanic  stones,  require  to  be  il 
broken  to  a  smaller  size  than  the  limestone,  say  1£  inches  in  diameter  I 
at  «ost.  The  barrel  used  in  measuring  the  broken  stone  is  an  ord- 
inary flour  barrel,  without  top  or  bottom,  and  contains  about  4  bush- 
els of  stones  or  5  cubic  feet. 

It  is  proposed  now  to  use  in  future  construction  or  repairs  the  petri 
fled  mud,  which  is  here  called  "  mud  stone,"  as  a  binding  material  for  ' 
roads  where  there  is  much  traffic,  and  this  proposition  is  meeting  with 
much  favor,  especially  in  localities  where  flints  are  used  in  metaling,  and 
will,  in  all  probability,  be  adopted.  The  advantages  of  the  mud  stone 
are  that  it  forms  with  the  hard  stones  a  more  even  surface,  being  not 
easily  ground  or  pushed  out  from  between  the  flints,  and  that  it  takes 
less  watching-  when  newly  laid,  soon  settling  down  with  the  hard 
stones  of  the  road  into  a  smooth,  compact,  and  consolidated  mass. 

Repairs. — These  are  made  by  the  government,  except  where  the 
roads  pass  through  an  estate  or  between  two  estates.  In  the  latter 
cases,  by  the  road  act  of  1880,  the  repairs  must  be  made  by  the  pro- 
prietor or  occupant  of  the  estate  (see  sec.  5  of  the  act)  or  abutting 
estates,  and  for  such  repairs  the  government,  on  proper  representa- 
tion, remunerates  the  proprietor  or  occupant  according  to  the  schedule 
of  rates  given  below. 

Should  any  proprietor  or  occupant  neglect  to  repair  the  road  where 
it  passes  through  his  estate  he  is  first  notified  officially  and  in  writing 
of  such  neglect,  and  should  he,  after  the  formal  service  of  such  notice, 
allow  10  legal  days  to  pass  without  commencing  such  repairs,  they 
shall  at  once  be  effected  by  the  superintendent  of  public  works,  and 
the  cost,  together  with  a  fine  of  40  shillings  or  $9.73,  shall  be  charged 
to  the  estate.  This  cost  and  fine  are  recoverable  before  a  discrict  magis- 
trate like  any  other  simple  debt.  Where  the  road  is  greatly  damaged, 
as  by  freshets  or  heavy  rains,  the  proprietor  is  allowed  21  days  to 
complete  the  repairs,  but  he  must,  in  the  mean  time,  make  it  passa- 
ble for  vehicles. 


Schedule  of  rates  at  which  payments  are  made  for 

repairs 

on  cour 

try  roads. 

Repairs. 

Class. 

Allotment  per  mile. 

Annual 
amount. 

•I. 

$121. 00 

After  4  years 

II. 

III. 

First  8  years 

After  8  years 

IV. 

No  longevity  allowance  

•  This  is  Class  II  of  the  general  classification  of  the  streets  and  roads  of  the  island ; 
and  so  with  the  other  three.  Class  I,  in  the  general  arrangement  or  division,  is 
formed  hy  city  streets. 


BRITISH    WEST    INDIES.  481 

There  was  formerly  an  extra  allowance  for  metaliug,  but  that  repair 
is  now  done  by  the  superintendent  of  public  works.  It  must  be  re- 
marked, in  this  connection,  that  the  roads^ under  repair  are  rarely  if 
ever  metaled  to  any  considerable  length  unless  there  is  great  damage 
by  floods.  As  a  rule  all  the  repairs  required  besides  trenching  are  the 
filling  up  of  ruts  and  hollows  as  they  appear.  If  proper  attention  is 
paid  to  this  the  roads  will  rarely  require  extensive  metaliug.  In  re- 
pairing precisely  the  same  method  of  procedure  is  followed  as  in  the 
repairs  of  streets  (see  pp.  4-5),  with  the  single  exception  that  there  is 
not  so  much  excavation,  nor  is  it  at  all  necessary.  Euts  or  holes  are 
simply  filled  up  with  broken  stone  of  from  1£  to  2  inches  in  diameter, 
and  a  binder  spread  over  all.  In  cases  of  severe  washing  it  is  usual  to 
take  counsel  as  to  the  proper  repairs  with  the  superintendent  of  public 
works. 

General  Kemarks  on  Roadways. — It  is  to  be  remembered  in  con- 
sidering the  depth  of  excavation  and  the  material  used  in  these  mac- 
adamized roads  that  the  traffic  over  them  is  what  would  be  generally 
recognized  as  light,  the  heaviest  weights  which  ordinarily  pass  over  them 
being  "estate  carts,"  drawn  by  two  or  four  mules  and  loaded  each  with 
1  or  2  hogsheads  of  sugar  weighing  a  ton  apiece.  Yet  heavy  boilers 
weighing  from  8  to  10  tons  and  steam  plows  are  occasionally  carted 
over  them  without  doing  any  damage,  especially  if  the  roads  are  dry 
and  unwashed. 

In  considering  also  (2)  the  question  of  the  low  rate  of  cost  in  making 
and  maintaining  these  roads  as  compared  with  the  cost  of  properly 
macadamized  roads  in  the  United  States  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  wages  of  the  laborers  in  the  Leeward  Islands  averages  from  20  to 
28  cents  a  day,  as  opposed  to  $1.50  with  us.  As  an  offset  to  this,  how- 
ever, the  laborers  in  the  West  Indies  do  but  a  small  day's  work  as  com- 
pared with  that  accomplished  by  a  laborer  in  our  own  streets  and  high 
ways,  a  fact  which  renders  the  contrast  less  striking.  It  may  be  safely 
estimated  that  a  day's  labor  in  these  islands  is  equal  to  about  half  a 
day's  labor  in  the  temperate  zone,  so  that  taking  into  the  account  the 
difference  in  cost  of  living,  the  actual  wages  of  labor  in  making  and 
maintaining  the  road  in  the  tropics  would  be  about  one-third  of  what 
it  should  be  in  the  United  States  or  Canada. 


GENERAL  EFFECT  OF  IMPROVED  HIGHWAYS. 


That  easy  and  quick  transportation  of  land  products  from  the  place 
of  production  to  the  port  of  shipment  reduces  the  cost  of  said  products 
delivered  at  the  port  goes  without  saying.  What  the  actual  amount  of 
saving  in  money  values  is  I  do  not  know  and  have  no  means  of  learn- 
ing. The  planters  keep  no  record  of  such  saving.  The  simple  fact, 
however,  that  whereas  sugar  in  former  years  (previous  to  the  adoption 
of  the  act  of  1880),  was  worth,  delivered  for  shipment,  $46  a  hogshead 
and  is  now  delivered  at  $40  speaks  for  itself.  Nor  can  the  whole  of 
33a 31 


482  STREETS   A^D   HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

this  reduction,  nor  even  a  large  part  of  it,  be  traced  to  the  abolition  ot 
the  export  duty,  which  was  only  97  cents  a  hogshead.  That  duty  was 
only  abolished  in  1888;  and,  besides,  the  sugar  planters  assert  that 
they  never  received  any  benefit  whatever  from  the  abolition  of  the  duty, 
the  amount  of  the  reduction  having  been  absorbed  by  the  "middle- 
men." And  it  does  not  require  a  profound  math  Dietician  to  determine 
the  result  in  reduction  of  price  arising  from  quick  and  easy  transporta- 
tion to  market  as  compared  with  the  loss  of  time  and  labor  and  the  in- 
jury to  the  stock  and  vehicles  by  bad,  miry,  and  broken  roads. 

In  conclusion  I  would  say  that,  notwithstanding  their  small  relative 
cost,  I  have  never  seen  better  roads  than  those  in  this  island,  and  sel- 
dom' as  good.  They  are  smooth  and  even;  and  although  I  write  in  the  g 
middle  of  the  rainy  season,  I  have  never  seen  enough  mud  on  them  to 
impede  in  the  slightest  degree  traffic  either  light  or  heavy.  The  lightest 
andmost  delicately  made  sulkies  and  road  wagons  travel  over  them  daily 
without  the  slightest  injury ;  and  (which  is  of  greater  importance  to  the- 
commerce  of  the  island)  the  time  occupied  in  transportation  of  sugar 
and  molasses  during  the  rainy  season  to  the  port  of  shipment  is  dimin- 
ished by  at  least  one-half. 

John  S.  Bradford, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Antigua,  January  14,  1891. 


RECAPITULATION. 

Miles  of  streets  (approximate).. 1° 

Miles  of  roads 14° 

Auuual  cost  of  construction  of  streets : 

Per  linear  mile $1,537,880 

Per  square  yard * $0,093 

Annual  cost  of  repairs  of  streets : 

Per  linear  mile  (average) - $150,000 

Per  square  yard  (average) $0,026 

Annual  cost  of  construction  of  roads: 

Per  linear  mile: : $1,267,200 

Per  square  yard $0,080 

Annual  cost  of  repairs  of  roads,  variable  according  to  class : 

Perlinearmile - $29. 20  to  $121.  000 

Per  square  yard $0.  005  to  $0. 020 

Wages  of  laborers  per  diem $0. 20  to  $0. 280 

Cost  of  material  per  cubic  foot    $0.  02  to  $0. 03$ 

System  of  construction  and  repair,  Macadam. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMISSION  ON  PUBLIC   ROADS,   ANTIGUA. 

To  bis  excellency  Sir  William  Frederick  Haynes-Smith.  K.  C.  M.  G..  Etc. : 

(1)  The  commission  appointed  by  your  excellency  to  inquire  into  the  whole  question 
of  the  maintenance  of  the  public  roads  in  Antigua  held  its  first  meeting  on  the 
20th  January  last. 


BRITISH    WEST    INDIES.  483 

(2)  With  the  object  of  gathering  the  views  and  wishes  of  a3  many  as  possible  of 
those  specially  interested  iu  the  question  before  the  commission,  the  island  was  di- 
vided into  districts,  and  the  leading  planters,  or  their  representatives,  in  each  district 
wore  invited  to  attend  before  the  commission. 

(3)  Of  tho  thirty  so  invited  eleven  were  good  enough  to  attend  and  to  give  the 
commission  the  advantage  of  their  cooperation  and  assistance. 

(4)  The  information  elicited  from  these  gentlemen  will  be  found  in  detail  in  the 
minutes  of  the  proceedings  appended  hereto. 

(5)  The  labor  of  the  commission  was  much  facilitated  by  the  unanimity  of  opinion 
which  prevailed  among  the  witnesses  with  regard  to  the  main  principles  of  the  pres- 
eut  road  act,  which  was  thought  to  have  worked  admirably,  and  to  require  but  little 
if  any  amendment. 

((>)  The  system  of  paying  the  estates  to  keep  tho  roads  in  repair  was  unanimously 
approved,  and  it  was  the  general  opinion  that  no  alteration  in  the  rates  of  remunera- 
tion was  necessary,  inasmuch  as  although  the  amount  paid  for  repairs  to  one  portion 
of  a  road  might  not  cover  the  cost  of  such  repair,  that  paid  for  repairs  to  another 
portion  would  be  in  excess  of  the  cost,  and  that  an  average  was  thus  arrived  at  which 
enabled  the  estates,  as  a  rule,  to  keep  the  roads  in  repair  without  either  loss  or 
profit. 

(7)  A  proposal  for  repairing  all  roads  under  a  system  of  contracts  met  with  no  sup- 
port, although  it  was  thought  that  where  the  surveyor  of  works  has  roads  to  repair 
tenders  might  with  advantage  be  called  for  in  the  majority  of  cases,  and  in  this  lat- 
ter suggestion  the  commission  concurs.  » 

(8)  There  was  a  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  amount  of  supervision  that  ought  to 
be  given  to  the  roads,  and  it  was  suggested  that  the  island  should  be  divided  into 
two  or  more  districts  with  an  overseer  for  each,  but  after  carefully  weighing  the 
whole  of  the  evidence  the  commission  is  of  opinion  that  the  supervision  now  pro- 
vided should  be  sufficient;  that  on  the  whole  it  has  proved  so,  and  that  no  immedi- 
ate necessity  exists  for  any  increase  of  staff. 

(9)  The  drains  and  gutters  running  across  the  roads  were  objected  to  as  they  are 
now  made,  and  it  was  the  general  opinion  that  strong  culverts  should  be  made  where 
possible,  and  where  not  possible  simple  and  inexpensive  bridges  should  be  erected. 

(10)  The  use  of  12-inch  pipes  was  suggested  and  the  commission  consider  that 
much  might  be  done  to  make  the  roads  more  level  and  easy  to  drive  over  if  such 
pipes  were  used,  and  if  the  estates  were  required  by  law  to  keep  tho  culverts  and 
pipes  free  from  obstruction  and  choking. 

(11)  It  was  also  suggested  that  where  estates  required  to  make  drains  across  roads 
pipes  for  this  purpose  should  be  supplied  at  cost  price  by  the  government,  and  to  this 
the  commission  can  see  no  objection. 

(12)  Paying  tho  estates  for  keeping  in  repair  the  cross-gutters,  culverts,  bridges, 
etc.,  adjoining  their  property  on  the  same  plan  as  paymout  is  made  for  repairs  to  the 
roads  was  suggested,  and  although  the  commission  considers  that  the  surveyor  of 
works  should,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  governor  in  each  case,  be  authorized  to 
make  arrangements  for  doing  this  where  practicable,  it  is  unable  to  recommend  the 
suggestion  for  general  adoption  in  the  sense  in  which  it  was  put  forward  in  conse- 
quence of  the  difficulty  there  would  be  experienced  in  arriving  at  a  proper  settle- 
ment of  the  amounts  payable. 

(13)  The  making  of  mould  traps  too  near  the  public  roads  was  pointed  out  as  not 
only  the  case  of  much  avoidable  expense  in  keeping  the  side  drains  open,  but  as  a 
source  of  danger  to  persons  riding  or  driving,  and  the  commission  suggests  that  the 
making  of  mould  traps  anywhere  within  10  feet  of  the  trench  running  along  the  pub- 
lic road  should  be  forbidden  and  made  a  punishable  offense. 

(14)  With  regard  to  the  material  to  bo  used  upon  tho  roads  for  their  repair,  it  was 
pointed  out  that  although  provision  is  made  in  tho  road  act  (No.  7  of  1H80)  for  the  use 
of  metal  no  provision  is  made  for  tho  uso  of  other  material,  and  although  the  com- 


484  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

mission  considers  the  provision  for  metaling  very  necessary  and  one  which  should  re- 
main in  force,  it  is  of  opinion  that  where  the  use  of  metal  is  not  necessary  the  sur- 
veyor of  works  should  have  power  to  order  the  use  of  some  other  suitable  material. 

(15)  The  word.  "  metal"  has  not  been  defined  in  the  act,  but  has  been  taken  to  sig- 
nify "broken  stone." 

(16)  The  stones  put  upon  the  roads  were  considered  to  be,  in  many  cases,  too  big, 
and  the  use  of  flint  was  taken  exception  to.  As  to  the  size  of  the  stones  this  is  a 
matter  which  should,  the  commission  thinks,  be  regulatid  by  the  surveyor  of  works, 
and  with  regard  to  flint  the  commission  can  see  no  objection  to  its  use  provided  that 
when  used  it  is  covered  with  some  suitable  binding  material.  The  commission  would 
suggest  that  a  provision  to  this  effect  be  made. 

(17)  In  many  of  the  roads  and  side  drains  a  rocky  surface  presents  itself,  and  the 
commission  suggests  that  where  practicable  and  desirable  this  surface  should  be 
blasted  or  otherwise  disposed  of,  and  that  when  the  roads  so  treated  are  repairable  by 
estates  they  should  be  put  in  order  before  being  handed  over  again  to  the  estate. 

(18)  A  suggestion  made  by  one  of  the  members  of  the  commission  (Mr.  Oliver  Nu- 
gent) that  a  system  of  tramways  should  be  arranged  along  the  main  roads  of  the 
island  appeared  to  meet  with  universal  approbation,  aud  the  commission  would  sug- 
gest that  a  few  gentlemen  of  the  island  be  selected  to  consider  and  report  upon  the 
practicability  and  cost  of  carrying  out  such  a  scheme. 

(19)  The  proposed  abolition  of  fourth-class  roads  was  not  generally  approved,  and 
the  commission  is  of  opinion  that  as  these  roads  are  better  than  no  roads  they  cer- 
tainly should  be  retained  on  the  schedule. 

Their  removal  generally  to  the  third-class  could  not  be  entertained  on  the  score  of 
expense. 

(20)  There  was  no  general  complaint  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  roads  had 
been  measured,  and  it  was  not  ascertained  that  any  required  remeasurement. 

(21)  Some  of  the  roads,  it  was  thought,  should  be  widened  to  the  width  required 
by  the  act,  and  the  commission -considers  this  should  be  gradually  effected  along  the 
most  frequented  routes. 

(22)  It  was  suggested  that  estates  in  receipt  of  grants  for  the  maintenance  of  roads 
should  be  compelled  to  keep  and  render  accounts  of  their  expenditure  ;  the  commis- 
sioners, however,  do  not  see  that  these  accounts  could  be  properly  audited,  or  that 
in  the  absence  of  an  audit  any  material  advantage  would  be  derived  from  an  adop- 
tion of  the  suggestion. 

(23)  The  posts,  defining  the  boundaries  of  the  various  estates,  are  looked  upon  as 
of  distinct  advantage,  and  their  upkeep  and  renewal  where  and  when  necessary  is 
recommended. 

(24)  The  commission  did  not  consider  it  came  within  its  province  to  entertain  ap- 
plications for  the  removal  of  roads  from  one  schedule  to  another,  but  rather  that 
such  applications  should  follow  the  usual  course  aud  be  dealt  with,  each  upon  its 
own  merits,  as  heretofore.  The  condition  of  the  road  from  Elm's  stream  through 
Gray's  aud  Wickham's  was  however  brought  prominently  to  notice,  aud  the  commis- 
sion recommends  that,  so  far  as  this  road  runs  through  the  swamp,  it  should  be 
remade  and  raised  some  feet  above  its  present  level  by  the  Government,  the  estate 
being  required  to  keep  it  in  repair  thereafter. 

The  road  from  Fry's  to  Bodkins  should  be  a  first-class  road  throughout;  at 
present  part  is  second  class  and  part  first.  The  commission  makes  this  recommen- 
dation in  consequence  of  the  extraordinary  cost  required  to  maintain  the  road  in  a 
proper  state  of  repair.  The  Gilberts  gap  to  Lyons  road  is  recommended  for  removal 
to  the  second  class. 

The  commission  would  ask  that  attention  maybe  given  at  an  early  date  to  Delaps 
-  and  Bath  Lodge  streams,  which  might,  it  is  thought,  be  dealt  with  under  "  The 
water-course  act  of  1889." 

(25)  A  proposal  to  create  a  special  class  for  roads  which  required  an  extraordinary 


BRITISH    WEST    INDIES.  485 

expenditure  to  maintain  was  not  entertained  by  the  commission,  as  it  was  thought 
the  creation  of  such  a  class  would  to  some  extent  he  prejudicial  to  the  proper  work- 
ing of  the  existing  road  act  under  which  losses  on  one  part  of  a  road  are  made  up  by 
gains  on  another  part,  and  that  it  would  be  better  to  leave  any  case  in  which  hard- 
ship is  shown  to  exist  to  be  dealt  with  specially  by  the  legislature. 

(26)  It  was  thought  prior  to  the  meeting  of  the  commission  that  some  amount  of 
dissatisfaction  existed  with  regard  to  the  working  of  the  present  road  act,  but  this 
has  not  been  shown  to  be  the  case ;  in  fact,  there  would  appear  to  be  strong  objection 
to  any  alteration  of  its  main  provisions  or  principles. 

Fred.  Evans,  Chairman. 

Jas.  Maginley. 

J.  Freeland  Foote. 

Arthur  W.  Holmes  a"  Court. 

Oliver  Nugent,  Jr. 

J.  Sutherland. 

V.  Guferoy. 
St.  John's,  Antigua,  June  16,  1890. 


BAHAMAS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  21' LAIN,  OF  NASSAU. 

I  regret  to  say  that  the  conditions  existing  here  for  the  making  of 
roads  and  streets  are  so  essentially  different  from  anything  in  onr  own 
country  that,  in  my  opinion,  nothing  that  I  could  mention  would  be  of 
the  slightest  value  to  our  street  builders  and  road  makers. 

The  Bahama  Islands  are  composed  of  coralline  limestone,  and  the 
surface  of  this  natural  rock  forms  the  street  or  roadway.  There  is  no 
depth  of  soil,  the  rock  itself  being  often  fully  exposed  to  view.  All  that 
is  done  to  construct  a  street  or  roadway  is  to  remove  such  sparse  brush 
or  chaparal  as  may  be  growing  thereon  (the  rock  itself  being  so  porous 
and  full  of  crevices  and  fertilizing  elements  as  to  sustain  considerable 
vegetable  growth  with  little,  if  any,  soil),  smooth  down  any  sharp  pro- 
jections of  rock,  and  fill  up  depressions  with  small  pieces  of  the  broken 
stone.  As  a  result  you  have  a  reasonably  smooth  roadway  of  solid 
stone,  which  will  meet  all  the  requirements  of  the  people. 

In  the  outlying  islands  of  the  colony  there  are  comparatively  few 
roads,  and  such  as  exist  are  little  more  than  pathways  cut  through  the 
bush,  wide  enough  to  permit  the  passage  of  a  single  two- wheeled  farm 
cart,  which  is  about  the  only  vehicle  in  use.  The  fact  that  the  islands 
are  generally  of  considerable  length  and  narrow  width  renders  roadways 
less  necessary,  the  people  owning  their  boats  and  passing  easily  from 
point  to  point  along  the  shore. 

In  the  island  of  New  Providence,  whereon  is  situated  the  capital,  the 
city  of  Nassau,  a  town  of  about  12,000  inhabitants,  more  attention  is 
paid  to  streets  and  roadways,  but  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  solid  rock 
forms  the  street  or  road. 

The  original  cost  of  the  streets  is  not  great  as  there  are  no  difficult 


486  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

problems  of  grade,  sewerage,  or  engineering,  and  the  cheapest  and 
rudest  form  of  labor  is  used  in  their  construction.  There  are  few  streams 
or  ravines  requiring  culverts  or  bridges. 

The  limestone  rock  is  comparatively  soft,  and,  in  consequence  thereof 
frequent  repairs  of  streets  are  needed  in  the  city  proper.  These  consist 
of  filling  up  holes  and  ruts,  and  renewing  gutters  which  run  along  the 
sides  of  the  streets,  emptying  into  lateral  deep  drains  which,  in  turn, 
are  discharged  into  the  harbor,  a  strong  tide  carrying  everything  out 
to  sea.  In  making  repairs  the  material  used  is  the  same  quality  of 
limestone,  broken  into  small  pieces,  wetted,  and  packed  smooth  by 
heavy  iron  rollers,  when  it  rapidly  becomes  as  solid  as  the  best  kind  of 
cement.  The  streets  thus  made  are  not  particularly  hard,  but  they  an- 
swer all  demands,  since  nothing  known  as  heavy  traffic  ever  passes 
over  them.  The  vehicles  in  use  are  light  carriages,  farm  carts,  and 
common  drays,  seldom  drawn  by  more  than  a  single  horse  each. 

The  annual  expenditure  for  keeping  the  streets  and  roadways  of  this 
island  in  repair  is  not  great,  a  yearly  appropriation  of  about  $7,000 
being  made  for  that  purpose,  by  the  legislature.  There  are  no  road  or 
street  taxes  collected,  as  such,  in  this  colony;  but  all  expenses  are  paid 
from  the  general  fund,  and  disbursed  by  the  board  of  public  works. 
Some  work  is  done  upon  the  streets  from  time  to  time  by  prisoners 
working  in  chain  gangs,  but  the  value  thereof  is  not  very  great. 

No  obstruction  to  uninterrupted  travel  ever  arises  from  the  wet  or 
muddy  condition  of  streets  or  roads  in  the  Bahamas,  since  the  soil, 
where  any  exists,  is  too  thin  and  sandy  to  retain  water,  and  the  bed- 
rock is  so  porous  as  to  absorb  within  a  few  hours  the  heaviest  tropical 
downpour  of  rain. 

The  extent  of  streets  in  Nassau  is  about  the  same  as  is  found  in 
towns  of  the  same  population  in  the  United  States;  whilst  the  total 
length  of  the  roadways,  under  public  control,  on  the  island  of  New 
Providence,  outside  of  this  city  and  its  immediate  suburbs,  I  should 
estimate  as  not  to  exceed  45  or  50  miles. 

The  island  itself  is  about  20  miles  in  length,  with  an  average  width 
of  perhaps  5  miles.  Two  years  ago  there  was  less  than  one-third  of 
the  island  under  cultivation  and  hence  no  great  need  for  country  roads; 
but  now  large  tracts  are  being  planted  in  sisal,  for  the  production  of 
fiber,  and  new  roads  are  being  projected  and  will  shortly  be  built  in  all 
parts  of  the  interior.  They  will  all  be  of  the  same  general  character 
as  those  now  in  existence,  and  will  be  easily  and  cheaply  made. 

Thos.  J.  McLain,  Jr., 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Nassau,  N.  P.  November  28,  1890. 


BRITISH    WEST    INDIES.  487 

BERMUDA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BECKWITU,  OF  HAMILTON. 
OITY  STREETS. 

The  streets  and  roads  in  Bermuda  are  made  and  maintained  chiefly 
from  the  native  coral  rock  of  which  the  islands  are  composed.  The 
method  of  making  the  streets  is  to  cut  through  the  solid  rock  forming 
the  hills  or  elevations,  making  the  sides  of  the  cuttings  perfectly  per- 
pendicular, and  cutting  down  until  a  suitable  grade  is  established,  which 
is  generally  made  as  near  the  sea  level  as  practicable.  This  cutting  is 
done  by  means  of  large  saws,  similar  to  an  American  cross-cut  saw,  and 
the  rock  being  again  sawed  into  smaller  blocks  it  is  removed  either  by 
blasting  or  by  cutting  out  with  a  large  iron  chisel.  This  chisel  has  a 
length  of  about  12  feet  and  a  blade  about  4  inches  in  width.  These 
chisels  weigh  from  12  to  15  pounds  and  their  weight  helps  greatly  in 
cutting,  as  they  are  used  after  the  manner  of  a  "  digger"  for  post  holes. 
The  rock  is  very  soft  and  porous,  but  hardens  on  exposure  to  the  weather. 
The  rock  removed  from  these  cuts  is  used  in  filling  in  the  depressions 
and  hollows  until  the  road  is  brought  up  to  grade.  In  certain  parts  of 
the  islands  a  sort  of  limestone  exists  of  harder  substance  than  coral. 
This  limestone  the  government  causes  to  be  collected,  taken  to  the  dif- 
ferent jails,  and  there  broken  up  by  prisoners,  both  civil  and  military, 
into  small  pieces  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  to  1£  inches  in  diam- 
eter. These  broken  pieces  are  called  "jail  nuts."  This  broken  stone 
is  now  bought  from  the  government  by  contractors  and  spread  over 
the  graded  road  to  a  depth  of  3  or  4  inches.  Then  a  top  dressing  of 
small  coral  rock  is  put  on,  which  soon  crumbles  under  wear  and  forms 
with  the  limestone  an  excellent  macadam,  very  smooth,  very  clean,  and 
very  durable.  It  so  readily  absorbs  the  water  that  mud  is  unknown 
here.  To  repair  this  kind  of  road  it  is  only  necessary  to  pick  it  over 
to  the  depth  of  2  or  3  inches  and  add  a  little  broken  limestone  where 
there  is  any  great  washout  or  sinking. 

The  above  is  the  only  system  of  road-making  known  here  and  the  de- 
tails of  construction  are  iu  every  case  the  same  as  above.  The  expense 
of  making  and  maintaining  the  city  streets  is  borne  by  the  corporation 
of  the  town,  which  hires  the  necessary  men,  teams,  and  foremen  or  over- 
seers. The  expense  of  watering  and  sweeping  the  streets  is  also  borne 
by  the  corporation  and  performed  in  the  same  maimer. 

COUNTRY  ROADS  OR  HIGHWAYS. 

The  method  of  making  the  country  roads  or  highways  is  exactly  the 
same  as  that  used  for  city  streets,  i,  e.y  to  cut  through  the  rock  forming 
the  hills  and  elevations  with  a  saw,  saw  the  coral  into  smaller  blocks, 
and  remove  the  debris  by  blasting  or  use  of  the  chisel.    This  loose  rock 


488  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

is  then  spread  over  the  hollows  and  depressions  until  a  suitable  grade 
is  established,  and  a  low  grade  is  chiefly  used.  The  same  limestone 
used  on  the  streets  is  spread  on  these  roads  in  the  same  way,  and  the 
top  dressing  of  coral  on  that.  These  roads  are  repaired  the  same  as 
the  streets,  i,  e.,  by  picking  them  over  and  adding  broken  limestone. 
The  expenses  for  all  kinds  of  road  building  are  chiefly  for  labor  and 
the  cost  of  the  broken  stone.  A  laborer  receives  $1  per  diem,  a  man 
with  horse  and  cart  $2.50,  and  the  limestone  costs  about  from  $1.25  to 
$1.50  per  ton  delivered  at  jail.  The  expenses  of  building  and  main- 
taining all  country  roads  and  public  highways,  except  city  streets,  are 
borne  by  the  colonial  government,  and  the  work  is  let  out  to  con- 
tractors by  bids.  In  many  cases  in  this  class  of  roads  it  is  impossible 
to  cut  directly  through  a  hill  or  elevation,  and  the  road  is  then  carried 
around  it  with  the  easiest  grade  practicable,  cutting  into  the  sides  of 
the  hill  where  possible  to  shorten  the  curves. 

The  effect  of  good  public  roads  has  been  here  to  greatly  increase  the 
value  of  land,  especially  that  designed  for  residences,  and  at  present 
two  roads  are  in  process  of  construction  across  a  marsh  hitherto  un- 
used, which  will  probably  cause  the  marsh  to  be  filled  up  and  used  as 
farming  land.  There  are  also  roads  here  called  military  roads,  chiefly 
lying  about  the  British  fortifications  and  camps*  or  leading  to  them. 
These  roads  are  built  and  maintained  by  the  military,  the  labor  being 
performed  by  the  soldiers.  These  roads  are  marked  by  large  mile-stones 
set  up  by  government  surveyors.  There  is  a  law  in  force  here  tha 
"  any  road  remaining  open  for  21  consecutive  years  becomes  a  public 
road  and  passes  under  the  control  of  the  colony."  Therefore  to  retain 
the  right  to  control  these  military  roads  the  British  government  causes 
them  to  be  closed  for  one  day  in  each  and  every  year.  This  law  does 
not  apply  to  the  public  highways  or  city  streets. 

Henry  W.  Beckwith, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Hamilton,  Bermuda,  December  24,  1890. 


JAMAICA. 

REPORT  ST  CONSUL  ESTES. 

The  Macadam  system  of  road-building  is  used  altogether  on  the 
streets  and  "  government  roads,"  as  the  main  highways  are  called, 
and  on  the  best  of  the  byroads  in  the  plains,  but  the  mountain  "  paro- 
chial roads,"  usually  little  better  than  mere  trails  or  bridle  paths,  are 
left  to  the  tender  mercies  of  heavy  rains  and  unskilled  labor  to  a  great 
extent  and  are  far  from  worthy  of  any  extended  notice  in  this  report. 

The  same  system,  however,  that  leads  to  cut-up  and  make  dusty 


BRITISH    WEST    INDIES.  489 

streets  daring  the  dry  season  and  to  flowing  rivulets  of  mud  and  water 
in  the  wet  season,  under  the  heavy  hauling  in  some  parts  of  Kingston, 
yields  most  excellent  driving  roads  in  the  outskirts  of  the  city  and  main 
highways,  far  above  the  average  in  the  western  hemisphere,  in  the 
country. 

The  stage  routes  throughout  Jamaica,  though  used  by  the  peasantry 
to  an  unusual  degree,  are  in  many  places  quite  equal  to  many  of 
the  trotting  tracks  of  the  United  States  in  smoothness  of  surface  and 
elasticity. 

The  formation  or  basis  of  Jamaica  is  of  igneous  rocks,  overlying 
which  are  several  distinct  formations,  principal  among  which  are  the 
white  and  yellpw  limestone  or  "  rotten  marls,"  as  they  are  sometimes 
called  here.  These  very  brittle  formations  lend  themselves  readily  to 
road  construction,  and  it  is  due  to  their  presence  near  at  hand  through- 
out most  of  the  island,  combined  with  the  very  low  scale  of  wages,  that 
Jamaica  is  possessed  of  so  excellent  a  highway. 

All  the  stone  used,  which  is  broken  to  about  the  standard  size  of 
"small  stove"  coal  in  the  United  States,  is  so  reduced  by  women,  who 
break  it  piece  by  piece  with  a  steel  hammer,  sitting  with  a  pile  of  boul- 
ders in  front  of  them  and  often  working  for  hours  without  moving 
from  one  spot.  For  this  severe  labor  they  usually  are  paid,  by  task- 
work schedule,  about  18  to  24  cents  per  day.  This  material  is  then 
taken,  usually  in  trays  carried  on  the  heads  of  women  and  girls,  to 
the  road  and  sprinkled  on  at  such  places  as  the  road  overseer  points 
out.  Some  of  these  women  become  quite  expert  and  can  be  left  for 
several  days  to  go  on  with  this  work  undirected.  Here  also  the  same 
small  wages  hold. 

Steam  rollers,  road  scrapers,  road  plows,  and  all  other  forms  of  road 
machinery  are  unknown  here,  the  shovel,  common  grubbing  hoe,  and 
the  machette  or  cutlass  are  the  only  implements  used  in  the  grading, 
surfacing,  and  cleaning  of  the  roads. 

When  the  broken  stone  is  put  on  the  roads  it  is  left  in  that  condition, 
the  frequent  and  almost  constant  traffic  over  much  of  their  extent  suffic- 
ing to  soon  bring  the  whole  to  an  even  surface  of  a  hard  but  elastic  and 
fine  consistency. 

Water  courses,  where  small,  are  for  the  most  part  conveyed  beneath 
the  roadways  in  concrete  pipes  the  sections  of  which  are  here  made  of 
this  same  material  mixed  with  Portland  cement;  this  more  skilled  work, 
usually  done  by  men  with  women  assistants,  can  be  obtained  for  an 
average  of  50  cents  per  day. 

In  this  very  primitive  fashion  the  inhabitants  of  Jamaica  are  enabled 
to  enjoy  roads  of  over  500  miles  in  extent,  circumscribing  and  intersect- 
ing the  island,  which  will  compare  favorably  with  the  Pullman  road  of 
Chicago  and  the  system  around  the  larger  Eastern  cities  of  the  United 
States. 


490  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

To  the  various  parishes,  corresponding  closely  to  our  counties  in  the 
United  States,  is  allotted  the  care  of  all  such  roads  as  are  not  of  suffici- 
ent importance  to  make  them  subjects  for  the  care  of  the  colonial  gov- 
ernment ;  the  main  highways,  however,  are  now  under  the  care  of  the 
director  of  public  works,  who,  with  the  assistance  of  five  district  engi- 
neers, a  government  surveyor,  and  four  superintendents  of  roads,  is 
directly  responsible  to  the  Government  for  their  condition. 

While  the  expenditures  for  main  roads  are  borne  on  the  annual  esti- 
mates, and  are  chargeable  to  the  general  revenues  of  the  colony,  still 
there  is  a  system  of  taxes  which  is  ingenious  and  which  contributes  in 
no  small  degree  to  swell  these  revenues. 

This  system  consists  of  taxing  all  such  articles  or  animals  as  in  any 
way  contribute  to  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  roads.    Some  of  these  items 

are  as  follows : 

£  s.  d. 

Each  head  of  horse  kind  used  on  roads 0  11  0  =  $2.67 

Each  head  of  ass  kind  used  on  roads 0    3  0=     .73 

Each  horse,  ass,  or  other  stock  not  used  on  roads 0     10.-=     .24 

Each  wheel  of  a  carriage 0  15  0=  3.65 

Each  wheel  of  a  cart 0    6  0=  1.46 

Each  wheel  of  a  hackney  carriage 1    0  0=4. 86 

The  report  of  the  director  of  public  works  for  187G  to  1888,  inclusive, 
shows  that  the  average  annual  expenditure  for  repairs  and  maintenance 
was  but  $165  per  mile.  During  that  time  the  new  works,  consisting 
mainly  of  new  bridges  and  some  entirely  new  roads,  have  been  about 
$230,000;  this  has  been  for  a  main  road  system  extending  throughout 
a  mountainous  island,  which  is  quite  adequate  to  meet  the  needs  of 
about  800,000  inhabitants  in  an  area  of  4,193  square  miles,  of  which  only 
646  square  miles  are  flat  or  plain  land. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  the  extremes  of  heavy  flood  rains  and  of 
hurricanes  have  to  be  contended  with,  it  is  generally  considered  that 
this  is  a  remarkable  showing. 

The  dry,  parched,  and  rocky  bed  of  a  strean  on  one  day  may  be  the 
course  of  a  roaring  torrent,  carrying  everything  before  it,  on  the  next 
day ;  the  clean  roadbed  of  one  moment  may  be  strewn  with  the  debris 
of  the  mountain  hurricane  but  a  few  moments  after. 

While  these  are  not  frequent  causes  of  extra  outlay,  they  did  call  for 
an  increase  of  about  25  per  cent,  in  expenditure  in  1880  and  1886. 

W.  E.  Estes, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Kingston,  Jamaica,  December  9,  1890. 


BRITISH    WEST    INDIES. 


491 


TRINIDAD. 

PRINTED  REPORT  TRANSMITTED  BY  CONSUL  PIEROE  FEBRUARY  6,  1891. 

Practical  suggestions  for  road  making  by  Mr.  Devenish,  town  superintend- 
ent of  port  of  Spain. 

Before  proceeding  with  the  repairs  of  the  roads,  an  important  point 
should  be  first  determined,  viz,  the  legal  breadths  of  the  roads;  such 
breadths  to  be  equally  measured  from  the  center  of  the  roadway  towards 
the  adjoining  fields,  except  in  cases  where  a  road  runs  along  precipices, 
hills,  cliffs,  landslips,  and  river  or  sea  side,  etc. 

For  any  road  used  for  the  cartage  of  produce,  or  first  class  road,  40 
feet  should  be  allowed  for  the  out-and-out  width.  Of  these  40  feet,  30 
to  be  between  the  inner  sides  of  the  trenches. 

The  width  of  the  other  roads  of  minor  importance  should  be  deter- 
mined by  the  nature  of  the  locality  through  which  they  may  pass. 

The  proper  width  having  been  ascertained  and  determined,  a  space 
of  at  least  4  feet  on  each  side  of  the  road  should  be  kept  free  from  plan- 
tations, bush,  or  live  fences,  so  as  to  allow  to  the  road  the  full  benefit 
of  wind  and  sunshine. 

Previous  to  attempting  any  metaling,  or,  in  fact,  any  general  repairs 
on  a  road,  the  greatest  attention  must  be  paid  to  its  proper  cross-sec- 
tions and  drainage. 

The  roadway  should  be  carefully  and  evenly  sloped  from  the  center 
to  the  trenches  at  an  inclination  of  from  3  to  4  inches  in  every  10  feet, 
as  local  circumstances  may  direct. 

The  general  shape  of  the  old  roads  which  are  to  be  brought  to  a  true 
cross-section  is  as  follows,  viz  : 


Nb.l 


JTo.3. 


The  most  economical,  and,  in  fact,  often  the  only,  mode  of  correcting 
the  vicious  shape  of  such  roads  when  they  have  never  been  coated  is — 


492 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Iii  No.  1 ,  by  raising  the  lower  side  and  forming  the  section  with  the 
cuttings  from  the  higher  one,  thus : 

No.l. 


And  in  Nos  2  and  3,  by  filling  up  and  raising  the  center  with  the 
earth  taken  from  the  sloping  of  tbe  sides  and  digging  out  of  the  drains, 
thus : 

Mo.2. 


No.  3. 


The  earth  thus  thrown  on  the  road  should  never  be  allowed  to  lie  in  large  clods, 
but  should  be  well  broken  and  rammed  down  as  much  as  possible. 

It  sometimes  happens  in  case  No.  1,  when  the  road  has  been  long  metaled,  that 
there  is  on  the  higher  side  almost  enough  metal,  if  not  to  correct  entirely  the  section, 
at  least  to  help  much  in  doing  so. 

In  no  case,  however,  should  a  graveled  road  be  thus  brought  to  a  true  convexity 
with  mere  earth  thrown  on  the  coated  surface. 

In  graveling  roads  the  proper  shape  must  then  be  attained  by  throwing  the  cut- 
tings off  the  road  and  by  gradually  raising  the  lower  side  by  repeated  layers  of  gravel 
or  metal. 

In  very  low  and  soft  places,  when  brush  wood  is  at  hand,  the  road  is  very  advanta- 
geously raised  by  laying  fascines  or  even  logs  of  wood  transversely  and  covering  the 
same  with  at  least  12  or  15  inches  of  earth. 

The  all-important  operatiou  of  drainage  requires  next  the  greatest  attention  on  the 
part  of  those  in  charge  of  the  roads. 

It  must  generally  be  carried  on  simultaneously  -with  the  forming  of  the  road,  as 
the  earth  taken  from  the  side  channels  is  often  the  principal  means  of  raising  the  bed 
of  the  road  and  of  shaping  it. 

From  actual  experience  I  am  of  opinion  that  the  edge  of  the  angle  of  the  drains 
with  the  roadway,  owing  to  the  very  careless  driving  on  our  roads,  should  be  sloped 
off  thus  ,  so  as  not  to  be  injured  by  the  wheels  of  vehicles  coming  too  near 

the  drains. 

When  this  angle  is  not  sloped  off  the  inner  side  of  the  drains  in  most  of  our  roads 
is  constantly  destroyed,  and  the  earth  thereof  tumbling  into  the  trenches  soon  fills 
them  up. 

On  roads  where  I  have  thus  sloped  the  drain-side  nearly  5  years  ago  the  trenches 
and  sides  of  the  road§  are  still  almost  as  perfectly  shaped  as  when  first  made,  and  the 
expense  of  cleaning  the  drains  has  been  infiuitely  less  than  when  the  angle  is  re- 
tained. 


BRITISH    WEST    INDIES.  493 

The  outer  side  of  the  trenches  should  be  carefully  sloped  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  soil. 

In  the  clayey  soil  of  the  Naparimas  the  slope  should  never  he  uuder  an  angle  of  45°, 
that  is,  1  foot  horizontal  to  1  foot  perpendicular  for  cuttings  under  2  or  3  feet,  but 
for  a  greater  height,  to  prevent  landslips,  it  should  never  be  less  than  an  angle  of 
30°,  or  If  feet  horizontal  to  1  perpendicular. 

In  cuttings,  such  as  in  the  light  sandy  Tacarigua  soil,  a  far  steeper  slope  will  do, 
such  its  one-half  foot,  and  even  one-fourth,  to  1  foot. 

The  depths  of  the  side  channels  must  of  course  depend  a  good  deal  on  local  condi- 
tions, but  great  attention  should  be  paid  not  to  make  them  unnecessarily  deep,  and 
more  particularly  not  to  give  them  too  great  a  longitudinal  inclination. 

This  is  a  fault  often  committed  in  the  side  trenches  of  many  of  our  roads,  prin- 
cipally along  hill  slopes,  where,  on  the  contrary,  it  should  be  most  carefully  avoided. 

Too  much  inclination  causes  a  strong  current  and  a  rush  of  water  that  soon  under- 
names and  destroys  the  sides  of  the  drains  and  very  materially  damages  the  road. 

On  hilly  roads,  therefore,  the  drains  ought  to  be  dug  deeper  at  the  highest  point 
and  their  depths  gradually  lessened  in  going  downward,  so  as  to  correct  in  some 
measure  the  natural  declivity  of  the  ground. 

When  the  road  is  very  steep  the  channels  are  sometimes  advantageously  cut  like 
steps  at  convenient  distances  in  order  to  give  them  a  more  gentle  inclination.  But 
whenever  this  is  done  stones  must  be  carefully  hand-laid  on  a  few  feet  immediately 
under  the  fall  of  the  water  to  prevent  it  from  digging  and  destroying  the  bottom  of 
the  lower  drain. 

Whenever  a  road  runs  along  the  side  of  a  hill  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  to 
prevent  the  hill  water  from  overflowing  the  upper  drain  and  running  across  the  sur- 
face of  the  road. 

In  suchjcases  cross  uuderdrains  made  of  hard  wood  or  masonry  must  be  estab- 
lished at  conveniently  short  distances  all  along  the  hillside  and  their  lower  end  carried 
always  at  least  5  or  6  feet  beyond  the  breadth  of  the  road. 

The  inlet  or  upper  ends  of  such  cross  drains  should  always  be  x>rotected  by  either 
hardwood  posts  and  planks  or  by  small  wing  walls,  and  great  care  taken  that  they 
are  never  choked  with  weeds,  trash,  or  any  rubbish  carried  by  the  water. 

An  inclination  of  1  inch  in  10  feet  is  enough  for  such  cross  drains.  Their  diameter 
must  be  regulated  by  the  locality,  but  in  general  drains  2  feet  wide  by  18  inches 
deep  will  be  found  large  enough. 

In  covered  drains  made  of  hardwood  I  have  found  it  very  advantageous  to  bore 
one  or  two  rows  auger  holes  in  the  top  planks  and  also  along  the  sides,  8  or  9  inches 
above  the  bottom.  These  holes  help  a  good  deal  in  drying  up  the  subsoil  all  around 
the  cross  drains. 

Catchwater  drains  are  also  often  indispensable  on  the  upper  side  of  the  slope  to 
catch  the  hill-water  and  carry  it  into  the  iulets  of  the  cross  covered  drains,  thus 
preventing  too  great  a  rush  of  water  into  the  upper  side  channels. 

Small  but  numerous  outlets,  aud  in  low,  level  ground  larger  ones,  or  main  side 
drains  to  carry  the  water  from  the  side  channels  to  the  adjoining  fields,  or  into  the 
natural  water-courses,  when  near  enough,  should  bo  regularly  established  at  moder- 
ate distances  along  a  line  of  road,  and  always  kept  well  clear  and  open. 

In  no  case  whatever  should  the  proprietors  or  occupiers  of  land  along  the  road  be 
allowed  to  drain  their  fields  into  the  side  channels  of  the  roads.  They  should  be 
compelled  by  law  to  bring  such  water  into  a  main  drain  parallel  to  the  road,  and 
which  would  carry  it  to  some  lower  points  or  to  some  natural  water  courses. 

Whenever  springs  are  met  with  in  a  road  the  place  should  he  dug  right  down  to 
the  very  spring,  and  a  deep  channel  cut  thence  across  tho  road  and  filled  up  with 
either  large  broken  stone,  or  logs  of  wood  covered  with  a  foot  or  18  inches  of  earth 
Dr  road  materials,  as  the  case  may  be. 

After  a  road  shall  have  been  well  shaped  and  drained,  and  in  no  instance  till  theu, 


494  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

the  surface  of  tbo  roadway  must  (when  practicable),  be  coated  with  the  best  suited 
materials  at  band. 

In  this  colony,  where,  owing  the  very  small  and  inadequate  amount  of  capital 
available  for  making  and  repairing  our  roads,  it  is  not  probable  that  the  most  ap- 
proved system  of  road-making  iu  the  mother  country  can  be  carried  out,  at  least  for 
many  years  to  come,  it  behooves  us  to  see  in  what  manner  we  can  turn  our  resources 
or  means  to  tbe  best  possible  advantage. 

If  the  road  to  be  graveled  is  an  earth  road  (that  is,  never  coated)  or  newly  shaped 
road,  the  surface  must  first  be  allowed  to  be  sufficiently  rammed  down,  either  by  the 
traffic  or  with  heavy  "rammers,"  until  it  becomes  consolidated  enough  to  receive  the 
gravel  or  metal. 

When  this  is  done  the  gravel  or  metal  must  then  be  carefully  spread  on  a  width  of 
15  feet,  at  equal  distances  from  the  side  channels,  first  in  a  layer  4  inches  thick 
throughout. 

After  this  first  layer  shall  have  been  sufficiently  compressed  a.nd  settled  (which  will 
happen  in  very  few  days  on  a  road  with  any  traffic),  then  a  second  coat  of  4  inches 
again  is  to  be  laid  over  it,  and  also  allowed  to  settle  for  a  few  days,  when  a  third 
and  top  course,  also  4  inches  thick,  will  be  applied  to  complete  the  work,  thus  giving 
a  total  depth  of  12  inches  to  the  crust  of  the  road,  or  55£,  say  56,  cubic  yards,  of 
materials  per  every  100  feet  of  road  in  length. 

During  this  process  laborers  should  be  employed  to  rake  the  several  courses  as 
evenly  as  possible  to  prevent  the  formation  of  any  ruts  or  holes  and  spreading  of  the 
materials  beyond  the  proper  width. 

The  foregoing  thickness  is  particularly  recommended  for  gravel  taken  from  the 
San  Fernando  pits,  or  from  the  beds  of  rivers  and  ravines,  but  for  the  metal  from  the 
quarries  about  Port  of  Spain,  St.  Joseph,  or  Glenroy  a  thickness  of  8  or  10  inches 
laid  in  two  or  three  courses  will,  I  believe,  be  quite  sufficient  if  carefully  applied. 

When  round  clear  pebbles  are  used  a  small  proportion  of  chalk,  marl,  loam,  or 
fine  gravel  should  be  well  mixed  with  the  pebbles  in  order  to  bind  them  and  to 
prevent  their  constant  fretting  and  rolling  against  each  other. 

Although  the  process  recommended  above  of  laying  three  different  courses  will, 
likely,  be  very  unpopular  at  first  with  contractors,  yet  I  have  no  doubt  that  ere 
long  they  will  find  how  beneficial  it  is  for  themselves  by  making  their  work  much- 
superior  to  that  formerly  done  under  the  old  system,  almost  without  increase  of  ex- 
penditure, and  by  doing  away  with  the  unpleasant  squabbling  and  difficulties  so 
frequently  arising  before  in  consequence  of  bad  work. 

When  broken  stones  are  used  care  should  be  taken  that  their  sizes  never  exceed  2£ 
inches.  This  is  easily  obtained  by  passing  the  metal  through  sieves  with  bars  2$ 
iuches  apart.  The  last  or  top  course  might  be  made  of  finer  stones,  but  in  no  case 
whatsoever  should  large  stones  be  allowed  to  be  placed  on  the  road. 

During  the  metaling  of  any  portion  of  a  road  proper  measures  should  be  taken 
to  force  the  carts  and  carriages  to  pass,  in  turn,  over  every  part  thus  newly  metaled. 
This  may  easily  be  effected  by  placing  heaps  of  stones  at  convenient  places. 

Depots  of  gravel  or  metal  of  25  cubic  yards  each  should  be  established  at  every 
one-fourth  mile,  and  special  laborers  constantly  employed  in  preventing  the  formation 
of  any  holes,  ruts,  or  inequalities,  etc. 

The  best  time  of  the  year  for  repairing  the  roads  is  the  latter  end  of  both  the  dry 
and  rainy  seasons. 

At  the  end  of  the  dry  season  the  cross  sections  should  be  carefully  corrected,  the 
surface  scraped,  regraveled,  and  put  in  thorough  order,  the  side  trenches,  outlets, 
main  and  catchwater  drains  properly  cleansed,  scraped,  and  reopened  wherever 
necessary  ;  the  bridges*  and  cross-covered  drains  overhauled,  cleared,  and  repaired; 
the  depots  of  metal  well  filled  up  ;  the  sides  of  the  road  cutlassed  or  better  mowed, 

*  All  wooden  bridges  should  be  made  of  country  hardwood,  and  white  and  pitch  pine  at  once  ex- 
cluded from  such  works. 


BRITISH   WEST   INDIES.  495 

<snd,  in  fact,  the  road  must  l»e  made  ready  to  stand  the  effects  of  the  heavy  rains 
during  the  coming  wet  weather. 

At  the  latter  period  the  damage  done  during  the  wet  season  must  be  repaired 
without  delay,  the  bridges  and  cross-covered  drains  examined  and  put  to  rights,  the 
weak  parts  of  the  road  reloaded  with  metal,  aud  the  road,  in  a  word,  must  bo  again 
thoroughly  overhauled  aud  prepared  to  stand  the  heavy  cartage  of  the  ensuing  crop 
season. 

The  sides  of  the  roads  should  be  regularly  cutlassed  or  mowed  four  times  a  year, 
bo  as  to  insure  at  the  nearest  possible  period  the  growth  and  formation  of  a  low  and 
thick  green  sward  instead  of  the  long  grass  and  numerous  weeds  of  all  sorts  that 
are  now  spoiling  the  appearance  of  most  of  our  roads. 

As  soon  as  the  frequent  use  of  the  cutlass  shall  have  destroyed  the  brush  on  the 
sides  of  the  roads  the  scythe   must  afterwards  be  exclusively  used. 

It  does  a  much  neater  and  cheaper  work  than  the  cutlass,  aud  does  not  so  much 
tear  up  and  disturb  the  roots  of  the  grass. 

All  grass  and  brush  cut  on  the  roads  should  be  carefully  removed. 

No  mud  bank,  scrapings,  or  rubbish  of  any  kind  should  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the 
sides  of  the  roads. 

The  drains  must,  at  all  times  of  the  year,  be  kept  free  from  grass  and  rubbish,  and 
the  parties  in  charge  of  the  roads  should  pay  great  atteution  to  prevent  the  constant 
choking  up  of  the  channels  with  cane  trash  and  plants,  manure,  etc.,  as  is  now 
practiced  along  mos£  of  the  roads  running  through  sugar  estates,  particularly  at  the 
junction  of  private  roads  or  caue traces  with  the  highroad. 

They  should  also  take  good  care  that  the  lopping  of  trees  and  clipping  of  live  hedges 
be  regularly  attended  to  as  prescribed  by  the  road  ordinance. 

Generally  speaking,  all  repairs  of  any  importance  should  be  given  out  by  contract 
and  clauses  entered  in  the  deed  of  contract  to  provide  for  the  faithful  performance  of 
the  work  within  a  fixed  period,  under  penalties  to  be  guaranteed  by  sureties. 

Perhaps  the  best  way  would  be  to  have  printed  blank  forms  for  the  different  sorts 
of  contracts  generally  to  be  entered  into  for  the  repairing  and  keeping  of  the  roads. 

Instead  of  relying  entirely  on  tenders  to  know  what  repairs  will  cost,  as  is  gener- 
ally if  not  always  the  case  now,  the  parties  in  charge  of  the  roads  should  always 
previous  to  calling  for  tenders,  make,  or  cause  to  be  made,  a  careful  and  correct  esti- 
mate of  what  such  repairs  are  worth,  aud  being  thus  well  acquainted  with  the  value 
of  the  work  to  be  done  should  never  allow  themselves  to  be  taken  in  by  the  low 
figure  of  an  iguoraut  contractor,  but  only  accept  of  such  contracts  as  are  within  a 
fair  range  and  likely  to  prove  remunerative. 

Syl.  Devenish,  Secretary. 


asphalting  of  streets. 

Town  Superintendent's  Office, 
Port  of  Spain,  Trinidad,  June  24,  1890. 
In  regard  to  the  results,  etc.,  of  the  asphalting  some  of  our  streets  I  have  the  honor 
to  submit  the  following  brief  notes  on  the  matter  : 

(1)  I  am  of  opinion  that  the  laying  of  asphalt  is  an  immense  advantage  over  the 
common  macadamizing,  and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  it  will  last  many 
years  at  a  small  cost  of  keeping.    The  principal  advantages  are : 

(a)  To  be  almost  noiseless  and  offer  very  little  resistance  to  traction. 
(&)  To  be  free  from  mud  iu  the  rainy  season  and  from  dust  in  the  dry  season, 
(c)  To  offer  good  sanitary  conditions  without  emitting  any  perceptible  unpleasant 
smell. 

(2)  Hitherto  we  have  used  asphalt  in  its  crude  state,  pulverized  by  hand  with  cast- 
iron  rammers  aud  applied  cold  on  our  already  macadamized  streets,  on  which  it  is 


496  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

either  rammed  as  above  or  rolled  by  steam,  and  I  am  convinced  this  is  quite  sufficient 
and  will  answer  well  here,  instead  of  having  recourse  to  the  complicated  and  expen- 
sive systom  followed  in  America,  where  the  asphalt  is  boiled,  etc.,  and  laid  at  a  cost 
of  about  $4.50  per  square  yard.  (See  the  interesting  and  exhaustive  pamphlet  "Gen- 
uine Trinidad  Asphalt,"  published  in  Washington  by  the  Barber  Asphalt  Paving  Com- 
pany.) 

(3)  Of  course  our  asphalt  street  work  is  as  yet  in  its  infancy  and  only  an  experi- 
ment, in  which  we  must  necessarily  gradually  gain  experience,  and  it  remains  to  be 
seen  what  will  be  the  ultimate  results. 

(4)  The  principal  cause  of  complaint  against  it,  and  I  believe  it  to  be  the  only  one 
(cost  excepted),  is  its  great  slipperiness  in  streets  in  which,  owing  to  the  high  level  of 
our  tramways,  a  much  over  curved  cross  section  has  been  unavoidable,  but  in  other 
streets  this  complaint  has  scarcely  ground  to  go  upon. 

(5)  The  advantage  we  have  here  is  that  our  streets,  being  almost  all  macadamized, 
it  only  requires  a  scooping  out  of  a  few  inches,  and  the  ground  below  is  generally 
firm  and  hard  enough  from  the  lower  remaining  macadam  to  receive  a  mere  top  dress- 
ing of  about  2  to  3  inches  of  pulverized  asphalt. 

(6)  The  asphalting  of  our  streets  will,  in  future,  be  much  improved  from  our  past 
experience,  and  I  have  no  doubt  that  it  will  give  universal  satisfaction  and  will 
prove  a  great  boon  to  our  town. 

(7)  It  is  my  intention  to  try,. if  allowed  to  do  so,  a  Btnall  proportion  of  fine  sand  to 
be  mixed  with  the  asphalt,  so  as  to  render  the  surface  a  little  gritty,  and  do  away 
with  the  present  sleekness  to  which,  however,  our  horses  are  gradually  getting  accus- 
tomed. 

(8)  The  facility  of  procuring  asphalt  from  our  pitch  lake  at  10  a  ton,  delivered  on 
the  wharf,  is,  it  must  be  said,  a  great  deal  in  our  favor,  whilst  in  Demerara  the  cost 
will  necessarily  be  much  greater. 

(9)  On  a  rough  calculation  it  takes  us  about  3|  cart  loads  (of  12  cubic  feet  each) 
of  asphalt  to  the  ton. 

(10)  One  such  load  will  cover  about  50  square  feet  or  5.55  square  yards  from  2  to 
2$  inches  thick. 

(11)  The  average  cost  of  working  our  steam-roller  is  about  $5.35  per  diem. 

(12)  Hitherto  the  steam-roller  has  only  been  able  to  roll  about  666  square  yards 
daily,  but  more  will,  no  doubt,  be  got  out  of  it  in  future. 

(13)  We  calculate  that  it  takes  during  10  to  12  days  ten  or  twelve  laborers  daily  em- 
ployed in  digging,  pulverizing,  and  laying  for  preparing  sufficient  pitch  for  2  days 
steady  steam-rolling. 

(14)  One  hundred  square  yards  of  asphalting  has  cost  us  in  the  southern  division 
of  the  town,  where  the  traffic  is  very  great  and  the  streets  consequently  much  worn 
out,  $37.58,  whilst  metal  and  sand  would  only  cost  about  $20,  or  about  52  per  cent. 
less,  but  for  work  not  to  be  compared  with  the  new  coating. 

(15)  In  the  northern  division  we  have  slightly  asphalted,  under  much  better  con- 
ditions, 9,601.68  square  yards  of  streets  at  an  average  cost  of  about  25  cents  per 
yard,  but  with  the  intended  improvements  I  believe  this  may  probably  be  increased 
to  35  cents. 

(16)  The  use  of  asphalt  is  particularly  of  the  greatest  advantage  in  protecting  the 
sides  of  the  roadway  and  the  corners  of  the  streets,  whore  the  rush  of  storm  water  in 
heavy  rains  constantly  washes  away  the  macadam  and  digs  deep  furrows  and  holes. 

Syl.  Devenish, 

Town  Supt. 


DANISH    WEST    INDIES.  497 


DANISH  WEST  INDIES. 
ST.  THOMAS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  HORNE. 
CITY  STREETS. 

The  local  government  is  unable  to  give  me  the  estimated  cost  of 
making  or  repairing  the  streets  of  this  city,  i.  e.,  "  Charlotte  Amelia." 
They  were  made,  of  broken  stone,  upwards  of  a  century  ago,  and  are 
kept  in  repair  by  using  similar  material,  the  stone  being  broken  fine  by 
convict  labor.  The  depth  of  the  broken  stone  is  about  20  inches.  The 
streets  are  slightly  oval  and  smooth  and  of  great  solidity.  As  they 
are  not  subject  to  either  frost  or  heavy  traffic,  the  annual  expense 
of  keeping  them  in  repair  is  very  small.  Convict  labor  is  utilized  in 
breaking  stone  and  keeping  in  repair  the  city  streets  and  such  portion 
of  the  country  roads  as  are  necessary  for  use.  The  streets  are  sub- 
stantially bordered  on  either  side  by  gutters  made  of  irregularly-shaped 
but  nearly  flat  stone,  which  are  laid  in  and  evened  up  by  a  hard  cement. 
The  sidewalks  are  mostly  composed  of  material,  similar  to  those  em- 
ployed in  making  the  gutters. 

COUNTRY  ROADS  AND  HIGHWAYS. 

There  is  no  "ordinance"  governing  the  making  or  repairing  roads 
and  highways  in  this  island  (Saint  Thomas).  The  abandonment  of  the 
estates,  following  soon  after  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves,  has  caused 
the  country  roads  to  fall  into  disuse.  Country  traffic  has  practically 
ceased  and  the  roads  are  but  little  used.    5 

I  inclose  herewith  a  copy  of  the  "  ordinance  concerning  public  roads 
in  St.  Croix."  It  contains  all  the  information  which  Mr.  Moore,  the 
consular  agent  there,  has  been  able  to  obtain  on  the  subject  of  streets 
aud  highways. 

Samuel  B.  Horne, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

St.  Thomas,  January,  14,  1891. 


ST.  CROIX. 

OFFICIAL  ORDINANCE  TRANSMITTED  BY  CONSUL  BORNE,  OF  ST.  THOMAS. 

I.  General  Provisions. 

$1.  Tlio  public  roads  in  St.  Croix  are  divided  in   two  classes:  (1)  Main  roads,  tlio 
width  of  which  between  the  trenches  shall   as  a  rule  not  be  less  than  :!<>  feet,  with 
graveled  roadway  not  less  than  14-18  feet  in  width;  and   (2)   by-roads,  the  width  of 
33a 32 


498  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

which  hetweon  the  trenches  shall  as  a  rule  not  be  less  than  24  feet,  with  roadway  not 
less  than  10-14  feet  in  width. 

$  2.  A  list  of  existing  roads  of  both  classes  shall  be  issued  by  the  superior  author- 
ity and  published  in  "  St.  Croix  Avis." 

Upon  agreement  to  that  effect  with  the  colonial  council,  government  may  include 
new  roads  among  the  number  of  the  existing  public  roads,  or  discontinue  existing 
public  roads  as  such,  which  alteration  shall  be  published  in  the  same  manner. 

$  3.  The  superior  authority  is  empowered  to  grant  permission  to  lay  down  tram- 
ways on  the  public  roads,  subject  to  such  stipulations  as  are  requisite  to  insure  that 
the  general  traffic  be  not  hindered,  and  that  the  parties  having  to  discharge  the  re- 
pairs of  the  roads  do  not  by  such  tramways  get  increased  burden  of  road  work. 

§  4.  Quarter  lines  as  well  as  private  roads  of  communication  between  estates  shall 
generally  be  24  feet  in  width  and  shall  be  kept  open  and  in  good  order  to  same  ex- 
tent as  hitherto. 

II.  Control  with  the  Roads. 

$  5.  The  public  control  with  the  roads  is  exercised  through  a  road  commission,  con- 
sisting of  a  chairman,  appointed  by  the  superior  authority,  and  eight  members,  half 
of  them  elected  by  the  superior  authority,  the  other  balf  by  the  colonial  council,  in 
such  wise  that  for  each  of  the  eight  quarters  of  the  island  one  member  is  chosen  from 
among  the  residents  of  the  quarter,  as  a  rule  from  among  the  proprietors  of  landed 
estates.  The  election  shall  be  for  a  term  of  5  years,  but  only  the  half  of  the  num- 
ber of  members  shall  retire  at  a  time.  Five  members  shall  constitute  a  quorum. 
The  superior  authority  is  empowered,  whenever  it  be  deemed  necessary,  to  dissolve 
the  road  commission  and  to  cause  new  election  to  be  held. 

§  6.  The  control  with  the  state  of  the  roads  in  each  quarter  shall  be  performed  by 
the  member  of  the  road  commission  appointed  for  the  quarter,  who  has  to  make  the 
necessary  reports  to  the  chairman.  To  assist  the  members  of  the  commission  there 
shall  be  appointed  such  a  number  of  road  inspectors  as  the  superior  authority  upon 
representation  of  the  commission  shall  at  any  time  find  necessary. 

§  7.  Every  owner,  administrator,  or  manager  of  an  estate  who  has  not  completed 
his  60th  year  is  obliged  to  accept  election  as  member  of  the  road  commission  or  ap- 
pointment as  road  inspector,  unless  the  superior  authority  or  tbe  colonial  council,  if 
he  has  been  elected  by  this  latter,  bn  his  application  to  that  effect,  should  find  cause 
to  exempt  him.  The  road  inspectors  are  appointed  for  a  term  of  five  years,  at  the 
expiration  of  which  they  are  during  a  term  of  the  same  length  entitled  to  exemption 
from  such  charge. 

§  8.  The  chairman  of  the  road  commission  is  salaried  with  $300  p.  a.  The  road  in- 
spectors shall  receive  a  compensation  of  $32  p.  a.  each. 

§  9.  The  duties  of  road  officers  are  to  be  fixed  and  defined  by  instructions  issued 
by  the  superior  authority  ;  which  instructions  shall  also  contain  the  necessary  rules 
for  the  business  routine  of  the  road  commission,  for  the  election  of  members  of  the 
commission,  etc. 

III.  The  Road  Work. 

$  10.  The  duty  of  keeping  the  roads  in  every  quarter  in  good  and  serviceable  condi- 
tion is  incumbent  on  the  owners  of  landed  properties,  factories,  and  similar  establish- 
ments situated  within  the  quarter.  The  works  required  for  that  purpose  are  effected 
in  such  a  manner  as  shall  be  prescibed  in  regulations  issued  by  Government  upon  con- 
ference with  the  colonial  council. 

§  11.  By  means  of  assignment  to  be  effected  every  fifth  year,  every  property  is  as- 
signed the  allotment  of  roads  which  is  incumbent  on  the  property  to  keep  in  repair. 

Tbe  assignment  in  which  should  be  considered  the  quality  and  location  of  each 
allotment,  if  it  is  part  of  a  main  road  or  of  a  by-road,  if  it  is  partieularly  easy  or 


DANISH    WEST    INDIES.  499 

difficult  to  keep  in  repair,  if  it  contains  water  courses  or  not,  etc.,  is  made  in  propor- 
tion to  the  matriculated  acroage  in  cultivation  of  the  respective  properties  in  such 
a  maimer  that  one  acre  of  land  in  sugar  cultivation  is  considered  equal  to  5  acres  in 
other  cultivation,  and  that  no  land  is  exempted,  except  land  from  which  no  use  or 
henefit  whatever  is  derived.  The  road  work  incumbent  on  factories  and  similar 
establishments  is  fixed  by  the  superior  authority. 

The  maintenance  of  the  pavement  or  the  bridge  of  a  water  course,  or  other  more 
extensive  works  of  repair,  may  be  assigned  to  several  estates  jointly.  Likewise  any 
work  of  repair  may  be  assigned  several  estates  jointly,  provided  these  estates  are  so 
small  that  it  would  be  inexpedient  toassigu  to  each  a  separate  work  of  repair. 

$  12.  For  each  quarter  separately  a  draft  of  the  assignment  is  drawn  up  by  the  re- 
spective member  of  the  road  commission  in  conjunction  with  the  road-inspectors  of 
the  quarter,  and  is  transmitted  before  the  1st  July  in  the  year  in  question,  to  the  road 
commission,  who,  on  the  basis  of  the  drafts,  draws  up  a  draft  of  assignment  for  the 
whole  island,  which  draft  shall  be  transmitted  in  duplicate  to  the  superior  authority 
before  the  1st  August,  and  the  said  authority  thereupon,  by  publication  three  times 
repeated  in  the  newspaper  of  the  island,  shall  inform  the  parties  concerned  that 
copies  of  the  assignment  have  been  jplaced  for  inspection  in  the  police  offices,  and 
eventual  objections  to  the  assignment  must  be  made  within  14  days  of  the  last  pub- 
lication. On  the  expiration  of  this  term,  the  superior  authority  decides  on  the  ob- 
jections that  have  been  sent  in  after  having  taken  the  opinion  of  the  road  commission 
and  confirms  the  assignment  according  to  such  decision,  upon  which  one  copy  of  the 
assignment  is  transmitted  to  the  road  commission,  who,  through  the  members  of  the 
road  commission  and  road  inspectors,  conveys  information  to  all  concerned  of  the 
allotment  of  road  assigned  to  each  property. 

The  bounds  of  the  different  allotments  shall  be  exactly  indicated,  before  the  1st 
October,  by  conspicuous  po&ts  bearing  the  mark  of  the  property  and  planted  by  the 
roadside. 

§  13.  The  public  roads,  with  bridges,  courses,  breastwalls,  handrails,  etc.,  thereon 
found  shall  undergo  general  repairs  every  year,  such  repairs  to  commence  the  1st 
October  and  to  be  completed  before  the  31st  December. 

$  14.  Every  year  in  the  course  of  the  month  of  January  a  general  inspection  of  the 
road  works  takes  place,  to  be  held  for  every  quarter  by  two  members  of  the  road 
commission  and  two  road  inspectors,  all  of  whom  are  appointed  for  the  purpose  by 
the  chairman  of  the  commission,  and  must  be  residents  of  another  quarter. 

The  member  of  the  commission  for  the  quarter  to  be  inspected  shall  however 
receive  notice  to  be  present  at  the  inspection  ;  he  is  entitled  to  point  out  defects 
but  has  no  vote  in  the  decision, 

$  15.  When  defects  in  the  road  work  are  discovered  by  the  inspection,  there  shall 
be  given  the  holder  of  the  allotment,  who  is,  moreover,  liable  to  penalty  under  $  24, 
a  suitable  term,  within  which  he  is  to  have  the  defects  remedied.  Should  he  find 
himself  aggrieved  by  the  decision  of  the  inspectors,  ho  may  within  8  days  demand  a 
reinspectiqn,  which  is  effected  by  the  road  commission,  with  exception  of  the  two 
members,  who  had  taken  part  in  the  first  inspection,  and  at  which  the  party  shall 
eventually  be  given  the  further  necessary  term.  The  decision  of  the  reiuspection 
settles  the  matter. 

If  the  defects  are  not  remedied  at  the  expiration  of  the  term,  the  road  commission 
shall,  on  the  report  from  the  inspectors  in  case  no  reinspection  has  been  held,  have 
the  work  done  at  the  expense  of  the  concerned  party.  The  expenses  for  the  purpose 
inclusive  of  such  remuneration  for  the  controlling  mombor  as  may  be  fixed  by  the 
superior  authority  ou  the  representation  of  the  commission,  are  to  bo  enforced  by 
levy,  unless  the  holder  of  the  allotment  alleges  that  the  work  is  not  incumbent  on 
him,  that  the  above  mentioned  term  had  not  been  given  him  or  he  advances  any 
other  similar  objection,  in  which  case  the  decision  shall  bo  given  under  a  puhliu 
police  suit  instituted  against  him. 


500  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

$  16.  Besides  the  yearly  general  repairs  such  repairs  as  shall  be  needful  for  keeping  the 
roads  in  a  proper  state — such  as  filling  up  of  small  holes,  leveling  the  surface,  repairs 
of  side-walls,  bridges,  and  the  pavement  of  water  courses — shall  be  effected  at  all  times 
of  the  year,  when  ordered  by  the  member  of  the  road  commission.  The  order  so  given, 
and  for  the  fulfillment  of  Which  a  suitable  term  shall  be  allowed,  is  final  w,hen  the 
cost  of  the  work  does  not  exceed  $5,  otherwise  the  party  concerned  may  within  4  days 
demand  that  the  case  be  submitted  to  two  other  members  of  the  commission,  chosen 
by  the  chairman  in  conjunction  with  the  first-named  member ;  their  decision,  whereby 
eventually  the  necessary  additional  term  is  allowed,  settles  the  matter.  If  the  de- 
fects are  not  remedied  at  the  expiration  of  the  term,  the  road  commission  shall,  on 
report  to  the  same,  have  the  work  done  at  the  expense  of  the  concerned  party.  The 
expenses  for  this  purpose,  inclusive  of  a  remuneration  to  the  controlling  member  fixed 
in  the  same  manuer  as  prescribed  above  in  $15,  may  be  enforced  in  the  manner  pre- 
scribed in  §  15. 

§  17.  When  bridges  and  considerable  lengths  of  road,  the  maintenance  of  which 
devolves  upon  auy  single  party,  are  so  extensively  damaged  by  heavy  rains  that  the 
road  commission  finds  it  iuconsistent  with  equity  to  charge  him  with  the  repairs, 
huch  repairs  shall  be  distributed  among  the  properties  in  the  quarter  in  the  same 
proportion  as  the  road  allotments.  Under  extraordinary  circumstances  the  public 
may,  however,  according  to  decision  of  the  superior  authority,  assume  the  repairs 
entirely  or  in  part. 

§  18.  Whenever  a  work  of  repairing  is  iucumbent  on  several  properties  jointly,  the 
work  is  under  the  direction  of  the  member  of  the  road  commission  or  such  person  as 
the  chairman  of  the  road  commission  may  depute.  Otherwise,  the  allotment  holders 
are  at  liberty  to  consult  their  own  convenience  as  to  the  most  suitable  manner  of 
promoting  the  work,  which,  notably,  may  be  given  in  job,  but  such  arrangement 
does  not  affect  the  allotment  holder's  responsibility  to  the  public. 

§  19.  Should  any  holder  of  a  road  allotment  prefer  that  the  repairing  of  the  allot- 
ment assigned  to  him  be  effected  by  public  agency,  and  ho  addresses  written  appli- 
cation to  that  effect  to  the  road  commission,  the  work  in  question  will,  by  order  of 
the  commission,  be  effected  by  and  uuder  the  direction  of  the  road  inspector  of  the 
district,  on  condition  that  the  applicant,  when  the  work  is  completed  and  approved 
by  the  inspection,  pays  the  expense  of  the  work,  including  a  suitable  remuneration  to 
the  road  inspector  who  has  superintended  the  work. 

The  account  of  the  expenses  incurred  is  forwarded  to  the  superior  authority  by  the 
road  commission  who  at  the  same  time  makes  proposal  as  to  the  remuneration  which 
should  be  allowed  the  road  inspector. 

When  subsequently,  all  the  expenses  have  been  approved,  the  superior  authority 
assigns  the  account  for  payment  against  the  holder  of  the  road  allotment,  who  is 
bound  to  pay  the  amount  into  the  colonial  treasury  within  14  days.  In  regard  to  the 
payment  of  the  amount  in  queotion,  the  colonial  treasury  holds  the  same  right  of  levy 
and  preference  as  it  holds  for  taxes. 

For  temporarily  defraying  the  amounts  for  these,  as  well  as  for  the  works  mentioned 
in  §§  15  and  16,  the  necessary  advances  may  be  assigned  to  the  road  commission  from 
the  colonial  treasury. 

§  20.  The  construction  of  new  roads  is  effected  and  expenses  defrayed  by  the  pub- 
lic. The  maintenace  of  such  a  new  road  devolves  upon  the  road  allotments  of  the 
quarter  in  proportion  to  he  fixed  by  additional  assignment. 

§  21.  The  public  is  charged  with  making  provision  that  the  necessary  gravel  pits 
are  to  he  found  as  near  as  possible  to  the  road. 

In  default  of  amicable  arrangement  with  the  owner  regarding  compensation  for 
the  use  of  the  ground  at  gravel  pit,  the  area  required  for  the  site  of  the  gravel  pit, 
and  needful  access  thereto,  shall  be  expropriated  and  the  value  thereof  fixed  by  two 
experienced  and  impartial  men  appointed  by  the  court,  in  such  a  manner  that  each 
of  the  interested  parties  shall  have  access,  before  the  legislation  of  the  appraisement, 


DANISH    WEST    INDIES.  501 

to  demand  reappraisement  by  the  double  number  of  meu.  The  expenses  of  the  ap- 
praisement are  defrayed  by  the  public  in  such  a  manner,  however,  that  the  expenses  of 
a  reappraisement  demanded  by  the'  owner  and  the  issue  of  which  is  agaiust  him  are 
defrayed  by  the  owner. 

§  22.  The  same  proceeding  is  applicable  in  the  case  of  cession  of  ground  for  the  con- 
struction of  new  roads. 

IV.  Penalties,  etc. 

$  23.  Neglect  of  duty  and  disciplinary  offenses  on  the  part  of  road  officers  are  pun- 
ished, in  so  far  as  they  are  not  liable  to  more  severe  penalties,  with  lines  of  not  less 
than  §5  and  not  exceeding  $2o,  which  accrue  to  the  colonial  treasury.  The  fines  are 
dictated  by  the  superior  authority.  In  regard  to  other  offenses  committed  by  road 
functionaries  or  against  such  while  on  duty,  the  general  enactments  of  law  are  appli- 
cable. 

§  24.  Any  holder  of  a  road  allotment  who  is  found  at  the  annual  inspection  in  the 
month  of  January  to  have  omitten  to  complete  the  road  work  incumbent  on  him,  or 
to  have  performed  it  in  an  unsatisfactory  manner,  is  liable  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  $50. 

$  25.  Any  holder  of  a  road  allotment  who  fails  to  comply  with  an  order  from  the 
properly  qualified  officer  or  anth  >rity,  at  any  time  soever  in  the  year,  concerning  the 
repairing  of  his  road  allotment  or  anything  belonging  thereto,  is  liable  to  a  fine  not 
exceeding  $25.  The  same  fine  shall  be  adjudged  against  any  person  omitting  to  plant 
the  bound  posts  mentioned  in  $  12. 

§  26.  Cases  concerning  the  offenses  mentioned  in  §  §  24  and  25  are  dealt  with  as 
public  police  suits,  at  the  instance  of  the  road  commission.  The  road  commission,  is 
however,  before  the  case  is  reported  to  the  policemaster,  authorized  to  accept  the  delin' 
qnent  party's  offer  to  settle  the  matter  amicably  by  fine  to  be  paid  forthwith.  Concern- 
ing such  settlements  the  road  commission  shall  make  report  to  the  superior  authority. 
Fines  adjudged  or  agreed  to  nnder  the  presout  section  accrue  to  the  colonial  treasury. 

$  27.  If  the  holder  of  a  road  allotment  is  not  residing  in  St.  Croix  citation  in  the 
cases  in  question  may  be  lawfully  served  on  the  person  who  administrates  his  prop- 
erty here,  with  notice  to  be  determined  according  to  the  residence  of  the  person  thus 
empowered. 

§  28.  On  every  vehicle  which  when  loaded  weighs  3,000  pounds  or  upwards,  the 
felloes  of  the  wheels  6hall  be  at  least  3  inches  broad.  Transgressions  of  this  provi- 
sion shall  be  liable  to  penalty  of  a  fine  of  not  less  than  $2  and  not  exceeding  $10. 
Cases  of  nou-conipliauce  are  dealt  with  as  public  police  suits. 

$  29.  Upon  conference  with  the  colonial  council,  the  superior  authority  issues  regu- 
lations containing  provisions  for  the  road  police  and  for  the  maintenance  of  public 
peace  and  security  of  and  on  the  road,  including  the  preservation  of  the  trees  grow- 
ing along  the  roads,  which  trees  must  not  bo  felled  in  a  space  6  feet  from  the  trenches. 
Fruit  of  trees  along  the  public  roads  belong  to  the  owners  of  the  adjoining  proper- 
ties. 

$  30.  Transgressions  from  the  regulations  mentioned  in  $  29  are  dealt  with  in  publio 
police  suits,  and  are  punished  with  fines  not  exceeding  $50,  which  accrue  to  the  police 
fund.  In  the  case  of  children  under  15  years  the  punishment  of  floggiug  with  a  rod 
may  be  indicted  according  to  circumstances. 


502  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


DUTCH  WEST  INDIES. 
CURA90A. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  SMITH. 
CITY  STREETS. 

The  island  of  Curacoa,  being  of  coral  formation,  with  very  little  soil, 
makes  the  building  of  smooth  and  level  streets  easy,  and  when  built 
they  can  be  maintained  at  a  small  expense. 

In  places  where  there  is  not  a  solid  roadbed  of  stones,  or  the  surface 
is  uneven,  the  way  is  laid  out  and  covered  with  clay,  and  over  this  a 
paving  of  coral  stones  is  placed.  The  stones  used  for  this  purpose  are 
taken  from  the  shores  of  the  island,  and  will  average  about  6  inches  in 
diameter,  and  are  round  in  shape.  They  are  broken  in  suitable  lengths, 
placed  on  end  and  driven  into  the  clay,  made  soft  by  water  to  receive 
them. 

These  small  paving  stones  are  confined  within  the  line  of  the  street 
by  a  border  of  large  square  or  flat  stones,  and  when  driven- by  wooden 
drivers  they  are  wedged  together  so  that  they  can  not  be  removed 
easily  ;  saud  is  then  placed  over  the  surface  and  sifted  into  the  crevices. 

This  makes  a  fine  street  where  there  is  no  heavy  traffic,  but  the  coral 
is  too  soft  to  be  serviceable  where  there  are  heavy  teams  passing  over  it. 

The  cost  of  such  paving  here  to  the  government  is  about  $1  per  square 
metre. 

COUNTRY  ROADS  OR  HIGHWAYS. 

All  over  the  island  are  estates  which  are  accessible  by  fine  public 
roads  provided  and  maintained  by  the  government,  and  under  the  sur- 
veillance of  an  inspector  appointed  for  that  purpose. 

The  comparative  level  surface  of  the  island  is  very  favorable  for  the 
construction  of  country  roads,  no  bridging  and  very  little  cutting  being 
required.  The  surface  of  the  road  is  covered  with  small  broken  stones  or 
gravel,  and  when  this  is  made  fine  by  travel  and  becomes  wet  by  rains 
it  unites.  The  roads  are  made  somewhat  higher  in  the  center,  or  turnpiked 
so  that  water  will  not  stand  on  them.  There  are  no  rivers  or  streams  for 
these  roads  to  cross,  so  no  bridges  are  required,  but  during  very  heavy 
rains  large  streams  of  water  cross  the  roads  in  many  places,  and  water 
ways  are  provided  therefor.  These  are  made  of  large,  flat  stones  laid,  not 
like  a  bridge,  but  with  a  concave  surface  for  the  water  to  run  over. 

The  annual  expense  to  the  government  for  the  maintenance  of  these 
roads  is  about  $2,300,  including  the  salary  of  an  inspector. 

L.  B.  Smith, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Curacoa,  January  29,  1891. 


SPANISH    WEST    INDIES.  503 

SPANISH  WEST  INDIES. 
PORTO  RICO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  STEWART,  OF  SAN  JUAN. 
STREETS  OF  SAN  JUAN. 

The  streets  of  this  city  are  very  narrow,  and  are  paved  with  small, 
round  stones.  The  sewerage  consists  (with  the  exception  of  a  portion 
of  two  or  three  of  the  most  principal  streets  having  underground  sew- 
ers) of  small  gutters  in  the  center  of  the  streets,  formed  by  a  slight 
downward  slope  from  each  sidewalk.  With  the  exception  of  this  slope 
the  sidewalks  are  on  a  level  with  the  rest  of  the  street.  The  crevices 
between  the  round  stones  are  not  filled,  therefore  the  streets  are  very 
rough,  and  neither  beasts  nor  vehicles  are  spared  upon  them  for  any 
great  length  of  time. 

COUNTRY  ROADS. 

In  the  entire  island  there  are  about  150  miles  of  excellent  road,  and 
of  this  alone  it  is  necessary  to  speak,  since  this  is  all  that  receives  any 
attention.  In  its  construction  a  level  foundation  is  sought,  and  upon 
this  is  put  a  heavy  layer  of  crushed  rock  and  brick,  which,  after  having 
been  well  packed  and  rounded,  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  earth.  This 
is  then  well  packed  also,  and  upon  the  whole  is  spread  a  layer  of  ground 
limestone,  which  is  pressed  and  rolled  until  it  forms  almost  a  glossy 
surface.  This  makes  an  excellent  road  here,  where  the  climate  is  such 
that  it  does  not  affect  it,  and  where  there  is  no  heavy  traffic ;  but  these 
conditions  being  changed,  the  road,  it  is  thought,  would  not  stand  so 
well ;  hence  further  particulars  are  deemed  useless. 

L.  R.  Stewart, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

San  Juan,  December  30,  1890. 


SANTIAGO  DE  CUBA. 

The  only  thing  that  saves  this  city  and  allows  carriages  and  native 
horses  to  pass  the  lanes  and  roads,  by  courtesy  called  streets,  is  the 
composition  of  the  soil,  viz,  decomposed  coral  rock,  in  which  lime  forms 
a  large  percentage.  The  streets  are  in  a  deplorable  condition;  the  city 
being  bankrupt,  nothing  is  done  to  improve  them.  The  country  roads 
are  mere  trails,  impassable  in  the  rainy  season. 

Otto  E.  Reimer, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  December  0,  1S90. 


504  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

FRENCH  WEST  INDIES. 
GUADELOUPE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BARTLETT. 

The  colonial  or  county  roads  are  built  and  kept  in  repair  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Colonial  Government.  If  a  new  road  is  to  be  built,  all 
the  loose  earth  is  removed  until  they  reach  a  hard  substantial  surface, 
then  it  is  filled  in  with  broken  stone,  about  the  size  of  eggs,  and  beat 
down  thoroughly  with  mauls,  and  then  fine,  dry  earth  is  spread  on  same, 
enough  to  cover  them  about  a  couple  of  inches,  and  again  beat  down 
thoroughly.     This  is  generally  let  out  to  contractors. 

The  expense  for  building  new  country  roads  is  about  10,000  francs 
per  kilometre,  and  to  keep  the  same  in  repair,  it  costs  about  1,000  francs 
per  annum  per  kilometre.  The  center  of  the  streets  in  the  city  is  made 
in  the  same  way  as  the  colonial  roads,  with  the  addition  of  1  metre  in 
width,  on  each  side  of  the  streets  running  down  to  the  gutters,  which  is 
made  with  broken  stones,  laid  in  cement,  at  an  additional  cost  of  about 
36  francs  per  cubic  metre.  The  stone  flagging  for  the  sidewalks  of  the 
streets,  if  in  artificial  stone,  costs  16  francs  per  running  metre.  The 
stone  to  be  35  centimetres  wide  and  15  deep ;  if  the  flagging  is  of  cal- 
careous stone,  which  is  easy  to  work,  it  costs  140  francs  per  cubic  metre; 
if  composed  of  volcanic  stone,  which  is  very  hard  and  very  difficult  to 
work,  200  francs  per  cubic  meter.  The  street  once  built,  the  expense 
for  keeping  them  iu  repair  is  about  the  same  as  colonial  roads. 

I  will  mention  here  that  the  expense  of  10,000  francs  per  kilometre, 
for  new  country  roads,  is  exclusive  of  bridges  and  culverts. 

The  quay  of  the  city  of  Pointe-a-Pitre,  where  the  principal  commer- 
cial business  is  carried  on,  is  paved  with  cobblestones  of  a  volcanic 
nature,  gathered  from  Guadeloupe  proper,  at  a  cost  of  4  francs  per 
square  metre,  and  the  expense  for  maintenance  is  about  2  francs  per 
annum  per  square  metre. 

Government  or  public  roads  going  through  properties  naturally  aug- 
ment their  value. 

The  principal  government  roads  are  very  fine  and  are  kept  in  good 
repair;  but  there  are  very  few  of  them:  There  is  one,  extending  66 
kilometres,  from  Pointe-a-Pitre  Grande-Terre  to  Basse-Terre  Guade- 
loupe proper,  by  crossing  the  Riviere- SalCe  in  a  ferry,  passing  through 
Petit  Bourg,  Goyave,  Sainte  Marie,  Oapesterre,  Trois-Rivieres  and 
Gourbeyre;  another  120  kilometres  long,  after  crossing  the  Rivierre 
SalCe,  goes  by  the  northern  part  of  Guadeloupe,  to  Basse-Terre,  pass- 
ing through  Baie-Mahaulto,  Lamentin,  Sainte-Rose,  Pointe-Noire,  Des- 
haies,  Vieux-Habitants,  Bouillaute,  and  Baillif.  There  is  a  short  pub- 
lic road  from  Basse-Terre  to  Matouba,  of  about  10  kilometres,  passing 
through  the  Camp  Jacob.  There  is  another  short  one,  recently  con- 


FRENCH    WEST    INDIES.  505 

structed  by  disciplined  soldiers,  from  Camp  Jacob  across  to  Gourbeyre 
from  4  to  5  kilometres  in  length. 

There  is  a  Government  or  public  road  going  from  Pointe-a-Pitre  to 
the  Moule,  passing  through  Gosier,  Saiute-Anne  and  Saint-Francois 
of  50  kilometres,  and  another  one  going  from  Pointe-4-Pitre  to  the 
Moule,  passing  through  Abymes^Morne-a-1'Eau  or  Gripon  of  30  kilome- 
tres and  one  from  Gripon  to  Anse-Bertrand  of  20  kilometres,  passing 
by  Port  Louis. 

These  are  all  the  principal  public  roads  existing  in  Guadeloupe 
proper  and  Grande-Terre. 

The  planters,  for  their  own  convenience,  make  their  own  roads  to  their 
different  estates,  and  at  their  own  expense.  Generally  these  by-roads 
are  not  kept  in  very  good  repair. 

Charles  Bartlett, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Guadeloupe,  July  7, 1891. 


CONTINENT  OF  ASIA. 
BRITISH  ASIA. 

BOMBAY. 
RETORT  OF  VICE-CONSUL  BODE. 

I  have  the  honor  to  send  herewith  a  copy  of  a  report  from  the  execu- 
tive engineer,  Bombay  municipality,  on  the  subject  of  street  building 
and  road  making,  as  per  circular,  dated  November  8, 1890. 

A.  E.  Bode, 

Vice-  Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Bombay,  April  23,  1891. 


MUNICIPALITY  OF  BOMBAY. 
B. 

Mr.  Walton,  engineer,  to  Vice-Consul  Bode. 

Bombay,  April  6,  1891. 
H.  A.  Acworth,  Esq.,  C.  S., 

Municipal  Commissioner. 

ROADMAKINO. 

In  making  new  roads  the  earthwork  is  iirst  prepared  with  a  surface  fall  of  1  in  40 
from  the  center  to  the  sides  where  the  width  of  the  road  is  40  feet  and  under.  Where 
the  width  of  the  road  is  greater  than  40  feet  a  fall  of  1  in  50  is  used.  The  surface  is 
consolidated  with  4  or  5  ton  hullock  rollers,  or  with  steam  rollers,  preferably  with 
the  latter  in  the  dry  season.  On  this  a  layer  of  dry  ruhhle  packing  of  a  thickness  of 
9  inches  to  12  inches  in  thecaseof  the  roads  of  the  iirst  two  classes,  and  of  6  inches  in 
that  of  the  others  is  hand  packed  solid.  Over  this  are  laid  two  layers  of  2-inch  road 
metal  in  aggregate  from  G  to  12  inches  in  thickness,  according  to  the  traffic  and  im- 
portance of  the  road.  The  first  layer  is  thoroughly  watered  and  rolled  until  it  is  par- 
tially consolidated.  The  second  layer  is  then  spread  and  watered  and  foiled  with 
steam  rollers  until  the  whole  is  fairly  consolidated.  About  half  an  inch  of  loose 
sandstoue"  is  then  spread  on  the  surface  of  the  road  and  steam  rolling  is  continued 
and  hard  level  surface  is  the  result.  On  each  side  of  the  road,  especially  where  there 
are  footpaths,  bluestone,  chisel  dressed  water  table  stones  4  inches  thick  and  from 
15  to  18  inches  wide  are  laid  to  carry  away  the  storm  water  into  proper  masonry  gully- 
traps.  Roads  thus  "made  wear  under  heavy  traffic  about  six  years  without  any  ex- 
tensive repair. 

*A  soft  littoral  concrete 

507 


508  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

MAINTENANCE   AND   REPAIR. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  metal  of  these  roads  becoming  loose  it  is  necessary  during 
the  dry  season  to  water  the  roads  morning  and  evening,  and  to  repair  slight  defects  as 
they  appear  in  the  surface  promptly.  New  roads  are  constructed,  as  a  rule,  by  con- 
tract.   Repair  works  are  carried  out  departmently  by  a  staff  engaged  for  the  purpose. 

When  the  road  requires  thorough  repair  the  surface  is  picked  up  in  continuous  con- 
venient lengths  to  a  depth  of  about  4  inches  for  one-half  the  width  of  the  road  at  a 
time  in  order  that  the  traffic  may  not  be  stopped.  On  an  average  one  native  pick- 
man,  working  8  hours,  picks  200  square  feet  of  metalled  road.  The  old  metal  if  ser- 
viceable is  separated  from  the  fine  stuff  (which  is  rejected)  and  spread  over  the 
picked  surface.  New  road  metal  is  put  over  this  to  the  required  depth,  giving  the 
proper  slope  to  the  surface.    This  is  consolidated  as  described  of  new  roads. 

The  total  length  of  the  street  in  the  charge  of  the  municipality  is  138|  miles  and 
the  area  of  the  metaled  part  of  such  roads  is  3,110,605  square  yards.  Footpaths  are 
not  included.  The  annual  cost  of  maintenance  of  metaled  part  of  roads  is  as  fol- 
lows: 

Kupeea. 

Cost  of  watering  for  the  nine  dry  months  in  the  year 93,270 

Cost  of  metal  and  other  materials  for  street  repair 162,000 

Cart  hire  in  connection  with  street  repair 92,000 

Labor  in  connection  with  road  repair 95,000 

Steam  rollers 16,000 

Coals  and  stores  and  repairs '■ 24,500 

Total 482,770 

Or  155  rupees  per  square  yard. 

The  effect  on  the  rate  of  land  fronting  a  new  road  was  recently  well  exemplified 
in  the  construction  of  the  Ripon  road.  While  taking  up  land  for  this  road  an  en- 
deavor was  made  to  purchase  frontage  lands  along  the  line  of  this  road.  But  on 
account  of  the  strenuous  oppositions  of  the  owners  of  the  laud  to  part  with  more 
land  than  that  required  for  the  road,  only  a  part  of  the  frontages  could  be  purchased. 
The  total  area  of  land  purchased  was  68,750  square  yards,  from  which,  deducting 
26,289  square  yards  required  for  the  road,  and  5,157  square  yards  for  crossroads, 
making  a  total  deduction  of  31,446  square  yards,  there  remained  a  balance  of  37,304 
square  yards  available  for  resale.  The  cost  of  land,  including  compensation,  amounted 
to  163,633  rupees ;  the  cost  of  road  construction  and  establishment  amounted  to 
65,679  rupees ;  sale  charges  amounted  to  9,000  rupees,  making  a  total  of  238,312  rupees, 
from  which,  deducting  miscellaneous  receipts,  rent,  sale  of  materials,  amounting  to 
6,806  rupees,  there  remained  231,506  rupees  as  the  actual  cost  of  making  Ripon  road, 
including  also  charges  for  land  and  compensation  to  private  owners.  The  land  was 
bought  at  a  price  averaging  75  rupees  per  square-yard. 

The  surplus  area  was  sold  by  public  auction  at  rates  averaging  7.23  rupees  per 
square  yard. 

In  addition  to  the  direct  profit  made  by  constructing  the  Ripon  road,  revenue  of 
the  municipality  was  increased  by  the  buildings  which  were  built  fronting  the  road 
after  its  construction. 

The  amount  of  such  increase  can  not,  however,  be  given,  even  approximately. 

Rienzi  Walton, 
Executive  Engineer,  Municipality. 

True  copy. 

W.  Pearson, 
Assistant  to. Commissioner, 

E.  M.  S. 

United  States  Consulate  at  Bombay. 


BRITISH    ASIA CEYLON.  509 

CEYLON. 

REPORT  BT  CONSUL  ALOREY. 

Department  of  State  instruction  per  circular  of  November  8,  1890, 
was  received  here  at  a  period  when  the  furnishing  of  a  truthful  and 
thoroughly  reliable  report  on  the  roads  of  Ceylon  was  beyond  my 
capacity. 

Mr.  MacBride,  the  director  of  public  works,  had  on  his  accession  to 
office  in  1885  adopted  a  new  system  (or  a  modification  of  his  own  of 
the  Macadam  system,  hitherto  in  vogue)  and  was  workiug  it  with 
great  perseverance,  despite  an  amount  of  public  detraction  that  might 
well  have  deterred  a  less  able  and  determined  man. 

The  fierce  diatribes  against  him  and  his  roads,  constantly  appearing 
in  the  newspapers,  if  cut  out  and  preserved,  would  form  a  large  vol- 
ume of  the  harshest  criticism  extant,  and  there  was  nothing  to  offset 
them  in  the  literary  line  except  his  own  periodical  reports  to  the  Gov- 
ernment, all  of  the  facts  in  which  were  stoutly  denied  by  the  great  army 
of  dissentients  as  soon  as  they  appeared. 

I  myself  at  one  period  feared  that  Mr.  MacBride  had  fallen  upon  a 
wrong  system,  for  the  outcry  against  him  was  loud  and  fierce  euough 
to  shake  the  confidence  of  almost  anybody.  I  knew,  however,  that  Sir 
Arthur  Gordon,  the  then  governor  of  the  colony,  who  had  traveled 
largely  over  these  roads  and  was  a  very  keen  observer,  thoroughly  be- 
lieved in  the  new  system  and  meant  to  back  Mr.  MacBride  up  in  it, 
through  "  good  and  evil  report,"  to  the  bitter  end. 

I  was  also  in  the  way  of  hearing  traveled  countrymen  of  my  own 
express  admiration  of  the  excellent  roads  they  found  wherever  they 
went  in  Ceylon,  and,  as  their  opinions  were  bound  to  be  dispassionate, 
they  counted  heavily  against  the  local  utterances,  which  after  all 
might  be  largely  due  to  prejudice,  predilection,  or  what  is  popularly  called 
conservatism. 

On  my  return  to  the  island  from  leave  in  1890  1  found  the  newspaper 
war  on  the  roads  as  fiercely  conducted  as  ever,  but  there  was  neverthe- 
less a  faint  murmur  of  approval  getting  into  the  air,  and  it  gradually 
got  whispered  about  that  Mr.  MacBride  and  his  highways  had  scored. 

It  was  about  this  period  of  growing  reaction  that  my  instruction  to 
report  on  roads  arrived,  and  as  it  was  MacBride  roads  that  must  form 
the  subject  of  my  report,  and  gaid  roads,  after  being  decried  for  years, 
were  now  just  receiving  some  approval,  I  felt  bound  to  await  future 
developments  before  reporting  upon  the  system. 

By  the  end  of  the  year  1890  the  denouement  came.  The  roads  were 
unquestionably  good,  and  they  had  been  built  and  kept  up  at  a  dimin- 
ished cost,  as  against  the  old  system,  of  the  largo  sum  of  850,000  rupees 
per  annum.  Detraction  now  ceased,  newspapers  withheld  their  philip- 
pics, and  in  some  cases  even  made  the  amend  honorable  to  Mr.  Mac- 
Bride. 


510  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Now  was  the  time  to  make  my  report,  but  alas!  Mr.  MacBride  went 
away  on  duty  to  India,  and  there  remained  as  data  for  my  guidance 
only  his  reports,  which  the  newspapers  had  contradicted  ad  iniftnitum, 
and  which  being  intended  only  to  meet  local  requirements  scarcely 
afforded  explicitly  the  information  my  Government  desired. 

I  was  obliged  therefore  to  await  Mr.  MacBride's  return,  and  on  his 
arrival  I  waited  on  him  and  requested  the  favor  of  such  data  as  would 
enable  me  to  make  an  intelligent  and  truthful  report.  This  he  kindly 
agreed  to  give  as  soon  as  he  could  spare  time  from  his  own  pressing 
duties  to  collect  it,  and  the  final  result  is,  the  annexed,  able,  and  ex- 
haustive exposition  by  his  pen,  which,  as  I  could  not  add  to  it  profitably 
a  single  word  ot  my  own,  he  has  courteously  allowed  me  to  forward  in 
its  entirety. 

I  would  merely  add,  in  conclusion,  that  the  roads  in  Ceylon  attain  an 
altitude  of  over  6,000  feet  above  sea-level,  and  are  subject  to  damage, 
principally  from  rains  and  floods,  the  rainfall  sometimes  amounting  to 
260  inches  per  annum,  and  in  certain  localities  12  inches  per  diem,  and 
8  inches  have  been  registered  in  two  hours. 

They  are,  however,  exempt  from  the  action  of  severe  frost,  for  this 
climate  is  highly  tropical,  Ceylon  being  situated  only  a  few  degrees 
from  the  equator,  say  between  5°  56"  and  9°  north  latitude. 

W.  Morey, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Colombo,  July  8, 1891. 


Mr.  MacBride  to  Consul  Morey. 

Colombo,  Ceylon,  July,  2, 1891. 
W.  Morey,  Esq., 

Consul  of  the  United  States  of  America,  Colombo  : 
Sik:  With  reference  to  your  visit  of  May  last,  and  request  that  I  should  furnish 
you  with  information  regarding  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  public  roads  in 
Ceylon,  and  the  cost  thereof,  I  have  the  honor  to  forward  herewith  a  paper  on  the 
subject,  which  I  trust  will  be  found  of  practical  interest  to  the  Department  of  State 
concerned. 

There  is  no  greater  boon  to  give  to  a  populous  country  than  roads;  when  we  find 
them  outside  our  doors  every  day  of  our  lives  we  look  upon  them  as  very  ordinary 
things,  and  think  little  of  them,  but  go  to  any  part  of  Ceylon  or  to  any  country 
where  there  are  no  roads  and  you  will  find  every  able-bodied  man,  and  woman,  too, 
turned  into  a  beast  of  burden.  I  believe  roads  confer  more  good  on  a  people  than 
anything  that  laws  can  cause  or  cure. 

The  direct  revenue  of  roads  is  that  derived  from  tolls.  In  Ceylon  it  amounts  to 
about  450,000  rupees,  but  besides  they  give  an  impetus  to  trade  and  are  instrumental 
in  developing  the  resources  of  the  country. 

The  policy  of  the  government  of  Ceylon  in  regard  to  its  roads  is  one  of  efficiency 
combined  with  economy,  whereby  all  roads  receive  equal  and  adequate  attention  in 
proportion  to  the  traffic  passing  over  them. 
I  am,  sir,  your  most  obedient  servant, 

R.  K.  MacBride, 
Director  of  Public  Workt. 


BRITISH    ASIA — CEYLON.  511 

ROADS  IN  CEYLON. 

[Report  by  Mr.  MacBride,  director  of  public  works  in  CeyloD.] 

The  roads  of  Ceylon  are,  as  a  rule,  well  and  solidly  constructed,  and  maintained  in 
a  thoroughly  efficient  state  for  the  traffic  they  have  to  bear. 

These  results  are  attained  by  the  votes  given  by  the  government  for  such  services, 
and  by  careful  attention  to  every  detail  by  the  department  of  public  works. 

It  is  unnecessary  in  Ceylon  to  distinguish  between  "city  streets"  and  "country 
roads  or  highways."  The  only  city  in  Ceylon  is  Colombo,  with  a  population  of 
120,000,  scattered  over  an  area  of  10  square  miles.  The  roads  in  Colombo  are  dealt 
with  iu  much  the  same  way  as  those  in  the  country,  and  cost  but  little  more  per 
square  yard  for  construction  or  maintenance. 

TRACING  ROADS. 

The  line  of  road  to  be  opened  in  a  new  district  is  located  by  an  experienced  en- 
gineering surveyor,  with  a  due  regard  to  the  traffic  to  be  served.  Trial  lines  are  usu- 
ally run  in  the  first  instance  with  a  simple  instrument  known  as  a  "  road  tracer," 
with  which  gradients  can  be  readily  located.  The  line  is  then  traversed  with  the 
theodolite,  the  traverse  connected  with  trigonometrical  stations,  and  then  a  longitu- 
dinal section  and  cross-sections  every  100  feet  are  taken  with  the  Dumpy  level. 

A  gradient  of  1  inch  in  20  is  considered  the  maximum  that  should  be  permitted  in 
a  first-class  road. 

Zigzags  are  only  permissible  when  the  features  of  the  country  are  so  rugged  and 
precipitous  that  their  adoption  is  obviously  advantageous;  but  when  adopted,  their 
construction  for  a  radius  of  50  from  the  turn  on  each  side  is  level.  This  slightly 
increases  the  gradient,  but  the  traffic  ascendiag  or  descending  is  steadied  on  a  level 
roadway  at  each  turn,  and  the  draft  animals  are  thereby  relieved  of  the  heavy  strain. 

Owing  to  the  extremely  steep  and  broken  nature  of  the  hill  country  of  Ceylon 
the  roads,  as  a  rule,  are  in  sidelong  or  double  cutting;  in  the  low  country,  where,  due 
to  the  heavy  rainfall,  floods  occur  almost  annually,  long  embankments  with  numer- 
ous waterways  and  double  cuttings  are  frequent. 

The  road  trace  having  been  made  and  approved,  and  the  estimate  for  its  construc- 
tion framed  and  passed  by  the  government,  the  construction  proceeds  as  follows: 

Cooly  lines  or  rude  huts  of  wattle  and  daub  walls  and  thatched  roofs  are  erected 
at  convenient  points  on  or  near  the  line  of  roadway,  attention  being  given  to  the 
water  supply  and  drainage,  and  gangs  of  Tamil  laborers  are  employed  to  cut  out  the 
earthwork,  blast  the  rock,  and  remove  bowlders  until  a  roadway  of  16  feet  in  the  solid 
to  the  gradient  laid  down  on  the  plans  is  obtained.  At  the  same  time  the  building 
of  culverts  in  all  ravines  and  of  others  to  take  the  side  drainage  of  the  road,  pro- 
ceeds. These  cross  culverts  have,  as  a  rule,  an  opening  of  3  feet  in  height,  by  2 
wide;  they  are  of  dry  hammer-dressed  rubble  masonry.  A  rough  floor,  about  a  foot 
in  thickness,  is  laid,  on  which  the  side  walls  are  built  and  then  cover  stones  with 
sufficient  bearing  are  selected  and  the  masonry  is  carried  up  to  road  level,  and  occasion- 
ally finished  off  with  a  low  parapet  wall.  The  larger  streams  have  two,  three,  or 
more  openings  and  of  longer  size  ami,  if  12  feet  or  more  waterway  is  required,  arched 
bridges  of  masonry  or  iron  girder  bridges  with  buckled-plated  and  concrete  platforms 
are  used.  Partially  worn  out  rails  from  the  government  railway  have  also  been  ex- 
tensively used  for  bridging  these  smaller  streams.  Timber,  some  years  ago  exten- 
sively used  for  bridging,  is  now  seldom  adopted,  owing  to  the  extremely  rapid  decay, 
of  such  material  in  the  tropics,  and  the  destruction  by  white  ants  to  which  it  is 
exposed.  The  larger  streams  and  rivers  are  bridged,  usually,  with  iron  girdorH,  of 
which  very  numerous  patterns  have  been  adopted  in  different  localities,  some  im- 
ported from  England  and  many  made  in  the  public  works  factory  in  Colombo.  The 
largest  spans  hitherto  adopted  are  150  feet. 


512  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

SURFACE  TO  CARRY  THE  TRAFFIC. 

The  roadway  boing  so  far  constructed  a  layer  of  foundation  stone  6  inches  to  9' 
inches  deep  is  laid  by  hand  to  a  width  of  14  or  15  feet ;  on  this  is  spread  a  layer  of  3 
inches  of  broken  metal,  broken  by  hand,  in  cubes  to  pass  through  a  ring  of  2  inches 
diameter,  however  held,  and  the  surface  being  finished  with  a  very  small  quantity  of 
clean  gravel  is  consolidated,  with  iron  rollers  weighing 35  cwts.,  drawn  by  native  bul- 
locks and  a  liberal  application  of  water,  a  side  drain  about  2  feet  wide  and  18  inches 
deep  is  cut  on  the  inside  in  side-long  ground,  or  both  sides  in  double  cutting. 

MATERIALS   USED  IN  CONSTRUCTION. 

Abundance  of  good  stone  exists  almost  everywhere  in  Ceylon;  it  is  gneiss,  a  meta- 
morphic  rock,  in  a  few  places  so  clearly  stratified  as  to  render  it  easy  to  wedge  it  off 
from  the  quarry  face  in  blocks  suitable  with  but  little  dressing  for- the  best  masonry. 
The  same  stone,  which  is  indeed  the  predominant  geological  feature  of  Ceylon,  is 
used  for  the  foundation  and  the  metaling.  Quartz  gravel  is  common  in  certain  parts 
of  Ceylon,  and  where  it  is  not  found  a  fairly  good  hard  gravel,  known  locally  as 
cabook*  gravel  and  abounding  in  clay  iron  stone,  is  found.  This  is  in  the  formation 
known  geologically  as  "latorite."  Hardwood  timber  is  scarce  and  difficult  to  obtain 
iu  the  Central  Prov  ince  and  other  settled  districts,  and  owing  to  the  large  consumption 
of  fuel  on  tea  estates  is  becoming  more  so  every  year;  in  the  low  country  it  is 
abundant. 

Lime  in  the  form  of  bowlders  of  almost  pure  carbonate  of  lime  is  found  all  over 
Ceylon,  but  the  lime  for  mortar  obtained  from  burning  this  stone  is  comparatively 
poor  in  quality  as  a  building  material.  The  best  lime  obtainable  in  Ceylon  is  made 
of  coral,  found  everywhere  along  the  seaboard,  but  rates  of  transport  (Ceylon  is  not 
a  horse  or  draft  cattle  breeding  country)  make  its  use  iu  the  interior  expensive. 

Portland  cement  imported  from  England  is  largely  used  for  work  exposed  to  wet 
and  for  concrete  foundations,  where  such  are  necessary. 


The  labor  employed  on  both  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  Ceylon  roads  is 
chiefly  Tamil,  originally  from  southern  Iudia.  Though  not  physically  equal  to  Euro- 
peans, Tamil  coolies  can  do  a  good  day's  work  and  are  housed  and  fed  at  a  minimum 
of  trouble  and  expense.  Their  pay  ranges  from  32t  cents  of  a  rupee  to  42t  cents  for 
ordinary  coolies,  50§  cents  to  a  rupee  for  artificers,  miners,  builders,  and  carpenters, 
a  rupee  to  two  and  a  half  rupees  for  highly  trained  artificers  and  foremen. 

TOOLS. 

The  tools  used  in  road  construction  and  maintenance  are  much  the  same  as  are  in 
use  in  Europe,  but  the  6pade  and  shovel  are  almost  unknown,  their  place  being  taken 
by  a  tool  called  a  mamoty,  in  shape  like  an  adze,||  but  with  a  broad  flat  blade. 
Wheelbarrows  are  unknown,  transport  of  material  being  chiefly  performed  by  wicker- 
work  baskets  carried  on  the  head,  or  by  iron  carts  dragged  by  hand. 

Trained  elephants  are  used  on  road  construction,  especially  in  remote  districts, 
where  machinery  and  appliances  for  lifting  or  moving  heavy  weights  are  not  to  be 
had.  The  elephants  drag  stone  on  rough  sledges  formed  of  the  fork  of  a  small  tree, 
to  which  they  are  attached  with  a  rope  collar  and  chain  traces.  They  also  can  move 
enormous  weights  with  their  heads,  and  will  exercise  great  care  and  intelligence  when 
well  directed  in  placing  heavy  stones  in  position  on  masonry  works.  Transport  is 
also  carried  on  with  bullocks  working  in  two-wheeled  carts. 

*  Laterite.         1 12£  cents.         1 15  cents.         $  18  cents.  ||  A  clumsy  hoe  iron. 


BRITISH    ASIA — CEYLON.  513 

COST. 

The  average  cost  of  first-class  metaled  and  well-bridged  roads  in  the  hill  country 
of  Ceylon  is  20,000  rupees*  *per  mile;  in  the  low  country  about  12,000  rupees-t 
Graveled  roads  cost  about  5,000  rupees  less  per  milo  in  each  case. 

The  rupee,  at  the  present  value  of  silver,  is  worth  about  1  shilling  and  5  pence  in 
English  money;  thus  2.83  rupees  represents  the  value  of  an  American  dollar.  The 
cost,  therefore,  of  a  first-class  metaled  road  in  the  hills  would  be  in  American  money 
about  $7,067  per  mile,  and  the  cheapest  road  in  the  low  couutry  §2,473  per  mile. 

MAINTENANCE   OF   ROADS. 

As  before  stated,  the  roads  of  Ceylon  are  maintained  in  a  very  efficient  state ;  the 
surface  and  the  drainage  receive  the  most  careful  attention ;  a  skilled  European 
officer  of  public  works  is  in  charge  of  each  departmental  district,  having  about  100 
miles  of  principal  roads.  He  is  under  the  direction  of  the  chief  engineer  of  the 
province  aud  has  under  him  a  staff  of  native  overseers  and  clerks.  The  system  on 
which  the  roads  are  now  maintained,  known  locally  as  "  the  MacBride  system,"  was 
introduced  in  the  year  1884  by  the  writer,  the  present  director  of  public  works  (Mr. 
R.  K.  MacBride,  C.  M.  G.),  and  was  designed  to  introduce  road  reform,  which  was 
greatly  needed  in  the  colony,  and  to  render  dishonesty  and  peculation  among  the 
native  overseers  almost  impossible.  It  has  already  saved  the  colony  an  expenditure 
of  3,500,000  rupees. 

The  amount  of  broken  metal  required  annually  to  keep  up  the  surface  of  the  road 
and  replace  that  worn  away  by  the  traffic  has  been  learned  by  long  experience  with 
considerable  accuracy.  The  work  of  the  year  commences  by  breaking  this  metal  in 
the  quarries  adjoining  the  road,  and  either  piling  it  continuously  aloug  the  sides  of 
the  road  to  be  repaired  or  in  convenient  depots  at  short  distances  apart.  As  a  rule  no 
metal  is  used  until  all  is  broken  for  the  year,  but  a  small  reserve  is  always  kept  for 
the  patching  of  ruts  which  May  develop  before  the  time  for  full  repairs  comes.  The 
whole  of  the  metal  should  be  ready  by  May,  when  the  southwest  mousoon  bursts  and 
heavy  rains  may  be  expected.  About  this  time  the  first  annual  clearing  of  surface  and 
drains  is  undertaken.  The  scraping  of  grass  or  cutting  away  of  jungle  merely  for  ap- 
pearance sake  is  strictly  forbidden,  but  anything  that  impedes  the  free  discharge  of 
rainwater  from  the  road  is  removed  and  the  side  drains  are  cleared  of  silt  and  vege- 
tation. The  edges  of  the  road  throughout  its  length  are  kept  down  below  the  level 
of  the  metaled  surface,  so  that  scupper  drains,  which  are  injurious,  may  be  strictly 
prohibited.  The  metal  being  all  broken  and  the  rains  having  set  in  the  repairs 
proceed  at  once. 

If  continuous  ruts  have  developed,  they  are  cut  out  to  a  width  of  2  to  3  feet  and  a 
depth  of  a  few  inches  ;  the  old  material  so  excavated  is  sifted  and  cleaned,  the  detri- 
tus due  to  the  complete  disintegration  of  the  metal  is  thrown  away,  but  the  finer 
stone  and  unworn  metal  is  retained  as  a  blinding  for  the  new  material  about  to  be 
laid.  The  rut  is  then  carefully  filled  with  new  material,  the  blinding  of  old  worn 
metal  applied,  and  the  consolidation  by  iron  rollers  of  35  cwts.,  drawn  by  one  or  more 
pairs  of  bullocks,  proceeds.  If  the  rains  are  not  sufficiently  lasting,  water  is  col- 
lected in  the  side  drains  or  led  for  long  distances  in  the  hill  country  and  freely  ap- 
plied during  the  consolidating  procoss.  If  the  traffic  has  not  developed  continuous 
ruts  the  places  that  require  repair  are  cut  out  in  rectangular  shapes  and  the  process 
of  repair  is  as  above  described.  In  some  cases,  and  especially  in  towus,  the  whole 
surface  is  picked  up  annually  and  reformed  and  completed  in  a  similar  manner.  A 
portion  of  the  metal  is  reserved  for  a  second  repair  later  in  the  year  when  the  second 
monsoon — that  from  the  northeast — sets  in,  about  Oetober  or  November,  when  the 
rains  receive  their  second  clearing  up. 

*  Practically  $8,000.  t  Practically  $4,800. 

33A 33 


514  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Where  this  system  is  properly  carried  out  the  result  is  a  road  surface  hard  as 
adamant  and  smooth  as  a  billiard  table.  The  director  of  public  works  would  be 
very  glad,  in  the  event  of  his  visiting  America,  to  afford  the  Department  of  State 
every  information  regarding  the  details  of  the  road-maintenance  system  of  Cey- 
lon that  bears  his  name.  Tables  are  annexed  showing  the  total  number  of  miles 
of  road  open  in  Ceylon,  metaled,  graveled,  and  natural,  the  latter  being  merely 
tracks  through  the  jungle,  cleared  of  trees  and  roots  but  without  culverts  or  bridges, 
and  only  passable  for  wheeled  traffic  in  dry  weather. 

Diagrams  are  also  appended  showing  the  total  expenditure  on  construction  and 
upkeep  for  the  past  6  years. 

The  average  cost  of  maintenance  per  mile  of  all  roads  in  charge  of  the  public 
works  department  now  is  314.80  rupees  per  mile  per  annum,  or,  in  American  money, 

The  highest  rate  of  expenditure  on  roads  exposed  to  continuous  and  heavy  traffic 
is  1,146.51  rupees  per  mile=$405.    The  lowest  17C  rupees  =  $60. 

R.  K.  MacBride, 
Director  of  Public  Works. 
Colombo,  Ceylon,  July  2,  1891. 

Number  of  miles  of  road  open  in  Ceylon. 

Metaled  roads 1,634.80 

Graveled  roads 965.44 

Natural  roads 541.90 

Total 3,142.14 


CHINA. 

REPORT  BY  MINISTER  DENBY. 

Road  making  is  an  art,  which,  among  the  Chinese,  has  never  been 
brought  to  any  great  perfection.  It  is  remarkable  that  a  people  famil- 
iar, as  they  have  been  for  centuries,  with  the  essential  part  which  roads 
play  in  commerce  have  never  undertaken  to  improve  the  means  of  com- 
munication by  land  with  their  distant  frontiers  or  between  their  great 
cities. 

The  explanation,  probably,  is  that  in  the  greater  part  of  China  proper 
there  are  water  ways,  natural  and  artificial,  crossing  the  plains  as  a  net5 
while  human  labor  has  always  been  found  preferable  to  pack  horses,  or 
other  beasts  of  burden,  over  narrow  and  circuitous  mountain  passes. 

In  southern  China,  at  the  centers  of  the  tea  trade,  the  long  strings  of 
coolies  bearing  down  from  the  hills  their  fragrant  burdens  of  tea  leaves 
in  deep  baskets  slung  on  poles  is  a  familiar  sight.  The  trausport  of 
brick- tea  over  the  mountain  roads  of  Szu-chuan  into  Thibet,  a  trade  said 
to  amount  to  £200,000  annually,  is  also  effected  by  coolies,  who  here, 
on  account  of  the  steepness  of  the  defiles,  do  not  use  carrying  poles, 
but  bear  the  tea  on  a  wooden  frame  strapped  to  their  shoulders.  In 
this  way  they  make  a  15  days'  journey  over  mountain  paths  of  great 
difficulty,  bearing  about  100  pounds  of  tea  each, for  which  service  they 
receive  the  equivalent  of  from  $3  to  $4. 


ASIA — CHINA.  515 

The  importance  of  military  roads  lias  never  been  thoroughly  im- 
pressed on  the  Chinese.  The  great  campaigns  of  the  Mongol  and  Man- 
elm  emperors  were  conducted  with  hordes  of  nomadio  cavalry,  whose 
movements  were  independent  of  fixed  routes.  It  was  the  terrible  Mon- 
gol horsemen  who,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  overran  Asia,  a  resistless 
wave  of  barbarism,  threatening  even  the  kingdoms  of  Christendom.  In 
the  eighteenth  century  the  Mauchu  conqueror's  campaigns  against  the 
Mohammedans  of  Shi  and  Kashgaria  were  also  conducted  chiefly  by 
mounted  troops.  In  none  of  the  wars  of  China  has  she  yet  faced  the 
problem  of  the  transportation  of  heavy  ordnance. 

In  northern  China,  where  water  ways  are  not  so  numerous  as  in  the 
south,  intercommunication  has  always  presented  serious  difficulties 
which  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  overcome.  Bridges  have  been  built 
over  some  smaller  streams,  but  are  not  kept  in  repair.  The  large  rivers 
are  to  be  crossed  by  ferries  only,  the  smaller  to  be  forded.  At  the  ferries 
the  ferry-boats  are  intentionally  constructed  with  a  high  side-board  so 
that  the  carts  cannot  be  driven  on  without  unhitching.  This  gives  em- 
ployment to  acrowd  of  hangers-on,  in  unhitching  and  lifting  on  and  off 
the  carts,  for  a  compensation.  The  other  arrangements  of  the  high- 
ways seem  dictated  by  a  similar  motive.  At  some  places  there  are 
bridges  which  are  too  narrow  to  be  crossed  by  carts,  where  the  mules 
are  taken  out  and  led  over  singly  while  the  carts  are  carried  over  on 
men's  shoulders.  In  time  of  flood  there  is  frequently  no  way  of  crossing 
at  all.  Where  nature  has  afforded  no  convenient  impediment,  bad  char- 
acters sometimes  dig  holes  in  the  road  in  order  to  obtain  employment 
in  helping  carts  through. 

The  roads  themselves,  outside  the  cities,  are  merely  aline  of  ruts  across 
the  fields.  In  wiuter  when  free  from  rain,  as  they  are  for  nine  months 
in  the  year,  they  keep  in  very  good  condition.  In  summer  they  are  a 
fathomless  impassable  bog,  and  travel  except  on  foot  is  suspended.  In- 
side the  cities  some  of  the  most  crowded  thoroughfares  are  paved  with 
massive  blocks  of  stone.  Where  kept  in  repair  these  stone  roads  are 
serviceable,  but  they  are  so  infrequent  as  only  to  accentuate  the  impassa- 
bility  of  the  others. 

The  importance  of  the  rapid  conveyance  of  intelligence  to  the  center 
of  government  from  the  outside  provinces  has  always  been  felt.  In  the 
days  preceding  the  introduction  of  the  telegraph  this  was  accomplished 
by  an  elaborate  system  of  post  stations.  These  were  placed  some  30 
miles  apart  and  relays  of  horses  constantly  kept  in  readiness  for  the  im- 
perial courier.  By  these  means  dispatches  have  been  sent  to  distant 
provincial  capitals  at  the  rate  of  250  miles  per  day.  This  system  was 
brought  to  great  perfection  under  the  Mongol  emperors,  if  we  may  trust 
the  description  of  Marco  Polo.  He  states  that  Kublai  Kahu  had  300,000 
horses,  especially  kept  for  the  use  of  messengers,  and  more  than  10,000 
post  stations.  In  connection  with  the  mounted  couriers  an  elaborate 
system  of  foot  messengers  was  also  maintained.    The  stations  for  the 


516  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

runners  were  only  3  miles  apart,  and  by  them  the  Emperor  is  said  to 
have  received  news  from  places  10  day's  distant  in  1  day  and  1  night, 
or,  if  need  be,  news  from  100  days  off  in  10  days  and  nights,  "  and  that," 
to  use  Marco  Polo's  own  words,  "  is  no  small  matter." 

Fruit  gathered  in  Peking  in  the  morning  was  thus  transmitted  to  the 
summer  palace,  10  days  distant,  arriving  the  evening  of  the  next  day. 

A  cruel  custom  prevails  with  reference  to  the  official  courier  service 
in  Thibet.  The  express  courier  from  Gartok  to  Lhara,  a  distance  of  800 
miles,  travels  night  and  day.  He  is  not  relieved  en  route.  His  clothes 
are  sealed  onto  him  and  can  only  be  removed  after  the  seal  has  been 
broken  by  the  proper  official.  These  messengers  are  lifted  at  the  post 
stations  from  one  horse  to  another  and  arrive  at  their  destination  with 
cracked  faces  and  eyes  bloodshot  and  sunken.  They  sometimes  die  on 
the  way  from  exposure  and  fatigue. 

The  elaborate  system  of  posts  for  imperial  messages  in  China  seems 
never  to  have  suggested  the  establishment  of  a  government  postal 
service  for  the  public  at  large.  In  spite  of  its  autocratic  and  central- 
ized character,  the  conveyance  of  the  people's  correspondence  has  never 
been  considered  a  proper  function  of  the  government.  All  private 
correspondence  is  transmitted  by  private  post-offices,  or  "  hsin  chii," 
of  which  there  are  several  rival  establishments  in  each  city.  These 
firms  employ  their  own  couriers,  who  travel  by  horseback  or  on  foot  or, 
where  possible,  by  steamer.  Speed  is  not  a  conspicuous  feature  of  the 
system,  though  between  cities  where  the  business  justifies  a  regular 
mounted  service,  letters  and  small  parcels  are  carried  at  the  rate  of 
75  or  80  miles  a  day.  The  charges  for  small  distances  are  not  excessive, 
a  letter  being  sent  from  Peking  to  Tientsin  for  about  10  cents.  For 
long  distances,  however,  the  charges  are  disproportionately  large.  This 
legation  finds  frequent  occasion  to  use  the  private  post  for  communi- 
cating with  missionaries  in  the  interior,  particularly  in  Shantung. 
From  Peking  to  Ohinanfu,  the  capital  of  Shantung,  is  about  225  miles, 
and  the  usual  charge  for  transmitting  a  letter  thither  is  40  cents. 

Oue  peculiarity  about  these  postal  establishments  is  their  responsi- 
bility for  loss  or  failure  to  deliver.  Competition  forces  them  to  be 
thoroughly  reliable  and  careful.  At  river  ports  at  the  hour  of  sailing 
of  a  steamer,  the  competition  between  rival  firms  in  soliciting  patron- 
age through  their  runners  is  said  to  be  a  familiar  incident. 

That  these  systems  of  government  and  private  posts  should  exist 
without  leading  to  the  construction  of  proper  post  roads  and  highways 
is  remarkable.  Over  some  mountain  roads,  however,  which  would 
otherwise  be  impassable,  considerable  work  has  been  done  and  money 
expended.  In  some  places  the  paths  over  the  passes  have  been  simply 
paved  for  foot  travelers,  but  in  others  provision  has  been  made  for  the 
passage  of  carts.  Most  of  these  roads  date  from  great  antiquity,  but 
there  are  occasional  instances  of  recent  construction  and  repair. 

The  most  important  of  recent  improvements  is  the  putting  in  order 


ASIA — cniNA.  517 

of  the  road  through  the  Chii  Yung  Kuan  north  of  Peking.  This  is  the 
pass  loading  into  Mongolia  from  China,  through  the  great  wall,  past 
the  cities  of  Nankou  and  Kalgan.  It  is  familiar  to  all  tourists  to  Peking 
as  the  "  Nankou  Pass."  The  work  of  repair  here  was  undertaken  by 
the  viceroy  Li  Kuug-chaug  some  years  ago,  and  in  the  Peking  Gazette 
of  the  19th  of  May,  appears  a  memorial  from  him  announcing  its  com- 
pletion. I  inclose  this  memorial  at  length,  to  which  I  call  attention, 
not  only  for  its  reference  to  the  subject  of  this  dispatch,  but  as  illus- 
trating a  peculiar  feature  of  Chinese  government. 

The  system  of  intrustiug  important  public  works  to  the  u  gentry  and 
literati"  is  not  new  in  this  country.  Private  subscription  to  public 
works  such  as  road  making,  river  embankment,  public  charities,  etc., 
form  an  important  resource  of  the  treasury.  The  proposed  plan  of 
lending  out  the  public  fuuds  to  pawnbrokers  is  a  thoroughly  Chinese 
proceeding.  The  deriving  of  Government  income  from  money  loaned 
at  interest  to  its  subjects  prevails  extensively  here,  though  the  income 
is  always,  as  in  this  instance,  devoted  to  a  particular  purpose.  Gentry 
who  distinguish  themselves  by  large  subscriptions  or  by  exertions  in 
the  public  service  are  rewarded  by  tablets  and  arches  or  by  the  bestowal 
of  honorary  official  titles. 

The  road  whose  completion  the  viceroy  reports  is  said  by  recent  trav- 
ellers to  be  of  the  most  creditable  character.  Drains  have  been  made, 
substantial  bridges  built,  inequalities  leveled  and  obstructing  rock 
hewn  away.  The  new  road  will  be  of  great  benefit  to  local  traffic  but 
particularly  for  the  transport  of  the  immense  quantities  of  tea  shipped 
by  Eussian  merchants,  on  camels,  from  Tungchou  to  Kiachta,  via  this 

pass. 

Charles  Denby, 

Minister. 
United  States  Legation, 

Peking,  June  7, 1891. 


ROAD  REPAIRING  IN  CHINA. 

[Translated  from  the  Peking  Gazette  of  May  19,  1891,  by  Cli.  Denby,  jr.,  socond  secretary.] 

Li  Kung-chang,  earl  of  the  first  rank,  grand  secretary,  viceroy  of  Chihli,  presents 
a  memorial  with  reference  to  the  completion  of  the  work  of  repairing  the  road  through 
the  Chii  Yung  Kuan,  the  important  thorough  faro  north  of  Peking;  he  requests  the 
gracious  granting  of  rewards  to  those  gentry  who  have  exerted  their  efforts  in  the 
work.  A  respectful  memorial  on  which  the  sacred  glance  is  humhly  entreated.  Mem- 
orialist represents  that  Chii  Yung  Kuan  in  Yen  Chiug  Chou  is  the  first  of  the  nine  im- 
portant places  in  Tai-Lsing.  It  is  close  to  the  capital.  Such  are  its  cliffs  and  abrupt 
hills  that  a  step  can  scarcely  be  taken  without  danger.  Former  dynasties  looked 
upon  it  as  an  important  place  for  the  protection  of  their  frontiers.  This  dynasty, 
however,  has  borders  widely  extended.  Those  without  and  those  within  the  pass  are 
of  one  family.  This  road  must  bo  used  by  the  princes  of  the  inner  and  the.  outer 
Mongols  bringing  tribute  in  their  journeys  to  and    from    Peking.     It    is  used  also  for 


518  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

the  transport  of  military  supplies  for  the  forts  on  the  frontiers  of  the  Wo  circuits  of 
the  northwest.  This  pass  has  not  been  repaired  to  any  extent  for  more  than  two 
hundred  and  some  score  years.  For  45  li  the  road  pierces  the  hills  and  winds  through 
gorges,  where  in  summer  and  autumn  water  and  stones  dash  downward,  so  that 
travelers  go  through  with  difficulty.  In  winter  the  streams  in  the  gorges  freeze  to 
solid  ico  and  many  men  and  animals  fall.  The  merchants  regarded  the  Toad  as  a 
dangerous  one.  An  urgent  uecessity  existed  to  devise  means  for  the  repair  of  it  for 
the  public  good.  The  amount  of  work  to  be  done,  however,  was  excessive  and  the 
funds  required  very  large,  and  Chihli  has  long  been  a  province  deficient  in  revenue, 
whose  public  treasury  could  make  no  appropriation  for  this  purpose. 

In  the  fourth  moon  of  the  thirteenth  year  of  Kuanghsii  (1887),  Chang  Hung-chiin 
formerly  prefect  of  Hsuan  Hua  Fu,  together  with  Chang  Che"ng-i,  deputy  magistrate 
of  Yen  Ching  Chou,  and  Ho  Cheng-hsii,  district  magistrate  of  the  Huai-lai  district, 
made  inquiries  as  to  the  opinion  of  the  elders  and  gentry  and  the  views  of  the  people 
in  general,  who  all  expressed  themselves  as  of  the  opinion  that  a  tax  should  be 
levied  on  cattle  and  beasts  of  burdeu  passing  to  and  fro  to  raise  funds  to  put  the 
road  in  order.  In  this  arrangement  the  merchants  at  large  rejoicingly  acquiesced. 
It  was  accordingly  decided  to  place  a  public  office  in  the  Chii  Yung  Kuan  and  levy 
from  camels,  mules,  catties,  horses,  donkeys,  pigs,  and  sheep  a  charge  of  from  10  cast 
(2  cents)  to  2  or  3  east  each,  to  be  exacted  of  all  alike  whether  coming  into  China  or 
going  outward. 

Thus,  from  an  expense  inconsiderable  to  the  merchants  aud  people  at  large,  was 
created'  a  revenue  to  be  relied  on  forever  by  the  locality.  The  affair  was  easily 
started. 

Those  who  bring  down  government  horses  aud  return  empty  handed,  women  rid- 
ing, unaccompanied  by  goods,  and  agricultural  laborers  gathering  fuel  and  grass  to 
be°'carried  away  on  beasts  of  burden,  are  not  required  to  pay  anything,  in  order  to 
show  that  proper  discretion  is  exercised. 

Li  Hou  chi  and  other  upright  men  from  the  literati  of  the  locality  have  been  selected 
and  intrusted  with  the  management  of  the  work.  They  have  agreed  upon  regula- 
tions which  were  submitted  by  petition  to  memorialist  who  authorized  their  pro- 
visional operation. 

The  magistrates  of  the  several  departments  concerned  repeatedly  surveyed  the  said 
pass.  From  the  eastern  postal  station  atChii-taotoLang  Chfao  (Wolf  Bridge)  at  Chang 
Ping  Chou,  it  measures  in  all  6,730  chang  (about  4,200  rods).  The  estimated  quan- 
tity of  earth  and  rock  to  be  moved  and  the  labor  to  be  expended  was  very  great.  As 
the  funds  were  to  be  derived  from  animals  coming  by  at  intervals,  it  was  impossible 
to  undertake  the  whole  whole  work  at  once.  Hence  the  distance  was  divided  into 
eleven  sections  to  be  put  in  order  in  succession.  Work  was  begun  at  Pa-ta-ling  and 
elsewhere  which  are  the  most  dangerous  localities. 

At  this  time  it  happened  that  Hu  Tung,  a  native  of  Yen  Ching  Chou,  now  an  expec- 
tant taotai  in  Hupei,  had  returned  to  his  native  place  and  memorialist,  inasmuch  as 
he  was  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  topography  of  the  pass,  ordered  him  to  asso- 
ciate with  the  magistrates  of  the  departments  concerned  in  their  consultations  and 
undertakings. 

At  present,  the  road  through  the  pass  having  been  leveled  by  degrees,  the  number 
of  carts  passing  through  daily  increases  and  memorialist,  being  petitioned,  author- 
ized the  levy  of  a  fee  from  them  as  from  animals  to  be  devoted  likewise  to  the  work 
of  repair. 

The  officials  and  gentry  concerned  in  the  work  made  a  thorough  examination  of 
the  features  of  the  locality  and  ascertained  where  dikes  must  be  built,  drains  dug, 
holes  filled,  elevations  leveled,  and  where  land  should  be  bought  from  the  people  to 
make  a  detour,  aud  where  the  road  should  be  carried  along  a  hillside  to  make  a 
thoroughfare.  The  road  has  been  made  45  chang  (450  feet)  to  1  chang  (10  feet)  or  2 
chang  (20  feet)  broad,  differing  iu  different  places.    The  sections  of  the  road  have 


ASIA — CHINA.  519 

been  successively  repaired,  diked,  and  leveled  so  that  carts  even  now  traverse  it  with- 
out danger  or  obstruction. 

If  it  is  intended  that  the  work  shall  endure  it  can  not  be  completed  in  one  day. 
Whenever  a  heavy  rain  falls  the  water  rushes  down  from  the  peaks  with  myriads  of 
stones,  as  if  heaven  were  being  dragged  down  and  earth  uplifted.  If  these  stones 
become  jammed  together  the  road  overflows  to  great  depth  and  there  is  no  thorough- 
fare through  the  gorges.  The  causes  of  these  defects  must  be  ascertained  and  reme- 
dies sought  therefor  that  control  may  be  established. 

During  the  summer  of  last  year  there  suddenly  came  on  a  continuous  rain  which 
lasted  many  days  and  was  heavier  than  for  scores  of  years.  The  part  of  the  road 
first  repaired,  that  at  Pa-ta-ling,  which  was  called  the  Tien  Ksien,  though  it  encoun- 
tered this  terrible  flood  still  remained  unhurt.  Other  places  were  slightly  damaged, 
but  were  easily  repaired.  At  Tan  Chin  Gorge  and  at  the  Buddha's  Stone  Shrine  the 
hills  on  both  sides  crowd  together  and  leave  no  space  to  carry  off  the  water.  Here 
the  abutments  of  the  road  were  half  washed  away.  Man's  strength  is  inadequate, 
in  view  of  the  circumstances,  to  avoid  such  mishaps.  It  was  therefore  decided  to 
change  the  road  to  the  west  side  and  make  a  circuit  around  these  two  places.  The 
main  road  will  be  reentered  again  at  Lin  Lang  Ting.  By  avoiding  watery  places  and 
following  mountain  paths,  by  making  earth  roads  and  keeping  out  of  the  way  of 
rocks,  it  is  hoped  that  future  damage  will  be  escaped.  This  suggestion  being  made 
by  those  in  charge  of  the  work  they  Avere  ordered  to  take  action  accordingly,  and, 
on  the  18th  day  of  the  second  moon  of  this  year,  they  reported  the  completion  of  the 
•work. 

Orders  were  given  to  send  Wang  Shou-cheng,  prefect  of  Hsiian  Hua  to  inspect 
the  part  of  the  road  which  has  been  leveled,  and  it  is  found  that  merchants  going 
north  and  south  have  been  greatly  benefited.  There  is,  however,  no  work  which 
will  not  deteriorate  with  lapse  of  time.  The  road  through  the  pass  will  be  trampled 
and  worn  by  horses  and  carts  and  eroded  by  wind  and  rain.  Unless  means  are  de- 
vised to  provide  funds  for  the  important  repairs  it  is  to  be  feared  that  after  some 
years  the  labor  and  hardship  which  have  been  spent  upon  this  work  will  be  found  to 
have  been  in  vain. 

The  total  receipts  from  animals  from  the  middle  of  1887  to  the  beginning  of  1891, 
have  been  29,160  strings  of  cash  (about  $25,000).  The  merchants  of  the  vicinity  sub- 
scribed also  600  taels  of  silver.  Over  and  above  what  has  been  expended  there  re- 
main only  3,500  strings  of  cast  and  600  tads.  This  sum  is  insufficient.  The  tax  on 
animals  must  be  retained  for  several  years,  not  only  to  defray  the  incidental  repairs, 
but  to  collect  the  sum  of  10,000  taels,  upon  which  the  toll  will  cease.  The  income 
from  the  cart  tax  commenced  after  the  beginning  of  the  work  on  the  road,  and  wh8n 
the  tax  on  animals  is  abolished  the  tax  on  large  carts  must  be  retained  several  years. 
This  also  will  stop  when  5,000  taels  have  been  raised.  The  two  above  sums  will  be 
kept  apart  and  loaned  to  merchants  to  produce  interest.  The  interest  from  the  tax 
on  animals  will  be  used  only  for  annual  repairs  ;  that  from  the  sum  collected  on  carts 
for  the  expenses  of  great  repairs.  Regulations  will  be  enacted  establishing  a  mutual 
Supervision  between  gentry  and  officials  to  prevent  unlawful  usurpation,  waste,  de- 
ficit and  misappropriation. 

Progress  will  hereafter  be  made  in  the  art  of  road  repairing,  and  every  day  the  road 
will  improve  so  that  for  scores  of  years  it  will  cause  no  anxiety.  All  rejoice  that  a 
dangerous  way  has  been  made  smooth. 

The  gentry  engaged  in  the  affair  have  relied  upon  their  own  resources  in  effecting 
the  repairs,  having  made  no  perquisites  whatever.  Through  5  years  they  struggled 
against  hardships  diligently,  accomplishing  a  difficult  task.  Now  it  has  been  brought 
about  that  a  pass,  in  which  a  horse  could  scarcely  place  a  foot,  has  been  transformed 
into  a  level  road,  over  which  loaded  carts  easily  travel.  This  manifests  the  credit  of 
those  intrusted  with  the  work.  They  are  really  deserving  of  praise,  aud  it  is  proper 
to  recommend  the  more  meritorious  for  reward. 


520  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

AMOY." 

REPORT  BY  EDWARD  BEDLOE. 

INTRODUCTORY  AND  EXPLANATORY. 

Road  making  as  an  art  involves  at  least  five  factors  :  First,  the  nature 
of  the  materials  employed  or  local  lithology;  second,  the  topography 
of  the  country  traversed ;  third,  the  geology  of  the  country  traversed  ; 
fourth,  the  climatology  of  the  country  traversed ;  and  fifth,  the  system 
employed  by  the  roadmakers. 

All  of  these  vary  from  point  to  point,  so  that  in  no  two  places  do  the 
same  conditions  prevail.  It  i3  well  to  bear  this  fact  in  mind,  as  one 
accustomed  to  a  kind  of  work  perfectly  suited  to  the  locality  to  which 
he  belongs  is  very  apt  to  misjudge  work  perfectly  suited  to  another 
locality  with  whose  circumstances  he  is  unfamiliar.  The  roads  of  Amoy 
are  very  different  in  many  respects  from  those  which  prevail  over  the 
larger  part  of  the  United  States,  but  they  are  admirably  adapted  to 
the  conditions  imposed  by  the  five  factors  enumerated.  To  understand 
the  first  thoroughly  it  is  necessary  to  understand  the  last. 

On  account  of  the  facts  hereinafter  set  forth  there  is  no  difference 
between  city  streets  and  country  roads  in  A.nioy.  All  are  made  of  the 
same  materials,  in  the  same  way,  and  under  the  same  law.  If  streets 
are  to  be  taken  as  those  complex  institutions,  so  familiar  to  Americans, 
which  serve  as  thoroughfares,  water  conduits,  sewer,  water,  gas,  and 
electrical  ways,  there  are  none  such  in  Amoy.  There  is  no  difference 
between  the  most  crowded  city  district  and  the  lonely  cemetery  in  this 
particular  regard,  excepting  that  the  roads  are  less  worn  in  the  latter 
than  the  former  neighborhood. 

LITHOLOGY  OF  AMOY. 

The  only  rock  formation  in  Kulangsu  and  the  chief  one  in  Amoy  is 
granite.  Where  it  has  not  been  acted  upon  by  the  elements,  ?f  is  a 
hard,  handsome  stone  resembling  Quincy  granite,  but  neither  so  strong 
nor  so  durable.  It  is  seldom  quarried  on  Kulangsu,  what  cut  stone  is 
used  there  being  brought  from  other  parts  of  Amoy. 

The  elements  act  upon  the  granite  in  different  ways.  The  commonest 
is  where  the  rock  has  been  corroded  until  it  has  become  a  nodular  hard- 
pan.  This  represents  two-thirds  of  the  surface  of  Amoy.  It  is  too 
tough  to  be  taken  up  with  the  spade  or  shovel,  but  offers  practically  no 
resistance  to  the  pick  or  crowbar.  In  this  condition,  as  in  fact  in  all 
others,  where  it  has  been  greatly  weathered,  it  is  very  porous,  as  is 
shown  at  every  rainfall  when  the  water  instead  of  collecting  on  the  sur- 
face, percolates  downward  many  feet,  if  not  yards.     It  has  little  filter- 

*  Consul  Bedloe  .acknowledges  his  obligations  to  the  following  gentlemen  for  assist- 
ance rendered  in  the  preparation  of  this  report :  Francis  Cass,  William  S.  Fales. 
H.  E.  Howard,  K.  Ping,  and  John  H.  Coombs. 


ASIA CHINA.  521 

ing  power,  less  than  sand,  and  much  less  than  sandstone  or  magnesium 
limestone. 

At  the  United  States  consulate,  a  large  amount  of  slaked  lime  was 
used  as  a  fertilizer  upon  the  garden  and  grounds.  The  rain  took  up 
considerable  quantities  of  lime  iu  both  solution  and  suspension  and  car- 
ried these  downward  at  least  80  feet  below  the  surface  into  the  well  on 
the  premises.     The  water  of  that  well  has  been  calciferous  ever  since. 

At  Dakin's  pharmacy  the  well,  though  thoroughly  cemented,  shows 
the  permeability  of  the  decayed  granite  in  which  it  is  sunk  by  a  very 
percept!  ble  osmosis  of  salt  water  from  the  bay  whenever  the  dry  season 
sets  iu  aud  the  water  in  the  well  sinks  below  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  well  at  the  London  missionary  establishment  shows  traces  of 
drainage  from  the  Chinese  quarter  in  that  neighborhood. 

A  well  near  the  go-down  of  F.  C.  Brown  &  Co.  shows  that  it  receives 
an  appreciable  amount  of  petroleum  compounds  and  lixiviation  prod- 
ucts from  the  go-downs  aud  thoroughfares  of  that  vicinity. 

The  water  of  the  well  below  the  cemetery  at  Lam-paw-do  contains 
lime  from  the  white  wash  of  the  numberless  graves  there,  and  probably 
small  quantities  of  organic  matter  from  the  interred  bodies. 

The  third  stage  of  the  decomposition  of  granite  is  marked  by  a  coarse 
gritty  sand  aud  by  beds  of  clay.  Of  the  former  there  is  any  amount, 
and  of  the  latter  large  quanties  in  the  bed  of  the  harbor.  Anyone  who 
will  take  the  trouble  to  examine  the  land  between  high  and  low  water 
mark  will  find  it  clearly  divided  into  two  belts.  The  upper,  or  one 
nearer  the  shore,  is  granite  sand,  and  the  lower  clayey  mud.  By  dig- 
ging through  the  former  clay  will  be  found  at  every  point.  The  fact  is 
utilized  at  Chich-Boe  where  the  Chinese  use  this  clay  to  make  fine  tiles 
and  terra  cotta. 

The  three  stages  described  are  general ;  between  them  are  any  num- 
ber of  intermediate  ones.  In  fact  as  an  eutire  series  from  the  virginal 
rock,  at  one  extreme,  to  the  coarse  sand  aud  clay  at  the  other  may  be 
found  at  many  places  in  Amoy. 

There  is  no  limestone  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Amoy.  The  lime 
used  in  the  various  industries  is  made  by  burning  oyster,  clam,  and  other 
molluscan  shells,  or  else  imported  from  other  districts. 

Cement  rock  does  not  occur  in  Fuh-Kien  so  far  as  is  known.  What  is 
consumed  is  imported.  Formerly  nearly,  if  not  quite  all  came  from 
Europe.  In  the  past  20  years  inexhaustible  supplies  of  first-class  qual- 
ity have  been  found  in  the  British,  Dutch,  aud  Spanish  East  Indies, 
and  these  now  control  the  market. 

Besides  the  granite  sand  described,  there  is  a  fair  grade  of  ordinary 
sand  along  the  beach,  made  out  of  the  former  by  the  triturating  action 
of  thewaves. 

There  is  little  or  no  gravel,  shingle,  or  shards. 

Of  the  artificial  stones,  those  made  from  clay  largely  preponderate 
These  are  used  in  road  making,  as  arc,  also  fragments  of  crockery, earthen- 
ware, mortar,  cement,  and  shells. 


522  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

The  surface  of  Ainoy,  its  adjacent  islands,  and  the  surrounding 
country  is  very  rocky  and  uneven.  Summed  up  in  a  few  words,  it  con- 
sists of  ranges  of  granite  hills  and  mountains  varying  from  1,000  to 
1,800  feet  in  height,  with  the  intervening  space  filled  in  with  subbills, 
huge  bowlders,  and  small  alluvial  plains.  A  rough  estimate  would 
divide  the  surface  of  the  territory  as  follows : 

Per  cent. 

Mountaius  whose  slope  is  more  than  45° 20 

Mountains  whose  slope  is  less  than  45° 15 

Hills ■ 30 


Bowlders - ° 

Plains 30 

The  mountain  ranges  are  continuous,  with  irregular  outlines  rather 
than  saw-like,  as  with  the  Sierra  Nevada  of  the  North  American  conti- 
nent.   They  are  dotted  and  at  places  half  covered  with  bowlders. 

The  roads  follow  the  plains  as  far  as  possible,  skirt  the  sides  of  the 
hills  and  mountains,  and  in  many  cases  go  over  the  hills  instead  of 
making  a  detour  around  them.  This  occasionally  necessitates  very 
sharp  gradients  and  renders  the  use  of  carts,  wagons,  and  carriages 
impracticable  if  not  impossible.  Even  the  employment  of  rickshows 
(jiu-rik-i-shas)  is  attended  with  danger. 

The  tides  are  very  high  (2L  feet  6  inches  in  the  spring),  so  much  so 
that  although  there  is  a  very  wide  beach  between  low  and  high  water 
mark  it  can  not  be  used  for  travel.  At  high  water  the  sea  reaches  the 
hillside,  and  at  low  water  the  beach  is  too  soft  and  oozy  for  either 
pedestrian  or  equestrian  purposes. 

GEOLOGY. 

The  island  of  Amoy  and  its  neighbors,  including  Kulangsu  and  Little 
Quemoy,  are  portions  of  a  rocky  and  uneven  territory,  containing  few 
small  plane  surfaces,  which,  prior  to  the  glacial  epoch  must  have  ex- 
tended from  the  foot  walls  of  the  mountain  range  (of  which  Lam-tai-bu, 
1,180  feet  altitude,  is  the  leading  peak)  to  Quemoy,  and  probably 
reached  further  out  into  the  Formosa  channel. 

The  islets  of  Wu-seu  and  Quemoy-spit  are  undoubted  relics  of  what 
was  once  a  much  larger  expanse  of  land. 

Prior  to  the  glacial  period  the  country  must  have  been  more  fertile 
than  it  is  to-day,  owing  to  the  possession  of  a  larger  amount  of  super- 
jacent soil.  Much  of  it  was  like  the  arable  belt  along  the  southwest 
edge  of  Kulangsu.  It  supported  a  large  vegetable  life,  as  is  evidenced 
by  traces  of  liguite  aud  carbonaceous  soil  at  every  point  where  the 
mountain  slopes  have  prevented  the  erosion  of  the  soil  by  the  move- 
ment of  the  glaciers  in  the  far  past. 

Several  excavations  made  for  funeral  and  architectural  purposes  have 
encountered  thin  beds  of  carbonaceous  soil  beneath  the  hard  pan  which 
constitutes  so  large  a  portion  of  the  present  surface. 


ASIA — CHINA.  523 

The  fauna  of  that  period  were  apparently  more  numerous  than  those 
of  to-day,  and  included  deer,  goats,  pigs,  buffaloes,  tigers,  leopards, 
monkeys,  cave-tigers,  cave-bears,  cave-wolves,  jackals,  wolves,  and 
bears.  There  seem  to  have  been  alligators,  boa  constrictors,  and  ele- 
phants, but  this  is  not  yet  certain. 

There  are  evidences  of  prehistoric  man  in  shell  mounds,  and  in  ashes 
and  bones,  in  caverns,  and  also  in  implements  of  stone. 

The  glacial  epoch  must  have  been  of  short  duration,  as  there  is  an 
absence  of  sand,  shingle,  and  gravel,  very  remarkable.  There  is  of 
course  a  very  large  moraine  beneath  the  Formosa  channel,  and  small 
ones  near  Ohiang-Chiu,  Ohloh-  Jim,  Lian-Ho,  and  other  points.  On  the 
other  hand  there  was  a  large  transportation  of  bowlders  by  the  glaciers 
from  Peh-phang-nia-teng,  Him-sek-poa,  and  the  mountainous  districts  of 
the  north  and  northwest,  and  their  deposition  at  every  point  between  the 
mountains  mentioned  and  the  low-water  mark  beyond.  The  great 
blocks  of  stone  are  found  on  every  mountain  and  below  the  surface  of 
the  water  to  a  depth  of  at  least  10  fathoms. 

Of  the  bowlders  scattered  over  Kulangsu  the  majority  are  a  granite, 
resembling  syenite,  but  numbers  consists  of  gneissic  granite,  diorite, 
delorite,  graphic  granite,  auriferous  quartz,  and  sometimes,  though 
rarely,  of  semi-micaceous  schist,  carboniferous  limestone  and  sandstone. 

The  auriferous  quartz  indicates  the  presence  of  gold  not  more  than 
150  miles  from  Amoy,  and  the  carbonife  rous  rocks  of  coal  measures  much 
nearer  the  coast. 

The  lithologic  variety  shows  that  glaciers  which  found  their  em- 
bouchement  about  Amoy  must  have  reached  at  least  100  miles  from  the 
coast  up  into  the  interior  of  Fuh-Kien.  The  height  of  these  glaciers, 
or  this  glacier,  for  in  all  probability  the  land  was  covered  by  one  un- 
broken sheet  of  ice  for  leagues  and  leagues,  is  hard  to  determine. 

Glacial  scratchings  are  found  at  every  point  on  Kulangsu  and  Amoy 
and  even  on  the  summit  of  Lam-tai-bu.  The  glacier  therefore  which 
once  covered  the  district  must  have  been  over  1,180  feet  thick.  If  we 
are  to  judge  by  analogy  and  use  Lyell's  researches  in  Great  Britain  and 
Tyndall's  in  the  Alps  as  our  guide  in  estimating  its  dimensions  the 
Amoy  glacier  was  from  half  a  mile  to  1  mile  thick,  and  in  its  full 
career  covered  the  Formosa  Channel  and  all  of  the  Island  of  Formosa 
excepting  a  few  high  peaks.  It  reached  far  out  into  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
extending  in  every  probability  beyond  the  axis  of  the  Botel-Tobago 
Archipelago. 

The  paucity  of  moraines  and  the  wealth  of  bowlders  indicate  that  the 
giacial  epoch  terminated  very  suddenly  so  far  as  Amoy  is  concerned. 
A  glacier  dies  from  one  of  two  causes ;  either  there  is  an  increase  of 
temperature  too  great  for  the  continued  existence  of  ice  or  there  is  a 
large  decrease  in  the  supply  of  the  water  which  in  congealed  form  goes 
to  make  it  up.  Sometimes  the  two  causes  combine  and  make  one. 
When  the  decrease  of  a  glacier  is  slow  there  is  a  large  deposition  of 


524  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES 

gravel,  saud,  and  earth  along  with  bowlders.  When  it  is  rapid  there 
are  bowlders  and  comparatively  little  gravel,  sand,  or  earth.  As  there 
are  little  soil,  few  moraines,  and  many  bowlders  on  Knlangsn  and  Amoy 
it  is  probable  that  both  causes  mentioned  united  in  this  instance  and 
that  the  great  glacier  retreated  suddenly  and  rapidly  from  its  maximum 
development  back  to  the  mountain  chains  in  the  interior  of  Fuh-Kien. 
No  other  hypothesis  can  be  framed  which  will  satisfactorily  explain 
the  present  topographic  and  lithologic  condition  of  the  neighborhood 
and  its  surrounding  territory. 

The  rocks  mentioned  indicate  that  there  has  never  been  any  volcano 
nor  volcanic  action  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  Amoy.  A  few 
diorite  bowlders  with  lava-filled  veins  prove  that  to  the  north  or  north- 
west there  is  a  district  which  at  one  time  was  the  scene  of  tremendous 
volcanic  activity. 

The  absence  of  seams,  faults,  or  crevasses  is  evidence  that  there  have 
never  been  any  serious  earthquakes  in  Amoy,  except  it  may  be  the 
dying  tremor  of  some  seismic  convulsion  many  miles  away.  We  are 
also  led  to  the  inference  that  there  never  will  be  a  volcano  or  an  earth- 
quake near  Amoy  so  long  as  the  present  coast  line  remains  unchanged 
in  its  general  features. 

This  theoretic  view  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  all  the  Chinese  ac- 
counts and  traditions  of  earthquakes  locate  them  in  the  far  south 
towards  the  Malay  peninsula,  the  far  west  in  the  district  of  Sz-Chuen, 
or  the  territory  bordering  on  the  mountains  of  Quin-Lun  and  the  ex- 
treme northeast,  where,  at  some  period  not  very  distant,  there  was  con- 
siderable volcanic  and  seismic  action. 

The  absence  of  all  stratification,  the  weathering  of  the  granite,  and 
the  non-existence  of  fossils,  Tertiary  or  Post-tertiary,  in  or  upon  the 
rocks  above  a  plane  10  feet  above  spring  high-water  mark  show  that 
this  part  of  the  coast  of  China  has  been  exempt  from  the  processes  of, 
submergence  and  upheaval  which  have  been  so  common  in  the  geologic 
history  of  other  lands.  As  Kulaugsu  looks  to  day  it  looked  many 
thousand  years  ago,  except  that  it  was  greener  and  prettier  then  and 
a  trifle  more  picturesque.  It  was  the  same,  but  more  rocky,  ragged, 
and  forbidding  when  neither  the  Alps,  Apennines,  Uimalayas,  Eockies 
or  Andes  had  been  born.  It  is  as  old  as  the  Apalachian  range  of  North 
America  and  the  Norwegian  headlands,  the  two  oldest  monuments  of 
the  slow  development  of  the  great  globe  we  live  upon. 

The  weathering  of  the  granite  of  Amoy  is  something  pheuomenal. 
At  points  the  solid  rock  has  been  disintegrated  50  and  60  feet  verti- 
cally. The  breaking  down  has  been  confined  to  the  feldspar,  although 
both  the  mica  and  hornblende  have  been  affected.  Of  the  different 
kinds  of  feldspar  the  orthoclase  shows  the  greatest  decay,  with  the  het- 
eroclase  a  close  second.  Near  the  sea  this  disintegration  has  been  of 
no  benefit  to  human  or  vegetable  life.  The  potash,  soda,  and  lime  salts, 
the  clay  and  other  valuable  products  of  the  decomposition  of  granite 
have  run  into  the  sea  and  been  lost.     In  the  interior  country  the  aika- 


ASIA — CHINA. 


525 


line  salts  named  have  been  absorbed  by  the  soil  and  are  valued  fertil- 
izers. The  clay  accumulates,  forms  beds,  and  is  in  the  alter  years 
utilized  for  bricks,  tiles,  chiuaware,  and  terra  cotta.  The  chief  advan 
tages  of  disintegrated  granite  are  that  it  makes  good  roads  or  country 
pathways  and  excellent  walks  or  paths  in  the  garden.  Mixed  with 
lime  it  makes  a  good  mortar,  and  with  cement  a  very  good  concrete. 

CLIMATE. 

Amoy  lies  in  24°  40'  north  latitude  and  is  just  outside  of  the  tropics. 
It  has  practically  but  two  seasons,  the  wet  and  dry.  The  former  begi  us 
in  February  and  closes  in  June  and  is  about  4  months  long ;  the  latter 
constitutes  the  remainder  of  the  year. 

The  annual  rainfall  is  about  46  inches,  which  fall  in  445  hours  in  100 
days.  It  descends  in  large  quantities  in  a  short  time,  and  owing  to  the 
topography  exerts  a  powerful  erosive  action,  producing  gulleys  in  the 
thoroughfares  and  deep  channels  at  the  foothills. 

The  temperature  varies  from  a  maximum  of  95°  F.  in  July  to  a  min- 
imum of  40°  in  March.  Its  annual  mean  is  70°.7  F.,  making  the 
isotherm  of  Amoy  the  same  as  that  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  lower 
part  of  California. 

The  barometer  is  subject  to  great  fluctuations,  especially  during 
typhoons.  Its  annual  mean  is  30.095,  almost  the  isobare  of  Mobile, 
Ala.,  and  Jacksonville,  Fla. 

The  hygrometer  varies  from  95  maximum  to  10  minimum  and  has  an 
annual  mean  of  28,  making  it  a  very  dry  climate. 

The  atmosphere  of  Amoy  is  seldom  without  good  winds.  The  north- 
east monsoon  blows  almost  continuously  at  the  average  rate  of  10 
miles  per  hour  from  September  to  April,  and  the  southwest  monsoon  at 
the  average  rate  of  8  miles  per  hour  from  April  to  September. 

Besides  these  there  is  a  local  west  wind  from  the  mountains  from 
abouf  4  a.  m.  to  noon,  attaining  a  maximum  at  9  a.  m.,  and  a  local  east 
wind  from  the  ocean  from  about  4  p.  m.  to  10  p.  m.,  attaining  a  maxi- 
mum at  about  7:30  p.  m. 

A  meteorological  abstract  for  the  year  1890  is  as  follows : 


Barometer. 

Thermometer. 

• 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Moan 
maxi- 
mum. 

Mean 
mini- 
mum. 

Maxi. 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Mean 
niaxi- 

Mean 
mini- 
mum. 

Inches. 
80.  ::•"> 
30. 36 
30.  SO 
80.  26 

311.  IK 

3d.  lfi 
80.  in 
30.08 

30.  HI 

29.  h.', 
3H.4I 
30.43 

Inch.',*. 
30.02 
20.80 
30.01 
30.  01 
29.80 
29.90 

29.  58 
20.  Tf, 
•JO.  7G 

30.  20 
30.00 
30.02 

Inches. 
30.40 
30.34 
30.31 
30.18 
30.08 
30.  04 
29. 02 
20.  07 
30.  02 
311.01 
30.  32 
30.  28 

30.25 
30.17 
30.16 

30.00 
.'to.  00 
20.  ill 
•20.  H'J 
29.74 
20.01 
29  90 
30.  20 
30.17 

Inches. 
70 
75 
75 
82 
82 

87 
04 

80 

oo 

H0 
7.". 
73 

Inches. 
48 
51 
48 
55 
66 
70 
78 
77 
73 
SO 
(id 
51 

Inches. 
62 
64 
60 
71 
77 
82 
88 
so 
85 
so 
71 
08 

54 

57 

March 

55 
65 

Bay 

71 
78 
SI 

August 

Kept  ember 

~So\  ember 

80 
78 
05 
58 
61 

526 


STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


Solar  radiation. 

"Weather. 

Maxi- 
mum. 

Mini- 
mum. 

Mean. 

Days 
rainy. 

Hours 
of  rain. 

Bain  in 
inches. 

Days 

132 
152 
141 
148 
154 
154 
156 
157 
155 
148 
133 
156 

65 
76 
57 
69 
92 
91 
130 
141 
92 
126 
113 
65 

110 
120 
100 
125 
131 
136 
149 
150 
144 
137 
132 
110 

9 

7 
20 

4 
11 
17 
10 
12 

8 

74* 
14} 
103J 
27 
56J 
78i 
23 
13J 
14* 

2.01 
1.14 

9.25 
1.23 
3.27 
9.83 
7.90 
4.03 
0.66 

1 

V    hrinrc 

5 

3 

11 

2 

TJ              l>«r 

ii' 

31 
36 

4.27 
2.01 

T1     f-mlmr 

99i 

444J 

45.60 

22 

ROAD  MAKING. 


The  roads  in  and  around  Amoy  are  admirable  and  are  kept  it  splen- 
did condition  ;  when  the  ground  is  hilly,  they  are  cut  from  the  hillside  : 
when  the  ground  is  level  they  are  built  up. 

They  vary  from  20  to  30  feet  in  width  and  rise  in  the  center  about  a 
foot  above  the  level  of  the  edges.  Where  the  ground  slopes,  the  rise 
increases  in  proportion  in  order  to  prevent  the  rains  washing  away  the 
center  of  the  roadway  aud  the  edges  are  guttered  or  ditched. 

The  main  road  of  Amoy  is  30  miles  and  the  smaller  roads  and  street? 
aggregate  150  miles  in  length. 

In  making  roads  on  level  surfaces  a  foundation  of  broken  granite  is 
loosely  laid  with  a  gentle  slope  upward  toward  the  center;  on  this  is 
laid  smaller  pieces  of  granite,  broken  brick  and  earthenware,  and  some- 
times shells;  on  this  in  turn  is  put  a  mixture  of  granite-sand,  clay,  and 
lime.  The  road  is  sometimes  rolled,  but  usually  is  battered  down  with 
hammers.  The  top  mixture  is  applied  wet  and  sets  in  24  hours.  Its 
composition  varies  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  instances: 


No. 

Sand. 

Clay. 

Lime. 

1 

5 

5 

1 

2 

10 

3 

1 

3 

4 

2 

1 

4 

10 

4 

1 

5 

5 

4 

2 

In  making  it  the  sand,  lime,  and  a  little  clay  are  mixed  with  water 
in  a  brown  mortar  aud  applied  to  the  road ;  after  the  application  aud 
before  it  sets  the  remaiuing  clay  is  thrown  upon  the  surface  and  ham- 
mered down.  There  seems  no  particular  rule  as  to  the  amount  of  top 
mixture  to  the  square  of  road.  It  runs  as  low  as  75  catties  and  as  high 
as  175  to  the  square  yard  (100  pounds  to  233  pounds). 

The  second  layer  runs  from  1  to  4  inches  in  thickness,  and  the  lowest 
from  6  inches  to  a  foot. 


ASIA — CHINA.  527 

The  prices  per  diem  paid  for  labor,  etc.,  are  as  follows : 

Quarry  men $0.25 

Stone-breakers 15 

Stone-helpers 10 

Diggers 20 

Carriers  (who  carry  75  pounds  to  aload) 20 

Rammers 20 

Foremen 30 

The  crude  stone  costs  nothing,  as  farmers  and  others  are  only  too 
glad  to  have  the  rocks  and  bowlders  taken  away  from  their  land.  Clay 
costs  nothing  when  it  is  taken  from  the  common  land ;  when  bought 
from  private  parties  it  costs  from  1  to  5  cents  a  picul  (135  pounds). 

Common  lime  (the  cheapest  and  most  impure  is  used  for  the  purpose) 
commands  anywhere  from  3  to  25  cents  a  picul. 

The  amount  of  labor  performed  by  a  Chinese  coolie  is  much  less  than 
that  by  a  Caucasiou,  and  is  seldom  more  than  one-half.  He  never  gets 
drunk,  never  strikes,  and  works  on  Sunday  as  on  week  days. 

The  cost  of  making  a  road  is  about  $1  (Mexican),  or  77  cents  (Amer- 
ican) per  square  yard. 

The  Chinese  law  requires  roads  to  be  kept  in  good  order.  The  re- 
sponsibility is  put  upon  the  headman  of  a  village,  the  owners  of  the  ad- 
jacent property,  and  the  shopkeepers  whose  premises  abut  upon  the 
thoroughfares. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  roads  and  wacks  of  Amoy 
are  excellent  and  on  a  par  with  the  best  in  the  United  States. 

Edward  Bedloe, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Amoy,  March  16,  1891. 


FOOCHOW. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  GRACEY. 

There  are  no  roads  in  this  part  of  China.  The  streets  of  Foochow  are 
from  6  to  12  feet  wide,  many  of  them  covered  with  stone  slabs  which 
are  filthy  beyond  description,  and  are  perfectly  execrable. 

We  have  no  wheeled  vehicles,  and,  as  a  consequence  merely  foot- 
paths all  through  the  country. 

Samuel  L.  Grace? , 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate. 

Foochow,  January  17, 189L 


528  STREETS   AND   HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

HONGKONG. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  SIMONS. 

In  reply  to  your  circular  of  November  8,  1890,  I  have  instituted  in- 
quiries concerning  street  and  roadway  construction  in  Hongkong  with 
the  result  given  below  in  a  letter  from  the  surveyor-general. 

In  reply  to  inquiries  contained  in  your  letter  of  the  12th  instant  I  have  the  honor 
to  give  below  a  description  and  cost  of  the  principal  forms  of  road  construction 
adopted  in  the  city  of  Victoria.  As  there  is  comparatively  little  carriage  traffic,  and 
the  main  wear  and  tear  are  caused  by  the  numerous  jinrickshas,  we  are  able  to  adopt 
a  much  lighter  form  of  construction  than  would  be  required  if  we  had  to  provide  for 
the  yassage  of  heavy  vehicles. 

1.  Macadamized  roadway,  formed  of  3  inches  in  thickness  of  granite,  broken  to  2£- 
inch  cubes,  with  a  top  dressing  of  granite  broken  to  1-inch  cubes,  blinding  of  de- 
composed granite,  costs  per  superficial  yard  18  cents. 

2.  Concrete  roadway  formed  of  a  layer  of  concrete  4  inches  thick,  composed  as  fol- 
lows: 9  parts  of  granite  broken  to  1-inch  cubes,  3  parts  shell  lime  and  2  parts  red 
earth,  costs  32  cents  per  superficial  yard. 

The  macadam  is  adopted  generally  on  the  level  roads  and  those  of  moderate 
gradients. 

The  concreted  roadway  is  found  well  suited  to  the  very  steep  roads  running  at  right 
angles  to  the  sea  up  the  hillsides  in  the  direction  of  the  peak. 

So  far  as  technical  knowledge  of  the  subject  is  concerned  I  can  add 
nothing  to  the  foregoing.  Notwithstanding  the  light  character  of  the 
traffic  over  streets  and  roads  so  constructed  they  require  considerable 
repairs,  particularly  during  wet  weather  when  the  ground  beneath 
softened  by  water  no  longer  affords  a  firm  support  to  the  macadam 
which  sinks  in  places  forming  depressions,  these  rapidly  becoming 
ruts  unless  repaired. 

The  "heaving"  effect  of  frost  would,  I  believe,  prove  disastrous  to 
streets  so  constructed  while  a  loaded  track  would  crush  through  the 
crust  once  the  ground  uuderneath  become  saturated  with  water.  The 
streets  and  roads  are  considerably  higher  in  the  center  than  the  gut- 
ters, which  are  made  of  cut  stone. 

With  few  exceptions  no  sidewalks  are  provided,  pedestrians  taking 
the  middle  of  the  street.  Both  streets  and  roads  are  kept  in  good  re- 
pair and  always  scrupulously  clean — one  of  the  first  things  to  attract 
the  attention  of  visitors  to  Hong  Kong. 

O.  H.  Simons, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Hong  Kong,  January  20,  1891. 


NINGPO. 
STREETS. 


The  streets  in  the  cities  of  this  district,  like  those  in  all  the  rest  of 
China,  are  poorly  laid  out,  rarely  exceeding  10  or  12  feet  in  width  j  they 


ASIA — CHINA.  529 

are  most  generally  paved  with  large  slabs  of  granite,  about  2  feet  wide 
by  3  feet  long  and  4  inches  thick ;  under  these  are  sometimes  drains. 
It  is  a  difficult  matter  for  a  stranger  to  walk  on  these  stones  on  a  rainy 
day,  as  the  constant  friction  from  the  straw  and  wooden  shoes  of  the 
natives  has  made  them  very  slippery,  while  not  wearing  them  smooth. 
The  streets  are  kept  in  repair  by  the  subscriptions  of  the  gentry.  It 
would  be  next  to  impossible  for  a  handcart  to  pass  through  these 
cities,  on  account  of  the  narrowness  and  crookedness  of  the  streets. 

COUNTRY  ROADS. 

The  roads  in  the  country  are  mere  paths,  averaging  4  feet  wide,  and 
are  sometimes  paved  with  round  stones,  at  other  times  with  slabs,  by 
simply  laying  them  on  the  top  of  the  earth  ;  at  intervals  a  shed  is  built 
over  the  path,  wherein  a  traveler  can  rest  sheltered  from  the  rays  of 
the  sun.  These  are  called  "  rest  houses."  Now  and  then  a  square 
stone  about  4  feet  high  and  perhaps  a  foot  square  is  seen  close  to  the 
road ;  the  traveler  weary  with  his  load  places  his  back  to  this  stone 
and  lets  his  load  down  onto  this  stone  and  rests  awhile,  and  when  he  is 
ready  to  renew  his  journey  he  does  not  have  to  pick  np  his  load  from 
the  ground,  but  simply  from  this  resting  post.  All  roads,  country  and 
city,  are  built  and  kept  in  repair  by  subscriptiou.  There  are  no  laws  or 
regulations  relating  to  roads,  and  the  Government  does  not  give  a  dol- 
lar towards  their  maintenance.  There  is  not  a  wheeled  vehicle  of  any 
kind  in  this  vast  district  of  nearly  40,000  square  miles;  everything  is 
either  carried  on  the  backs  of  men  or  in  boats  through  the  canals.  The 
roads  in  this  district  are  the  canals,  which  intersect  every  quarter,  and 
one  can  travel  in  almost  every  direction  for  hundreds  of  miles  by 
these  canals. 

John  Fowler, 

Consul 

United  States  Consulate, 

Ningpo,  February  3,  1891. 


SHANGHAI. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  LEONARD. 

There  are  none  but  the  most  primitive  and  unimproved  roads  and 
streets  in  China,  except  in  the  few  foreign  settlements  at  the  treaty 
ports,  and  there  they  are  generally  excellent,  being  constructed  the 
same  as  in  England. 

Nearly  all  the  travel  and  traffic  of  China  is  carried  on  by  the  rivers, 
and  the  canals,  which  have  been  built  only  a  few  miles  apart  all  over 
the  settled  portions  of  the  country. 

The  loads  are  but  little  used  by  travelers  and  wheeled  vehicles  as  lit- 
33A 34 


530  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS   IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

tie  as  possible,  most  of  the  land  travel  being  in  chairs  carried  by  coo- 
lies, or  wheelbarrows,  which  are  used  both  for  goods  and  passengers. 

J.  A.  Leonard, 

Consul- General. 
United  States  Consulate-General, 

Shanghai,  January  12, 1891. 


JAPAN. 

REPORT  BY  VICE-CONSUL-GENERAL  SOIDMORE,  OF  KAN  AG  AW  A. 

The  subject  of  scientific  road  building  in  Japan  is  a  matter  that  has 
only  of  recent  years  received  attention. 

Previous  to  the  opening  of  the  country  to  foreign  intercourse  nearly 
all  of  the  inland  travel  and  carrying  was  confined  to  the  backs  of  coo- 
lies and  pack  horses,  and  in  spite  of  the  introduction  of  railways  and 
jinrikishas  such  is,  to  a  very  great  extent,  still  the  case. 

Macadamizing  is  followed  in  the  streets  of  the  larger  cities,  but  the 
work  is  generally  of  inferior  quality. 

In  the  country  some  of  the  main  roads  are  fairly  well  kept,  but  the 
general  rule  is  to  repair  the  highways  with  loose  earth,  which  natu- 
rally renders  them  execrable  in  bad  weather. 

The  maintenance  of  these  roads  is  at  the  cost  of  the  local  village  or 
district  authorities  from  taxes  levied  specially  for  the  purpose. 

G.  W.  Scidmore, 
Vice-  Consul-  General. 

United  States  Consulate-General, 

Kanagawa,  Japan,  January  28,  1891. 


PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WEBB,  OF  MANILA. 
INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS. 

There  is  little  or  nothing  to  be  said  of  the  streets  and  roadways  of 
the  Philippine  Islands  that  can  possibly  be  of  any  practical  value  to 
the  people  of  the  United  States,  except  in  so  far  as  it  may  serve  as  an 
illustration  of  the  sad  and  demoralizing  effects  of  neglect  and  indiffer- 
ence. It  has  been  said  that  the  cities  and  towns  of  this  archipelago 
are  at  least  a  hundred  years  behind  the  rear  guard  in  the  procession 
of  progress,  and  one  who  travels  over  the  streets  and  roads  of  the 
country  can  hardly  fail  to  become  impressed  with  the  truth  of  the 
assertion.  There  is  apparently  no  incentive  to  improvement  and  no 
disposition  to  do  anything  more  for  the  country  than  is  absolutely 


, 


ASIA — PHILIPPINE   ISLANDS.  531 

necessary  for  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  foreign  residents  who 
very  rarely  expect  to  remain  here  longer  than  5  years.  Probably  it 
is  this  transient,  ever-changing  character  of  the  foreign  colony  that 
may  be  taken  to  account  for  the  fact  that  there  is  not  a  single  drive- 
way beyond  the  city  limits  of  Manila,  Iloilo,  or  Cebu,  nor  a  roadway 
which  will  allow  the  passage  of  a  four-wheeled  vehicle  with  any  degree 
of  comfort  to  its  passengers  or  of  safety  to  its  integrity.  The  Spanish 
officials  who  come  here  rarely,  if  ever,  remain  longer  than  3  years,  and 
the  average  term  of  service  of  the  English  and  German  merchant  and 
clerk  is  5  years;  therefore  the  material  development  and  permanent 
improvement  of  the  country  is  left  to  the  natives,  who  fail  to  appreciate 
the  necessity  of  improved  streets  and  roadways,  and  to  the  mestizos 
who  do  not  feel  disposed  to  develop  the  islands,  knowing,  as  they  do, 
that  an  advance  in  this  regard  must  necessarily  be  followed  by  an  in- 
crease of  the  already  excessively  burdensome  taxes. 

THE  CITY  STREETS. 

The  principal  cities  of  the  archipelago  are  Manila,  Iloilo,  and  Cebu, 
and  these  are  the  only  ones  that  have  any  of  their  streets  paved.  The 
principal  business  streets  are  paved  with  limestone  blocks  imported 
irom  China  and  laid  upon  a  bed  of  gravel  and  sand.  In  Manila  there 
is  less  than  2  miles  of  this  pavement  all  told,  and  in  Iloilo  and  Cebu 
possibly  half  that  amount.  All  the  other  streets  are  macadam  with  a 
top  dressing  of  sand  and  gravel,  and  ordinary  dirt  roads  kept  in  com- 
paratively good  condition  by  throwing  upon  them  dredgings  from  the 
ditches  on  either  side. 

The  government  assumes  the  responsibility  of  keeping  the  streets  and 
roads  in  repair  and  fulfills  the  obligation  by  working  upon  them  cer- 
tain of  the  city  prisoners  who  have  been  sentenced  for  slight  offenses, 
such  as  failure  to  procure  a  "  cedula  personal,"  or  identification  card, 
or  to  have  neglected  to  comply  with  some  other  civil  regulation.  The 
duty  of  street  inspection  and  of  making  minor  repairs  is  left  with  the 
native  "  bomberos,"  or  firemen,  but  the  wretched  condition  of  most  of 
the  streets  outside  the  business  quarters  indicates  that  they  are  not  over 
zealous  but  are  disposed  to  do  barely  more  than  enough  to  avoid  cen- 
sure from  their  superiors.  There  are  half  a  dozen  streets  that  are  used 
by  the  foreign  residents  for  evening  drives,  and  these  are  kept  in  rea- 
sonably good  condition  through  the  efforts  of  the  Spanish  officials. 
They  are  made  with  a  foundation  of  broken  rock,  over  which  gravel 
and  sand  from  the  river  and  estuaries  are  thrown.  Buffalo  carts  are 
almost  constantly  in  use  for  the  purpose  of  hauling  gravel  and  sand  to 
these  streets,  and  the  unremitting  repairs  keep  them  in  a  state  that 
admits  of  fast  driving  and  comfortable  riding. 

There  are  no  heavy  drays  in  use,  the  heaviest  vehicles  being  the  two- 
wheeled  buffalo  carts  and  the  pleasure  carriages,  which  are  mainly 
ght  victorias,  broughams,  and  barouohes. 


532  STREETS    AND   HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Outside  of  the  business  centers  and  the  districts  occupied  by  foreign 
residents  the  streets  are  generally  poorly  kept  dirt  roads  flanked  by 
muddy  ditches  which,  during  the  major  portion  of  the  year,  are  filled 
with  stagnant,  slime-covered  water,  which  in  any  other  country  would 
be  considered  as  extremely  dangerous  to  the  public  health. 

COUNTRY  ROADS  OR  HIGHWAYS. 

The  great  majority  of  the  country  roads  are  almost  impassable  during 
the  rainy  season,  and  are  only  traversed  during  the  dry  months  by  the 
light  two-wheeled  "  carronatas "  of  the  country,  which  are  generally 
drawn  by  two  horses.  They  are  made  by  throwing  up  the  dirt  from 
the  ditches  along  their  sides,  and  in  many  places  are  so  rough  and  un- 
even that  riding  in  the  carronatas  is  anything  but  comfortable.  The 
passenger  is  jolted  about  in  a  most  disagreeable  manner  and  usually 
arrives  at  his  journey's  end  with  every  muscle  in  his  body  bruised  and 
aching  as  if  he  had  been  rolled  down  a  rocky  mountain  side.  In  some 
cases  he  is  obliged  to  leave  the  vehicle  and  walk  half  a  mile  or  more 
while  the  horses  struggle  along  with  it  through  the  sink  holes  and  over 
the  rocks  and  hummocks.  At  many  points  the  road  is  merely  a  track 
worn  by  the  carronatas  over  a  level  plain  with  no  ditches  at  its  sides 
and  without  evidence  of  repairs  of  any  kind.  No  attempt  is  ever  made 
to  haul  the  produce  of  the  provinces  over  these  wretched  roads  and  all 
that  reaches  the  cities  comes  by  water  in  barges  aud  sloops. 

The  authorities  of  the  various  towns  and  villages  are  supposed  to 
look  after  the  repairing  of  the  roads,  but  the  condition  of  the  latter  is 
striking  evidence  of  the  indifference  and  neglect  manifested  in  every- 
thing in  the  way  of  public  improvements.  In  many  of  the  provinces 
there  is  but  one  of  these  dirt  roads,  the  main  one  used  by  travelers 
from  town  to  town,  but  the  country  is  traversed  by  numerous  footpaths, 
over  which  the  natives  carry  produce  on  their  shoulders  or  heads. 
The  major  portion  of  the  archipelago  is  practically  an  undeveloped 
wilderness. 

Alex.  E.  Webb, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

Manila3  Philippine  Islands,  Ja?iuary  8,  1891. 


ASIA — PALESTINE.  533 

TURKEY  IN  ASIA. 
PALESTINE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  OILLSIAN,  OF  JERUSALEM. 
STREETS. 

The  principal  pavements  made  in  Palestine  are  in  the  city  of  Jerusa- 
lem, and  it  is  only  within  recent  years  that  they  have  been  constructed 
in  accordance  with  anything  like  modern  requirements.  The  superior 
and  massive  Roman  pavements,  over  2,000  years  old,  and  still  in  fair 
preservation,  are  not  here  taken  into  consideration.  They  are, indeed, 
hidden  from  sight  and  use  many  feet  beneath  the  rubbish  of  the  city. 

The  material  used  for  streets  is  stone  cut  to  about  the  shape  and  size 
of  ordinary  brick,  or  a  little  larger;  this  is  laid  in  sand,  the  long  and 
narrow  side  up.  No  teaming  is  allowed  over  such  a  street.  In  the  few 
streets  where  carriages  are  permitted  to  pass  the  center  of  the  street  is 
macadamized,  only  the  sides  being  paved. 

The  stone  used  is  generally  the  harder  kind  of  the  so-called  Jerusa- 
lem marble,  which  is  really  only  a  species  of  limestone  partially  turned 
to  marble.    Of  this  there  is  a  great  variety,  differing  much  in  quality. 

For  the  fully  paved  street  the  cost  varies  from  $1  to  $2  per  square 
yard.  The  depth  of  the  pavement  rarely  exceeds  0  inches.  The  foun- 
dation is  almost  invariably  the  rubbish  of  the  ancient  city,  which  has  ac- 
cumulated during  centuries,  and  through  its  frequent  destruction  in 
sieges,  etc. 

Where  streets  are  paved  in  Jerusalem  at  the  present  time,  well-con- 
structed stone  sewers  are  always  made  beneath  them.  These  are  at 
various  depths,  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  case. 

Many  of  the  streets  ascend  steep  hillsides.  These  are  built  in  ter- 
races, with  steps;  the  rise  of  the  steps  or  terrace  being  protected  by  a 
broad  flagstone,  set  on  end,  at  the  level  of  the  pavements.  Of  course, 
in  such  cases,  teaming  is  out  of  the  question,  and  they  generally  wear 
well. 

HIGHWAYS. 

The  roadways  built  within  late  years  in  Palestine,  and  those  in 
process  of  construction,  are  greatly  superior  to  those  formerly  made  un- 
der the  Ottoman  Government.  At  present  they  resemble  good  macad- 
amized highways,  properly  graded,  and  in  many  cases  provided  with 
side  drains.  Where  necessary,  in  crossing  the  more  dangerous  passes, 
stone  parapets  of  mason  work  are  built  along  the  precipices.  The  ma- 
terial used  for  the  roadbed  is  the  ordinary  limestone  of  the  country, 
broken  up  into  the  usual  cubes  of  the  required  size.  This  is  covered 
with  earth  or  gravel,  which  is  finally  leveled  and  smoothed  by  heavy 
stone  rollers.    The  foundation  varies,  being  commonly  the  stiff  clay  of 


534  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

the  country,  though  sometimes  it  is  of  sand  or  rock.  Where  the  grade 
has  to  be  considerably  raised,  large  bowlders  are  rolled  into  place  to 
form  the  foundation  of  the  roadbed.  The  cost  of  such  a  road  is  from  80 
cents  to  $1.30  per  square  yard. 

REMARKS. 

The  methods  and  peculiar  system  followed  here  are  not  favorable  to 
the  best  work,  and  can  not  be  taken  as  a  criterion  for  more  civilized 
couutries.  A  large  part  of  the  work  is  done  through  the  enforced  labor 
of  the  peasantry,  which  nominally  costs  nothing,  and  the  materials  lie 
adjacent  to  the  roadway  in  unlimited  abundance.  The  chief  expendi- 
ture is  for  the  superintendents,  engineers,  aud  overseers,  of  whom  there 
is  always  a  superabundance,  ludicrously  out  of  proportion  to  the  re- 
quirements of  the  case. 

As  to  the  maintenance  of  streets  and  roadways,  this  is  but  seldom 
attended  to  in  this  country.  Where  a  good  road  is  made  it  soon  falls 
into  disrepair,  through  its  being  almost  totally  neglected. 

The  effect  of  improved  roads  upon  land  values  and  other  economic 
conditions  is  as  not  as  pronounced  as  it  is  in  other  lauds.  The  camel  is 
here  the  chief  agent  for  transporting  merchandise,  and  is  largely  used 
in  all  traffic.  This  does  not  necessitate  a  finished  road.  The  introduc- 
tion of  carriages  and  wagons  is  comparatively  a  recent  innovation, 
caused  by  the  large  influx  of  travelers  and  the  establishment  of  foreign 
colonies. 

Henry  Gillman, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate. 

Jerusalem,  January  28,  1891. 


SYRIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BISSINQER,  BEIRUT. 
THE  BEIRUT -DAMASCUS  HIGHWAY. 

It  would  hardly,  perhaps,  be  expected  that  a  report  on  "  country 
roads  or  highways"  in  this  far-off  eastern  country  could  be  of  any  pos- 
sible value,  and  yet  Syria  maintains  at  least  one  highway  that  will  com- 
pare very  favorably  with  any  road  in  America  or  Europe,  and  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  same  may  therefore  not  be  wholly  without  interest  and 
perhaps  even  of  some  slight  practical  value.  It  is  the  carriage  road 
from  Beirut,  on  the  Mediterranean,  to  Damascus,  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Lebanon  Mountains,  a  distance  of  113  kilometres  or  about  70f  miles, 
completed  18G0. 


ASIA — SYRIA.  535 


CONSTRUCTION  OP  THE  ROAD,   ETC. 


According  to  the  statement  of  the  officers  of  the  company — for  the 
highway  is  owned  and  operated  by  a  private  stock  concern — the  road- 
bed is  made  of  a  layer  of  macadam  20  centimetres  in  thickness,  repos- 
ing upon  a  substructure  of  ordinary  earthwork 

This  "macadam"  is  composed  of  a  compact  mass  of  calcareous  peb- 
bles of  not  more  than  6  centimetres  in  diameter,  spread  over  the  sub- 
structure of  earthwork  in  such  a  manner  as  to  have  gentle  slope  from 
the  center  of,  say,  1:30 j  heavy  metal  rollers  of  about  5  metric  tons, 
drawn  by  twelve  mules,  pass  over  and  crush  the  pebbles,  this  making  a 
smooth  and  ev  en  roadbed. 

The  cost  of  the  material  for  metaling  or  ballasting  is  1  franc  60  cen- 
times (32  cents)  the  cubic  metre,  crushed,  sifted,  and  measured,  exclu- 
sive, however,  of  the  cost  of  transportation,  which  is  about  40  centimes 
(8  cents)  the  cubic  metre. 

Along  that  part  of  the  road  which  passes  over  Mount  Lebanon  this 
material  is  extracted  from  quarries  in  close  proximity  to  the  road  itself, 
and  the  cost  of  transportation  is  therefore  insignificant ;  but  in  the  plains 
and  the  Anti-Lebanon  the  calcareous  banks  are  more  scattered  and  the 
cost  of  transporting  the  material  is  considerably  enhanced. 

The  roadbed  is  renewed  on  an  average  once  in  3  years,  and  for  this 
purpose  the  road  is  divided  into  three  sections,  one  of  which  is  remet- 
aled  every  year ;  besides  this,  those  parts  of  the  road  that  are  subject 
to  an  extra  amount  of  wear  and  tear,  like  the  approaches  to  Beirut  and 
Damascus,  are  regularly  watered  during  the  dry  season ;  that  is  to  say, 
between  the  months  of  May  and  November,  while  the  excessive  dust 
that  necessarily  accumulates  is  removed  from  time  to  time  with  wooden 
scrapers.  Ditches  are  running  along  both  sides  of  the  road,  which  are 
kept  in  good  order  to  prevent  the  submersion  of  the  roadbed,  and  when 
snow  obstructs  the  highest  and  most  exposed  parts  of  the  road  in  the 
Lebanon,  it  is  cleared  away  by  digging  trenches  to  make  a  passageway 
for  traffic. 

COST  AND  MAINTENANCE  OF  THE  ROAD,   ETC. 

The  total  cost  of  building  this  roadway,  which  has  an  average  width 
of  6  metres,  and  is  701  miles  long,  was  1,885,969.54  francs  ($377,193.91), 
or  16,690  francs  ($3,338)  per  kilometre;  the  land  acquisitions  amounted 
to  110,052  francs  ($22,130.40),  or  989  francs  ($197.80)  per  kilometre. 
The  company  also  expended  698,713  francs  ($139,742.60),  or  6.238.50 
francs  ($1,247.70)  per  kilometre  for  bn 
cost  foots  up  3,000,000  francs  ($600,000). 

The  company  has  a  yearly  average  outlay  of  about  100,000  francs 
($20,000),  or  893  francs  ($178.60)  per  kilometre,  for  repairs,  etc.,  to  the 
roadbed,  etc.,  and  its  annual  net  revenue  is  between  450,000  and  500,000 
francs  ($90,000  to  $100,000). 


.536  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

TRAFFIC  OVER  THE  ROAD,   ETC. 

The  average  amount  of  freight  that  passed  over  this  road  during  1885, 
1S8G,  and  1887  was  20,700  tons  annually.  It  has,  however,  increased 
since  then,  and  in  fact  is  constantly  augmenting.  The  general  charac- 
ter of  the  merchandise  transported  iucludes  the  following  imports. 
Iron,  all  kinds  of  metals,  leather,  salt,  rice,  sugar,  petroleum,  manu- 
factures, fruits,  hardware,  etc.  The  articles  exported  passing  over  the 
road  are,  principally,  flour,  wheat,  seeds,  wool,  licorice,  textile  fabrics, 
bones,  butter,  oil,  etc. 

These  goods  are  transported  in  covered  wagons  or  carts,  each  being 
Sh  metres  long,  l-^  metres  wide,  and  T80-  metre  high,  and  weigh,  when 
empty,  700  kilograms;  loaded,  1,500  kilograms.  This  wagon  load 
of  only  800  kilograms  may  appear  light,  but  it .  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  road  traverses  Mount  Lebanon  at  an  elevation  of  4,630 
feet,  with  some  very  steep  grades.  The  number  of  these  freight  car- 
riages that  pass  daily  between  Beirut  and  Damascus  is  28,  14  each 
way,  each  of  them  being  drawn  by  3  large  mules. 

Besides  the  freight  traffic  th  ere  is  a  "  diligence,"  or  omnibus,  leaving 
both  Beirut  and  Damascus  every  morning,  weighing  1,500  kilograms. 
These  "  diligences "  are  capable  of  accommodating  16  persons  in  winter 
and  18  in  summer,  allowing  each  passenger  12.820  kilograms  of  bag 
gage;  they  are  drawn  by  3  horses  and  as  many  mules. 

There  are  also  two  "mail"  omnibuses  passing  daily  over  the  road,  one 
from  Beirut,  the  other  from  Damascus ;  their  weight  is  750  kilograms 
each,  and  they  carry  5  passengers,  entitled  to  6.410  kilograms  of  per- 
sonal baggage ;  3  horses  or  2  horses  and  1  mule  are  sufficient  to  draw 
tbem. 

EFFECT  OF  THE  ROAD  UPON  LAND  VALUES,  ETC. 

The  effect  of  this  highway  upon  land  values  has  not  beeu  very  marked, 
owing  to  the  arid  nature  of  the  land  traversed  and  to  the  absence  of 
villages  and  scarcity  of  water  along  its  line,  though  both  the  outskirts 
of  Beirut  and  Damascus  are  largely  benefited. 

But  the  result  proved  entirely  different  to  commerce.  The  facilities 
of  communication  and  the  reduction  in  the  cost  of  transportation  have 
developed  the  traffic  to  five  times  its  former  proportions,  and  Beirut, 
with  a  population  of  only  25,000  souls  in  1860,  now  claims  120,000  in- 
habitants. Damascus  has  remained  nearly  stationery  in  so  far  as  its 
population  is  concerned,  but  its  traffic  has  greatly  augmented. 

STREETS  IN   SYRIAN  CITIES. 

The  streets  of  the  different  cities  of  Syria  are  fully  adapted  to  sur- 
rounding conditions  and  circumstances,  but  they  do  not  contain  any 
elements  or  features  that  would  prove  of  value  or  even  interest  in  this 
report. 

Eehard  Bissinger, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Beirut,  February  10,  1891. 


CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA. 
EGYPT. 

REPORT  BY  ACTING  CONSUL-GENERAL  GRANT,  OF  CAIRO. 
STREETS  OF   CAIRO. 

The  new  or  improved  city  streets  and  avenues  of  Cairo  are  generally 
roads  bordered  by  sidewalks.  In  the  country  the  sideways  are  simply 
formed  by  earth  thrown  on  each  side  of  the  road.  The  city  roads  are 
constructed  on  the  Macadam  system.  An  experiment  was  made  to 
build  a  road  with  asphalt,  melted  and  poured  hot  on  a  bed  of  broken 
stones.    The  result  was  bad. 

Another  experiment  was  made  with  slabs  made  of  a  concrete  com- 
posed of  broken  stones  m  ixed  with  liquid  natural  asphalt.  The  result 
was  better  than  with  the  pre  ceding  method. 

Finally,  a  wooden  pavement,  made  of  pine  wood  resting  on  a  solid 
area  of  concrete,  has  proved  satisfactory  for  more  than  one  year  since  it 
was  placed  on  one  of  the  most  frequented  roads  of  Cairo,  but  it  is  ex- 
pensive. 

The  macadamized  roads  are  generally  built  of  small  stones,  forming  a 
bed 0.25  metre  thick.  The  agglomeration  of  the  materials  is  produced 
by  means  of  a  steam  compressing  roller  on  the  Gellerat  (Paris)  system, 
and  weighing  18  tons.  In  few  instances  compressors  drawn  by  animals 
are  used ;  but  the  work  is  not  so  well  done. 

The  cost  of  building  macadamized  roads  is  from  about  59  to  74  cents 
per  square  metre. 

When  small  repairs  are  needed  they  are  simply  made  by  laborers, 
but  extensive  repairs  are  made  by  laying  over  the  surface  of  the  road 
the  quantity  of  new  materials  necessary  to  restore  it  to  its  former  thick- 
ness. 

The  expenses  incurred  on  account  of  the  ordinary  and  extraordinary 
repairs  of  the  macadamized  roads  of  Cairo,  including  work  and  mate- 
rials, amounted  during  the  year  1889  to  $82,548  for  a  surface  of  952,500 
squares  metres,  or  8£-  cents  per  square  metre. 

These  expenses  do  not  include  the  watering  of  the  roads,  which  is 
done  twice  a  day  during  the  summer  and  once  a  day  during  the  winter. 

The  length  of  the  macadamized  roads  of  Cairo,  not  including  public 
squares,  is  58  miles,  while  the  other  ordinary  roads  have  a  length  of  132 
miles. 

G37 


538    STREETS  AND  HIGHWAYS  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 
EFFECTS  OF  IMPROVED  PUBLIC  ROADS. 

The  value  of  lands  through  which  the  new  roads  have  been  laid  has 
considerably  increased,  and  in  the  northern  side  of  the  city,  at  Zaher, 
it  is  at  least  ten  times  greater. 

Twenty  years  ago  ground  in  the  Ismailieh  district  was  granted  free 
under  conditiou  that  dwellings  would  be  erected  on  it;  but  as  at  that 
time  there  were  no  roads  made  in  that  part  of  the  city,  many  of  the 
grantees  did  not  care  to  spend  money  for  building,  and  they  let  their 
concessions  lapse;. but  as  soon  as  roads  were  built  there  was  a  greater 
demand  for  the  land,  and  nowadays  it  is  sold  at  $10  a  square  metre. 

Eight  or  nine  years  ago  some  bankers  bought  land  from  the  Govern- 
ment in  the  Tewfikieh  district  at  $1.88  per  square  metre,  and  now  the 
average  price  is  about  $7.40. 

The  above  figures  demonstrate  the  effect  of  created  or  improved  pub- 
lic roads  upon  laud  values. 

Twenty -five  years  ago  there  were  no  hackney  coaches  at  Cairo,  on 
account  of  the  difficulty  of  circulation  in  the  interior  or  exterior  roads 
of  the  city.  Distances  were  traversed  on  horses,  mules,  donkeys,  or 
camels. 

The  work  of  improvement  of  roads  began  in  1868,  and  in  a  space  of 
ten  years  the  actual  system  of  streets  and  roads  was  completed.  Such 
improvements  have  greatly  facilitated  commercial  transactions  and  con- 
siderably increased  the  value  of  estates  bordering  the  great  avenues 
which  have  been  opened  in  the  old  part  of  the  city. 

Public  health  has  greatly  improved  in  consequence  of  the  creation  of 
new  quarters  in  the  western  and  northern  parts  of  the  city. 

These  parts  were  formerly  covered  with  huge  heaps  of  rubbish,  the 
dust  from  which,  raised  by  the  least  breath  of  wind,  was  blown  all  over 
the  city,  causing  diseases  of  the  eyes,  lungs,  etc.  The  wide  avenues 
opened  in  the  midst  of  narrow  and  tortuous  streets  have  produced  an 
effective  drainage  conducive  to  the  salubrity  of  these  streets  and  lanes. 

Thanks  to  the  creation  of  new  districts  and  to  the  opening  of  large 
avenues  in  the  old  city,  Cairo  has  become  a  city  pleasant  for  everybody 
in  general  to  live  in,  and  especially  for  foreigners. 

HIGHWAYS. 

In  the  several  towns  of  Egypt,  except  Cairo  and  Alexandria,  there 
are  very  few  metaled  roads.  The  others  are  merely  of  beaten  earth, 
kept  wet  and  smooth,  and,  considering  the  climate  and  the  smalluess 
of  the  traffic,  they  answer  sufficiently  well. 

Until  two  years  ago  it  may  be  said  there  were  no  country  roads  at 
all,  and  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  convey  agricultural  produce 
on  a  wheeled  cart  from  one  center  of  population  to  another. 

A  beginning  has  been  made,  however,  first  in  Dakahlieh  and  Shar- 
kieh  and  then  throughout  the  other  provinces,  of  constructing  simple 


AFRICA — MOROCCO — ST.  HELENA.  539 

unmetaled  roads,  5  metres  wide,  with  bridges  over  the  canals,  leading 
generally  to  railway  stations  or  sometimes  to  points  on  the  river. 
Their  construction  is  being  defrayed  by  a  local  tax  not  exceeding  20  or 
25  cents  per  acre  for  1  year  only.  They  are  maintained  afterwards  at 
government  expense.  It  is  too  soon  to  pronounce  yet  on  the  value  of 
these  roads,  but  they  are  very  popular  among  the  people. 

The  information  contained  in  this  report  was  kindly  given  me  by  the 
department  of  public  works. 

Louis  B.  Grant, 

Acting  Consul- General. 
United  States  Consulate-General, 

Cairo,  April  9,  1891. 


MOROCCO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  MATHEWS,  OF  TANGIER. 

Morocco  furnishes  no  material  whatever  for  framing  such  a  report 
as  desired  through  your  Department. 

There  are  no  roads  in  this  country,  no  railroads  nor  vehicles  of  any 
sort. 

The  narrow  and  crooked  streets  of  the  cities  and  towns  of  Morocco 
are  partly  paved  with  rough  cob  stones,  which  makes  walking  a  diffi- 
cult task.  The  roads  are  only  trails  made  by  the  passing  and  repass- 
ing of  animals.  In  fact  the  Government  discourage  instead  of  encour- 
aging the  building  of  roads,  and  ever  oppose  the  paving  of  the  streets 
of  certain  towns. 

F.  A.  Mathews, 

Consul  General. 
United  States  Consulate-General, 

Tangier,  January  22, 1891. 


ST.    HELENA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  COFFIN. 

The  streets,  of  which  there  are  but  two  on  the  island,  one  leading 
from  the  seaside,  a  mile  or  more  up  the  valley,  to  the  head  of  the  town, 
the  other,  a  short  street  of  a  few  hundred  yards,  branching  oft"  the  main 
street  and  leading  to  the  Long  wood  road. 

They  were  built  many  years  ago  with  slave  labor  by  different  govern- 
ments and  the  old  East  India  Company  from  material  taken  from  the 
side  hills,  consisting  of  stone  or  lava  and  clay  or  mud. 

The  hills  are  composed  of  alternate  layers  of  the  above  material  in 
layers  of  from  2  to  10  feet  or  more  in  depth,  of  a  volcanic  formation. 


540  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  stone  is  broken  and  put  on  the  streets  aud  covered  with  mud  or 
clay;  they  are  repaired  with  the  same  material  and  in  the  same  manner. 
As  it  is  not  rolled  down,  in  dry  weather  it  is  very  dusty  and  in  wet 
weather  very  muddy. 

The  roads,  of  the  same  material  as  the  streets,  are  built  along  the  side 
hills  by  leveling  and  building  a  stone  wall  on  the  off  side  of  the  road 
to  prevent  the  carriages  and  travelers  from  going  over,  as  the  hills  are 
very  steep,  and  they  would,  in  many  places,  be  thrown  some  hundreds 
of  feet  to  the  bottom  of  the  hill.  These  roads  make  sharp  turus  in  the 
shape  of  a  V  in  their  zigzag  routes  to  the  top  of  the  hills,  and  to  go  a 
short  distance  you  travel  many  miles ;  by  any  road  from  Jamestown  it  is 
laborious  for  man  or  beast,  as  it  is  a  continual  ascent  for  2,000  feet;  then 
there  is  some  level  road  interspersed  with  steep  hills.  Carriages  aud 
teams  all  use  shoes  for  one  of  the  hind  wheels,  and  with  a  single  carriage 
a  man  leads  the  horse,  as  it  is  not  safe  to  drive  by  reins,  the  hills  are  so 
steep;  double  carriages  are  driven  by  a  postillion  who  rides  one  of  the 
horses,  with  a  boy  following  to  put  on  the  shoe  when  necessary. 

The  roads  and  streets  are  kept  in  order  by  the  soldiers  belonging  to 
the  engineer  corps ;  as  their  number  has  been  reduced,  very  little  is  done 
on  the  roads  or  streets  now.  There  are  a  great  many  miles  of  roads 
around  the  island,  which  must  have  cost,  even  with  slave  labor,  an  enor- 
mous amount  of  money  to  build,  as  many  miles  of  blasting  and  wall- 
building  had  to  be  done.  The  actual  cost  of  these  roads  can  not  be 
ascertained,  as  they  have  been  built  by  the  different  governments  which 
have  had  possession  of  the  island. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  these  roads  when  built  increased  the  value  of 
property  along  their  route,  but  in  the  present  state  of  the  island,  which 
is  fast  decaying,  they  have  no  effect,  as  the  country  seats  along  their 
route  are  many  of  them  vacant  and  in  ruins,  and  the  farming  land 
turned  into  pasture,  and  of  little  value. 

The  primitive  manner  of  construction  and  the  material  used  are  such 
that  I  should  not  think  they  would  be  of  any  interest  or  benefit  to  the 
inhabitants  of  any  part  of  the  United  States. 

James  B.  Coffin, 

Consul. 

United  States  Consulate, 

St.  Helena,  January  24,  1891. 


SIERRA  LEONE. 
HE  PORT  BY  CONSUL  BOWSER. 


The  streets  in  this  colony  and  city  are  all  alike.  There  is  an  under- 
lying bed  of  soft  calcareous  rock,  with  various  depths  of  earth,  from  3 
to  5  feet.  The  roads  are  made  by  digging  trenches  on  each  side,  and 
throwing  the  dirt  to  the  center  and  leveling,  then  a  top  dressing  of 


AFRICA — SIERRA    LEONE.  541 

brokeu  stone  completes  the  street  or  road.  As  there  are  but  2  horses 
and  1  dogcart  in  the  colouy,  the  roads  are  easily  kept  in  repair  when 
only  naked  feet  tread  them. 

The  roads  that  lead  far  into  the  country  are  nothing  more  than  nar- 
row paths,  as  all  travelers  go  single  file.  The  cost  of  maintaining  the 
roads  here  are  the  filling  up  of  some  ruts  that  may  be  caused  by  wash- 
outs during  the  rainy  season.  You  will  readily  see  that  roads  and 
street  making  are  of  little  expense  in  this  country. 

Bolding  Bowser, 

tt  ci  Consul. 

United  States  Consulate 

Sierra  Leone,  December  29,  1890. 


AUSTRALASIA. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  GRIFFIN,  OF  SYDNEY. 
CITY  STREETS. 

The  streets  and  roads  of  New  South  Wales  are  partly  made  and 
managed  by  the  government  and  partly  by  the  municipalities.  The 
number  of  miles  of  streets  and  roads  owned  by  the  municipalities  at 
the  end  of  1889,  the  latest  statistics  available,  was  5,790.  Of  these  2,799 
were  regularly  formed  and  metaled  and  2,991  were  not  formed.  The 
cost  of  their  construction,  or  their  estimated  value,  is  given  by  the  gov- 
ernment statistician  at  $17,959,455.  The  length  of  the  streets  and 
roads  in  Sydney  and  the  suburbs  was  1,568  miles,  115  miles  of  which 
are  included  within  the  boundaries  of  the  city.  The  boundaries,  how- 
ever, do  not  include  anything  like  the  total  area  of  the  city.  The  esti- 
mated population  of  the  city  and  suburbs  within  a  radius  of  10  miles  is 
close  on  to  420,000,  whilst  the  population  of  the  municipality  is  only 
about  230,000.  Nearly  all  the  streets  and  roads  of  the  city  are  formed, 
curbed,  and  bordered  by  pavement  of  asphalt,  tarred  stone,  artificial 
stone,  etc.  About  300,000  square  yards  of  the  city  are  paved  with 
wooden  blocks,  or  about  a  twenty-second  part  of  the  entire  area.  These 
blocks  are  laid  wherever  the  traffic  is  heavy  enough  to  require  a  supe- 
rior pavement.  The  macadamized  or  metaled  pavement,  being  less 
expensive,  seems  to  answer  very  well  for  the  purpose  of  light  traffic. 

CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE. 

Both  the  government  and  municipal  authorities  advertise  for  tenders 
for  the  construction  of  streets  and  roads  over  which  they  have  control, 
and  the  contracts  are  given  to  the  lowest  and  best  bidders.  Great  care 
is  exercised  in  awarding  these  contracts.  The  specifications  are  very 
full  and  the  execution  of  the  contracts  must  meet  with  the  approval  of 
the  authorities. 

In  Sydney,  if  at  any  time  the  work  is  not  carried  out  in  strict  con- 
formity with  the  contract,  the  city  surveyor  will  interfere  and  inform 
the  contractors  that  if  not  remedied  the  municipality  will  take  the  work 
out  of  their  hands. 

Parties  tendering  for  contracts  must  deposit  the  sum  of  £20  ($97.35) 
on  or  before  the  time  specified  for  the  reception  of  the  tenders.  The 
deposit  will  be  returned  in  all  cases  of  nonacceptance,  and  to  the  per 

543 


544  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

son  whose  tender  has  been  accepted  when  he  shall  have  completed  his 
work  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  bond  he  is  called  upon  to 
give. 

TARRED  METALED  PAVEMENT. 

The  material  employed  in  the  pavement  of  streets  for  light  traffic 
consists  principally  of  bluestone  or  metal,  of  which  there  is  an  in- 
exhaustible supply  in  the  colony.  The  foundation  of  the  pavement 
must  be  approved  of  by  the  city  surveyor.  Where  rock  exists  too  near 
the  surface  to  receive  the  ballast  it  is  to  be  broken  up  and  loosened 
to  a  depth  of  at  least  8  inches  below  the  level  of  the  underside  of 
the  ballasting.  The  foundation  is  properly  consolidated  to  a  uniform 
depth  of  9  inches,  and  a  coating  of  new  hammer-dressed  rough  pitch- 
ers of  the  hardest  description  of  sandstone  laid  lengthwise  across  the 
road  in  close  and  regular  rows,  breaking  joint.  As  rough  pitchings  are 
well  rammed,  the  breadth  of  the  upper  edge  must  not  be  more  than 
7  inches,  with  a  length  of  from  12  to  15  inches.  All  the  interstices 
are  filled  in  with  stone  chippings  firmly  wedged,  well  keyed  in,  and 
blended  with  sand  well  shaken  into  joints  by  ramming.  The  stone 
for  the  ballasting  is  broken  to  a  2-inch  gauge,  2  inches  thick,  and  cov- 
ered with  a  coating  of  tar.  It  is  then  rolled  to  a  finished  grade  and 
an  additional  layer  of  the  same  material,  prepared  in  the  same  way, 
is  spread  to  a  depth  of  3  inches  and  again  rolled.  The  whole  is 
cemented  together  in  one  unbroken  mass  by  a  covering  of  tarred 
screening.  The  latter  is  made  even  in  thickness  and  solid  after  which 
a  thickness  of  1  inch  tarred  screening  of  the  finest  bluestone  and  dust 
from  the  crushings  is  put  in  as  a  finishing  coat. 

WOOD  PAVEMENTS. 

The  authorities  of  Sydney  before  entering  upon  the  extensive  con- 
struction of  the  magnificent  roadbeds  of  the  city  made  the  most  careful 
inquiries  as  to  the  various  kinds  of  pavements  in  use  in  the  principal 
cities  of  the  world,  and  a  series  of  costly  experiments  were  made 
with  the  kinds  generally  regarded  as  the  best  in  use.  These  included 
granite-set  pavements,  monolithic,  sheet  asphalt,  wood  pavements, 
etc.  It  was  their  desire  to  get  a  pavement  with  a  due  regard  to  econ- 
omy or  cheapness  and  afford  a  good  foothold,  be  impervious,  durable, 
noiseless,  adapted  to  various  grades,  yield  no  detritus,  and  offer  the  least 
resistance  to  traction.  No  particular  kind  of  pavement  complied  with 
all  these  conditions,  but  the  one  finally  adopted  for  heavy  traffic 
seemed  to  come  nearer  to  them  than  any  other.  A  committee  was 
appointed,  composed  of  some  of  the  ablest  physicians  and  scientists  in 
the  colony,  to  report  on  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  wood  pavements 
that  had  been  in  use  in  Sydney  and  other  places,  and  although  the 
committee  made  a  sweeping  condemnation  of  all  kinds  of  wood  pave- 
ments it  was  shown  that  the  districts  in  which  wood  pavements  had 


AUSTRALASIA NEW    SOUTH    WALES.  545 

beeu  in  use  for  a  term  of  years  in  Sydney  were  healthier  than  those 
without  them. 
The  committee  in  concluding  their  report  said : 

We  beg  to  express  the  opinion  that  wood  is  a  material  that  can  not  be  safely  used 
for  paving  unless  it  can  be  rendered  absolutely  impermeable  to  moisture  and  so  laid 
that  while  the  entrance  of  the  water  between  the  blocks  is  rendered  impossible 
the  separation  of  the  fibers  at  the  surface  by  the  concussion  of  the  traffic  is  also  effec- 
tually prevented.  These  conditions  have  nowhere,  to  the  knowledge  of  the  board, 
been  fulfilled.  In  this  city  no  attempt  to  fulfill  them  has  been  made  and  the  analyses 
show  that  the  blocks  in  actual  use  here  nave  absorbed  an  amount  of  organic  tilth 
which  is  large  in  comparison  with  the  short  time  during  which  they  have  been  laid, 
and  which  is  distributed  throughout  the  blocks  iu  such  a  manner  as  to  show  that 
their  complete  impreguation  is  only  a  matter  of  time.  The  foul  and  dangerous  proc- 
esses to  which  this  impregnation  of  the  wood  gives  rise  when  with  it  is  combined 
alternate  wetting  and  more  or  less  thorough  drying  by  the  sun  and  the  construc- 
tion which,  while  it  does  nothing  to  exclude  the  air  entirely,  of  necessity  interferes 
with  its  free  circulation,  are  well  shown  by  experiment,  and  it  is  perhaps  well 
to  point  out  that  the  use  of  sea  water  to  lay  the  dust  is  so  far  from  tending  to 
prevent  these  processes  that  in  addition  to  introducing  the  orgauisms  proper  to  sea- 
water  where  otherwise  they  would  not  be  found  it  appears  to  have  given  rise  to 
certain  forms  of  life  which  hitherto  have  not  been  recognized,  and  which  flourish 
in  conjunction  with  the  better  known  forms  of  both  fresh  and  salt  water.  In  offer- 
ing this  opinion  your  board  has  certain  advantages  which  wood  pavement  offers  in 
comparison  with  other  kinds  in  mind,  and  does  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  already  here 
recognized,  that  every  pavement  is  a  compromise.  But  before  a  given  material  or 
mode  of  construction  can  be  scientifically  admitted  as  an  alternative  to  other  kinds 
and  to  other  modes,  it  must  be  shown  that  its  admitted  defects  are  remediable  or  that 
they  are  of  no  greater  consequence  than  the  defects  of  every  other  available  mate- 
rial. Neither  has  been  shown  in  the  case  of  wood,  so  far  as  the  careful  researches  of 
your  board  go  the  porous  absorbent  and  destructible  nature  of  wood  must  in  their 
opinion  be  declared  to  be  irremediable  by  any  process  at  present  known,  nor,  were 
any  such  process  discovered,  would  it  be  effectual  unless  it  were  supplemented  by 
another  which  should  prevent  fraying  of  the  fiber.  Still  less  can  the  defects  of  wood 
be  considered  to  be  of  less  consequence  than  the  defects  of  other  kinds  of  material. 
The  covering  of  roadways  to  a  vast  extent  of  surface  with  decaying  vegetable  ma- 
terial has  been  shown  iu  the  United  States  to  be  a  cause  of  malarial  fever,  and  an 
aggravation  to  yellow  fever,  in  a  degree  of  probability  which  is  very  high;  and 
these  results  are  such  as  knowledge  of  the  usual  effects  of  decaying  vegetable  mat- 
ter under  other  but  similar  circumstances  would  lead  your  board  to  anticipate. 
Wood,  then,  should  not  be  accepted  as  an  alternative  to  other  materials;  and  if  in 
other  climates  than  that  of  the  American  cities  referred  to,  and  under  other  modes 
of  construction  thau  are  used  iu  Sydney,  the  same  effects  are  not  known  as  yet  to 
have  followed,  it  must  not  bo  forgotten  either  that  wood  paving  has  nowhere  been 
so  largely  used  in  proportion  to  other  kinds  as  in  America  or  that  the  disastrous  and 
obvious  effects  noticed  iu  that  couutry  are  not  the  only  serious  effects  which  wood 
may  cause.  In  this  city  it  may,  perhaps,  bo  considered  that  an  amount  of  wood  has 
has  not  yet  beeu  laid  sufficient  to  affect  the  public  health,  whatever  its  condition 
within  reasonable  limits  may  be  ;  and  upon  this  ground  your  board  dues  nor  recom- 
mend-that the  present  paving  should  In-  removed,  but  that  the  board  of  health  Bhool  I 
be  empowered  to  examine  it,  and  to  report  upon  it,  from  time  to  time,  with  a  view  uf 
ascertaining  its  behavior  under  longer  exposure  to  weather  and  traffic  than  it  lias  yet 
had;  and  that  it  should  be  no  longer  watered  but  cleansed  by  sweeping  at  least 
twice  a  day  (the  sweeping  to  be  done  at  right  angle  to  the  direction  of  tho  street,  or 
parallel  to  the  courses,  so  that  the  latter  may  be  clearod  out  by  tho  broom)  in  order 
33A 35 


546  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

that  destructive  dampness  and  penetration  of  dissolved  organic  matter  may  be  re- 
duced  as  much  as  possible.  But  the  presumption  is,  upon  the  evidence  here  adduced, 
that  in  this  climate  the  results  alluded  to  would  ensue  if  the  extent  of  surface  were 
sufficiently  enlarged  or  fouling  and  decay  sufficiently  extensive.  Your  board  there- 
fore recommends  that  the  paving  of  the  streets  of  this  city  with  wood  should  be  dis- 
continued ;  and  desires  to  add  that  this  recommendation  is  intended  to  apply  not  to 
the  particular  mode  of  construction  here  adopted  alone,  but  to  the  material  itself, 
and  to  every  known  method  of  construction. 

In  spite  of  this  opinion  the  authorities  soon  found  that  by  keeping 
the  pavements  clean  and  in  good  order  all  the  objections  urged  were 
overcome  and  a  decided  improvement  was  noticed  in  the  health  of  the 
city.  The  blocks  used  for  the  pavements  consists  of  various  kinds  of 
Australian  hard  wood  of  the  eucalyptus  species  such  as  red  gum,  tallow 
wood,  wooly  butt,  black  butt,  blue  gum,  etc.  The  wear  and  tear  on 
these  blocks  proved  slight  when  compared  with  the  blocks  used  in 
the  European  cities.  Blocks  taken  at  random  from  the  center  of  one 
of  the  principal  streets  in  Sydney  subjected  to  very  heavy  traffic  had 
worn  only  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  several  years.  Samples  of  the 
Australian  hard  woods  used  for  paving  the  streets  were  sent  to  New 
York  by  Mr.  R.  W.  Richards,  city  surveyor.  Mr.  Richards  has  for  many 
years  been  a  strong  advocate  for  the  use  of  these  woods  and  his  expe- 
rience and  judgment  have  had  great  weight  with  the  municipal  authori- 
ties. The  blocks  used  are  cut  into  cubes  of  6  inches  long, 3  inches  thick, 
and  varying  in  width  from  6  to  9  inches,  which  limits  must  not  be  de- 
parted from,  except  in  cases  of  chasms  when  smaller  blocks  may  be 
necessary.  The  blocks  are  to  be  laid  on  a  foundation  of  concrete  6 
inches  in  depth  and  composed  of  the  following  material,  viz,  the  best 
brands  of  cement  mixed  with  either  the  following  iugredieuts : 

First.  Gravel  and  coarse,  clean,  sharp  river  sand  in  suitable  and  ap- 
proved proportions  the  gravel  not  to  be'larger  than  2£  inches  gauge, 
the  concrete  to  consist  of  1  cask  of  cement  to  24  cubic  feet  of  gravel  aud 
sand. 

Second.  The  aggregate  to  be  a  eompouud  of  clean  blue  stone,  mixed 
with  dust  and  screening  obtained  from  crushing,  in  the  following  pro- 
portions: 1  cask  of  cement  to  20  cubic  feet  of  blue  stone  broken  from 
1  inch  to  2£  inches  gauge,  and  15  cubic  feet  of  fine  blue  stone  screening 
of  not  more  than  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch  gauge. 

The  concrete  must  be  well  worked  and  to  a  smooth  surface,  and  re- 
ceive a  thin  coating  of  twoparts  of  clean  river  sand  to  one  part  of  cement. 
When  the  concrete  is  thoroughly  dry  (he  blocks  are  laid  on  it  as  fol- 
lows :  Three  rows  longitudinally  along  curbs  throughout  the  whole 
extent  of  the  curbing;  the  remainder  of  the  blocks  to  be  laid  trans- 
versely across  the  street  to  form  any  angle  between  30  degrees  and  45 
degrees,  or  as  the  city  surveyor  may  direct.  The  end  of  the  blocks 
butting  against  rows  parallel  to  curbs  to  be  cut  so  as  to  form  a  close 
and  even  point.  The  joints  to  be  separated  by  not  more  than  one-fourth 
of  an  inch,  and  to  be  regular  and  uniform.  The  city  surveyor  noticed  that 


AUSTRALASIA — NEW    SOUTH   WALES.  547 

when  the  joints  were  too  far  apart  the  noise  of  the  traffic  was  increased, 
and  he  directed  that  they  be  made  narrower.  At  first  they  were  1  inch 
in  width  and  were  reduced  to  three  eighths  of  an  inch,  and  then  to  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch,  as  heretofore  mentioned.  In  paving  George  street, 
the  principal  thoroughfare  of  the  city,  four  methods  were  adopted : 
.  First.  Joints  of  three-eighths  of  an  inch  coated  with  screenings  and 
tar. 

Second.  The  blocks  were  laid  with  butt  joints  dipped  in  tar  and  ham- 
mered up  close  and  afterwards  thoroughly  grouted  by  sweeping  boiling 
tar  and  river  sand. 

Third.  The  blocks  were  laid  on  a  roofing  of  tarred  felt,  jointed  with 
strips  of  the  same  material  properly  hammered  up,  to  render  close  and 
even  joints. 

Fourth.  Three  eigths  joints  grouted  with  pitch,  river  sand,  and  tar. 
The  street  was  opened  for  traffic  in  July,  1888,  and  it  was  noticed  that 
the  noise  had  been  minimized  and  the  slipperyness  of  the  pavement 
overcome  by  sprinkling  sand  upon  it.  Mr.  Richards,  the  city  surveyor, 
is  of  opinion  that  the  method  of  laying  the  blocks  without  grouting  is 
by  far  the  best.  At  first  the  blocks  were  painted  on  all  surfaces  with 
hot  tar,  and  stacked  for  at  least  4  hours  and  then  laid  in  the  work,  at 
every  twelfth  row  hammered  up  close,  a  plank  12  feet  long,  6  inches 
deep,  and  2  inches  thick  being  used  as  a  beating  surface.  Upon  com- 
pletion of  a  length  of  1  chain  the  surface  was  well  swept  with  hot  tar, 
sprinkled  with  hot  sand,  and  again  with  tar,  sufficient  quantity  being 
used  to  form  a  plastic  paste  with  which  the  joint  was  afterward  thor- 
oughly flushed  up.  After  3  months'  traffic  upon  this  section  the  neces- 
sity of  an  after  treatment  was  apparent,  as  the  joints  were  gaping, 
and  in  pome  instances  the  blocks  were  loosened.  The  means  taken  as 
a  remedy  were  that  the  blocks  were  well  watered  and  when  fairly  dry 
again  the  joints  swept  in  flush  with  saud  and  tar,  as  before  described; 
since  which,  the  pavement  has  maintained  a  most  satisfactory  condi- 
tion, notwithstanding  that  it  has  been  subjected  to  the  most  variable 
influences.  The  Castlereagh  street  pavement,  from  Hunter  to  Liver- 
pool street,  a  distance  of  58  chains,  afforded  opportunity  for  further 
experiment,  and  for  a  length  of  8  chains  the  blocks  were  laid  at  an 
angle  of  45  degrees  to  the  curb,  by  which  a  wheel  in  its  revolutions  is  on 
at  least  2  rows  of  blocks,  and  the  result  showed  that  the  noise  occa- 
sioned by  the  jarring  over  the  joints  was  reduced  to  a  minimum.  In 
the  same  work  a  butt-jointed  pavement  was  laid  for  a  length  of  7  chains, 
with  a  gradient  of  1  in  05,  and  a  convexity  of  1  in  (JO.  Mr.  Kichards 
states  when  the  gradient  does  not  exceed  1  in  10  the  butt  jointed  can 
be  laid  with  advantage. 

The  convexity  can  in  such  cases  be  reduced  to  1  in  .SO.  Tn  anticipa- 
tion of  expansion  of  the  blocks.  ;i  Beam  of  sand  H  inches  wide  was  laid 
on  both  sides  of  the  roadway,  between  the  curb  and  the  blocks.  This 
section  has  beeu  traveled  upon  for  nearly  12  months  and  has   not  yet 


548  STREETS    AND   HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

required  attention.  The  woods  used  in  these  works  were  of  the  classes 
respectively  known  as  black  butt,  spotted  gum,  and  tallow  wood.  Dur- 
ing the  last  2  years  portions  of  the  areas,  wood-paved,  with  the  wide 
joint,  have  been  renewed,  with  the  narrower  joint.  The  old  blocks  ob- 
tained from  these  areas  have  been  utilized  in  the  paving  of  lanes  and 
narrow  ways  adjacent  to  wood-paved  thoroughfares.  The  work  was 
done  by  days'  labor,  the  foundation  being  prepared  with  the  best  ma- 
terial obtained  from  the  excavation  of  the  former  roadway,  the  blocks 
bedded  on  a  layer  of  sand  3  inches  in  thickness  and  the  joints  grouted 
with  sand  and  tar. 

The  steepest  grade  is  1  in  17.2  and  is  a  length  of  4  chains.  The 
greatest  width  of  roadway  is  275  feet  (at  George  street  south,  near  rail- 
way station),  in  portion  of  which  there  is  also  the  greatest  cross  fall,  viz, 
1  in  17,  which  was  necessitated  to  conform  with  the  tramway  construc- 
tion. At  first  the  intersections  of  the  streets  were  paved  with  cube 
settings,  but  Mr.  Eichards  recommended  their  removal  and  wood  blocks 
put  in  place  of  them.  This  plan  he  pressed  continually  upon  the  au- 
thorities until  it  was  finally  adopted.  A  careful  examination  of  the 
work  done  on  George  street  and  on  King  street  afforded  an  opportu- 
nity for  comparing  the  wear  of  bluestoue  cubes  with  that  of  wood 
blocks.  The  bluestoue  cubes,  after  having  been  subjected  to  traffic  for 
5  years  and  upwards,  showed  an  average  wear  of  1  inch  per  annum, 
whilst  the  wood  blocks,  which  had  been  put  down  for  a  longer  period, 
subjected  to  an  equally  heavy  traffic,  wore  only  at  the  rate  of  1.26  of  an 
inch  per  annum.  Blocks  put  down  in  1888  under  the  present  system 
have  also  been  examined  and  the  wear  was  only  at  the  rate  of  1.50  of 
,in  inch  per  annum. 

From  these  results  it  is  estimated  that,  after  making  full  allowance 
for  depreciation  and  contingencies,  the  minimum  life  of  wood  pavement 
is  about  16  years,  or  from  3  to  4  times  that  of  Milestone  cube  set  pave- 
ment. 

SIDEWALKS. 

The  pavement  of  sidewalks  or  footpaths  in  Sydney  consists  of  flagg- 
ing, artificial  stone,  and  tar  paving-,  etc.  These  pavements  appear  to 
give  satisfaction. 

Under  the  corporation  act  of  1879,  it  was  provided  that  certain  por- 
tions of  the  footways  should  be  paved  with  flagging  and  others  with 
flagging  or  tar  pavement.  The  main  thoroughfares  were  to  be  with 
flagging  and  the  residential  streets  with  flagging  or  tar  pavements. 

At  first  the  average  cost  of  flagging  was  14s.  ($3.41)  per  square  yard 
and  the  tar  pavements  2s.  6d.  (60  cts.)  per  square  yard.  The  property 
owners  were  charged  with  the  cost  of  the  work,  but  those  on  the  main 
thoroughfares  objected  very  seriously  to  be  compelled  to  pay  for  flag- 
ging whilst  it  was  left  to  the  option  of  the  residential  owners  to  have 


AUSTRALASIA — NEW    SOUTH    WALES.  549 

either  flagging  or  tar  pavements,  and  the  act  was  fiually  amended  so 
as  to  apply  equally  to  both  classes  of  owners. 

The  tar  pavement  was  most  generally  in  use.  Mr  Richards,  however, 
stated  that  the  tar  pavement  is  only  desired  when  it  is  apt  not  to  be 
disturbed,  and  he  finally  succeeded  in  getting  a  medium  between  the 
two  adopted  called  artificial  stone.  The  following  is  a  description  of 
the  method  of  constructing  the  latter  pavement :  The  ground  being 
excavated  to  a  sound  and  approved  foundation — an  aggregate  composed 
of  one  measure  of  cement  to  two  of  clean  coarse  sharp  sand  thoroughly 
mixed  dry  and  made  into  a  mortar,  with  the  least  possible  amount  of 
water — broken  sandstone  not  exceeding  1£  inches  in  their  largest  dimen- 
sions, thoroughly  cleaned  from  dust  and  dirt,  drenched  with  water,  but 
containing  no  loose  water  in  the  heap,  to  be  immediately  incorporated 
with  the  mortar  in  such  quantities  as  will  give  a  surplus  of  mortar  when 
rammed.  When  the  proper  proportion  is  ascertained,  it  is  afterwards 
regulated  by  measure.  When  spread  it  is  thoroughly  compacted  by 
ramming,  until  free  mortar  appears  on  the  surface,  which  must  be  made 
exactly  parallel  with  the  surface  of  the  pavement  to  be  laid. 

Before  this  base  is  thoroughly  set  a  wearing  surface  1  inch  thick  is 
laid  (to  a  uniform  and  plane  surface  and  properly  smoothed),  composed 
of  one  part  of  Portland  cement  to  one  part  of  clean,  coarse,  sharp  sand, 
cut  into  diamond  or  rectangular  slabs,  in  sizes  not  larger  in  area  than 
1  square  yard. 

In  this  pavement  (from  result)  it  seems  advisable  at  every  length  of 
12  feet  to  allow  a  groove  1  inch  deep  by  1  inch  wide,  so  that  the  wear- 
ing surface  should  set  freely,  after  which  the  groove  is  filled  in  with 
asphalt  or  other  suitable  material.  The  scoring  is  done  with  a  trowel, 
and  cut  not  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  deep,  and  with  a  uniform 
width  of  one-eighth  of  an  inch. 

The  traffic  in  George,  Pitt,  York,  and  Sussex  streets  is  said  to  be  as 
heavy  per  square  yard  as  in  any  other  city  in  the  world.  The  average 
number  of  vehicles  passing  George  street  near  the  town  hall  per  day 
for  12  hours  is  11,960. 

GRANITE  PAVEMENTS. 

The  cubes  of  the  granite  pavements  are  very  carefully  laid  on  a  con- 
crete foundation  of  6  inches  in  depth.  In  1887  there  were  600  square 
yards  of  this  pavement  laid  at  a  cost  of  22s.  Id.  ($5.48)  per  square  yard, 
and  337  yards  laid  on  sand  at  a  cost  of  15s.  3%d,  ($3.71£)  per  square 
yard.  In  1888  about  2,000  square  yards  were  laid  on  sand,  varying  in 
cost  from  6s.  ($1.46)  to  13s.  10(7.  ($3.48)  per  square  yard.  In  1889  there 
were  2,726  yards  laid  on  sand  at  a  cost  of  5s.  Id.  ($1.24)  per  square  yard. 
In  1890  there  were  9,687  yards  of  wood  paving  laid  at  a  cost  varying 
from  13s.  Id.  ($3.30)  to  19s.  Ad.  ($4.70)  per  square  yard.  The  following 
table  shows  in  detail  the  cost  per  square  yard  of  wood  paving  carried 


550  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

out  during  the  years  1889  and  1890 ;  also  the  cost  of  cube  set  paving  for 
1889  in  Sydney: 

"WOOD  PAVING. 


When 

opened 
totraiuo. 

Name  of 
street. 

Locality. 

Area 
insq. 
yards. 

Cost 
per  sq. 

yard. 

Remarks. 

1889. 
January 

Pitt 

At  Spring  and  Bond 

720 

s.    d. 
16    7* 

Cube-set     crossings    removed 

streets. 

and  wood  blocks  substituted. 

Do 

William 

At  Boomerang  and 
Yuroug  streets. 

82 

19    3 

Do. 

May 

George 

At  Gipps,  Engine, 
Hay,  and  Goulborn 

streets. 

2,980 

18    0£ 

Do. 

June 

Elizabeth 

Hunter  to  Liverpool 
street. 

11,  908 

19    8 

Hardwood  blocks  laid  on  6-inrh 
concrete. 

1890. 
January 

Kent 

Argyle   to    Crescent 
street. 

6,510 

19  10 

Do. 

April 

At  Hunter  street 

562 

15    0 

Cube-set     crossings    removed 

and  wood  blocks  substituted. 

July 

Bridge 

Clarence 

George 

Pitt  street,  Macquarie 

place. 
At  ilargaret  street..' 
At  Argyle,  Bathurat, 
Druitt,    Hunter, 
King.  Liverpool, nnd 
Margaret  streets 

1,775 

19    8J 

Hardwood  blocks  laid  on  6  inch 
concrete. 

and  Queen's  place.   1 

7, 270 

13     7 

(Cube-set    crossings     removed 
(    and  wood  blocks  substit uted, 

cember. 

Park  streets. 

York 

At    Barrack,   Druitt, 
Erskine,  King,  Mar- 

ket,  and  Wynyard 

streets. 

CUBE-SET  PAVING. 


July. 
May. 


September. 


Alger's  road. 
Stream 


Myrtle    street   to 

Paint's  lane. 
Pier    to    Liverpool 

street. 


625 
249ft 


5    1 
5    1 


Old  cubes  laid  on  sand. 
Do. 


The  cost  of  repairing  wood  paving  in  Sydney  is  less  than  that  of  any 
other  kind  when  the  amount  of  traffic  is  taken  into  consideration. 

The  total  expenditures  for  repairs  to  wood  pavements  is  very  small. 
In  1890  considerable  expenditures  were  made  on  account  of  the  gas 
company,  sewage  board,  etc.,  but  the  general  repairs  amounted  to  only 
£65  ($316.32)  during  the  year. 

The  city  surveyor  states  that  the  annual  cost  for  repairs  to  wood 
pavements  is  so  small  as  to  be  hardly  worth  taken  into  consideration, 
and  that  the  chief  outlay  is  in  soundings.  The  whole  expense,  for 
repairs,  includiug  the  cost  of  watering  the  streets,  is  about  one-six- 
teenth part  of  a  penny,  say  one  eighth  part  of  a  cent  per  square  yard 
per  annum.  The  annual  cost  of  repairing  the  macadamized  streets  is 
about  8£  cents  per  sq  uare  yard.  Taking  separate  areas  on  streets  simi- 
larly constructed  and  over  which  continual  traffic  passes  in  the  central 
part  of  the  city  the  cost  is  from  8d.  (16  cents)  to  lid.  (22  cents)  per 
square  yard. 


_ AUSTRALASIA — NEW    SOUTH   WALES.  551 

SEWERAGE. 

This  report  would  be  incomplete  without  some  mention  of  the  admira- 
ble system  of  sewerage  that  has  been  so  successfully  carried  out  by 
the  authorities  of  Sydney  and  which  has  done  more  than  anything 
else  to  improve  the  health  of  the  city. 

In  1875  the  government  appointed  a  board,  called  "the  Sydney  city 
and  suburban  sewage  and  health  board,"  for  the  purpose  of  inquir- 
ing into  and  reporting  upon  the  best  means  of  disposing  of  the  sewage 
of  the  city  and  suburbs,  and  also  for  the  protection  of  the  health  of 
the  inhabitants.  The  board  consisted  of  fifteen  members,  including  the 
surveyor-general,  several  of  the  professors  of  the  Sydney  University 
and  members  of  the  board  of  health,  the  city  surveyor,  the  engineer  in 
chief  of  the  road  bridges,  the  government  analyst,  etc.  The  board  sub- 
mitted twelve  progress  reports,  all  of  which  dealt  with  very  important 
questions  and  contained  many  valuable  and  practical  suggestions. 

In  order  to  understand  the  system  adopted  it  should  be  mentioned 
that  the  city  of  Sydney  is  situated  on  the  southern  shore  of  Port  Jack- 
son, about  5  miles  from  the  head  or  entrance  to  the  harbor  from  the 
South  Pacific  Ocean.  Professor  Warren,  m.  i.  c.  e.,  of  the  University  of 
Sydney,  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  much  valuable  material  in  the 
preparation  of  this  report,  states — 

That  from  a  point  on  the  ocean  cliffs,  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  south  of  the 
South  Head,  and  known  as  Ben  Buckler  Point,  a  high  ridge  extends  in  a  westerly 
and  southwesterly  direction,  having  a  mean  elevation  above  the  sea  level  at  its  eastern 
end  of  about  200  feet  and  declining  thence  to  about  100  feet.  The  distance  to  the 
north  of  this  ridge,  on  which  the  principal  portion  of  the  city  is  situated,  drains  to 
Sydney  Harbor,  and  the  southern  slope  drains  to  Botany  Bay  and  Cook's  River. 

It  was  decided  that  the  sewage  of  those  portions  of  the  city  of  Sydney 
and  its  suburbs  which  naturally  drain  into  Port  Jackson  should  be 
collected  into  an  outfall  sewer  and  led  away  by  the  most  direct  course 
and  at  as  low  a  level  as  practicable  and  discharged  finally  into  the  sea 
near  Ben  Buckler  Point,  while  the  sewage  of  the  southern  district 
should  be  collected  into  a  separate  system  and  taken  to  Botany  and 
there  to  be  utilized  as  a  sewage  farm,  there  being  an  ample  area  of  light 
sandy  soil  at  a  convenient  level  for  irrigation  by  gravitation  available 
for  the  purpose. 

The  area  drained  by  the  northern  system  is  about  5,300  acres,  and  the 
area  drained  by  the  southern  system  about  1,100  acres.  The  whole  of 
-the  northern  and  southern  outfall  sewers  have  been  completed  and 
much  work  done  in  extending  the  minor  sewers  in  connection  with  the 
system.  Professor  Warren  states  that  the  northern  outfall  sewer  com- 
mences near  the  intersection  of  the  Newtown  road  and  Parramatta  and 
discharges  into  the  ocean  near  Ben  Buckler  Point,  is  5$  miles  in  length, 
uniform  in  section,  and  varying  in  size  from  4  feet  6  inches  by  3  feet  G 
inches  at  its  upper  end  to  8  feet  6  inches  by  7  feet  0  inches  for  a  length 
of  1  mile  at  the  outfall  end,  with  a  fall  of  3  feet  6  inches  a  mile.    At  a 


,052  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  head  it  is  joined  by  "  the  Prince  Alfred  Hos 
pital  connecting  sewer"  and  by  the  "Pyrmont  branch  sewer;"  at  the 
corner  of  Oxford  and  Liverpool  streets,  1£  miles  from  the  head,  it  is 
joined  by  the  King  street  and  several  other  intercepting  branches. 
Besides  collecting  sewerage  at  these  branches  it  intercepts  a  number 
of  old  sewers  at  Rushcutters  Bay.  A  storm  water  overflow  is  provided 
along  the  entire  length,  and  from  this  point  an  overflow  sewer  was 
built  to  carry  the  storm  water  into  the  bay.  It  is  one  half  a  mile  in 
length,  4  feet  6  inches  by  3  feet  6  inches  in  size,  with  a  fall  of  1  in  200, 
and  discharging  above  high-water  level.  A  swamp  of  1,000  feet  in 
length  had  to  be  crossed  by  this  overflow  sewer.  This  part  of  the  work 
is  carried  in  arches  of  25  feet  span  and  3  feet  6  inches  rise.  To  form 
the  piers  for  the  arches  concrete  cylinders  of  10  feet  external  diameter 
were  sunk  through  the  spongy  grouud  until  a  stratum  of  clean  saud 
was  reached.  The  cylinders  were  filled  with  concrete  and  the  arches 
turned.  The  thickness  between  the  soffitt  of  the  arch  at  the  corner  and 
the  invert  of  the  sewer  is  12  inches.  The  depth  of  the  cylinders  varies 
from  10  feet  to  33  feet.  The  whole  of  the  work  in  the  cylinders,  arches, 
and  sewer  is  of  concrete. 

Provision  is  made  at  the  other  points  for  storm- water  relief  and  diver- 
sion of  sewerage  when  necessary.  The  northern  system  comprises  the 
following  new  brick  and  concrete  sewers : 

Outfall  sewer,  5  miles  2,700  foet ;  Prince  Alfred  Hospital  intercepting  sewer,  1 
mile  1,400  feet;  Pyrmont  branch,  1  mile  2,100  feet ;  Kent  street  intercepting  sewer, 
1  mile  3,900  feet;  Bridge  street  and  Harrington  street  intercepting  sewer,  1  mile 
4,700  feet;  Riley  street  and  Bourke  street  intercepting  sewer,  2,000  feet;  Lacrozea 
Creek  branch,  1,500  feet;  Rushcutter's  Bay  overflow  sewer,  2,500  feet ;  proposed  ex- 
tensions to  Glebe,  Balmain,  etc.  (shown  in  dotted  lines  on  sketch  plan),  5  miles 2,000 
feet ;  total,  18  miles  680  feet.  Some  stoneware  pipe  sewers  have  also  been  laid  up  to 
24  inches  diameter,  and  a  large  amount  of  work  remains  to  be  done  in  laying  pipe 
sewers  or  submains.  Concrete  has  been  largely  used  in  the  construction  of  the 
sewers,  and  all  bricks  used  in  the  work  are  of  very  high  quality.  The  concrete  (ex- 
cept that  used  for  packing  purposes)  is  composed  of  blue  stone,  broken  to  a  1  J-inch 
gauge,  sand  and  Portland  cement  in  the  following  proportions  :  Four  parts  of  stone, 
two  parts  of  sand,  and  one  part  of  cement.  The  bricks  were  nearly  all  supplied  from 
two  brickyards,  and  average  samples  taken  from  them  were  tested  at  the  Sydney 
University  Engineering  Laboratory  with  the  following  results:  Average  crushing 
resistance  per  square  inch,  2,782  pounds  and  2,228  pounds.  The  crushing  resistance 
of  English  Stourbridge  fire  bricks  is  about  1,717  pounds  per  pquare  inch,  and  of 
London  red  brick  about  808  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  tunnels  are  lined  through- 
out, the  minimum  thickness  of  lining  adopted  being  4|  inches.  In  rock  tunnels  the 
lower  part  of  the  sewer  up  to  a  height  of  12  inches  above  the  springing  level  is  line'd 
with  bluestone  concrete,  and  the  arch  is  closed  with  brickwork  packed  solid  to  the 
rock  with  sandstone  concrete.  In  very  wet  rock  a  ring  of  brickwork  (4£  inches)  is 
laid  inside  an  outer  lining  of  concrete  and  subducts,  which  were  afterwards  closed, 
were  used  during  construction  in  order  to  secure  water-tight  work.  The  outfall 
sewer  from  Oxford  street  to  the  ocean,  a  length  of  4£  miles,  is  rendered  to  three- 
fourths  of  its  height,  and  tbe  brick  arch  above  that  level  is  pointed.  The  remainder 
of  the  outfall  sewer  and  tbe  branch  sewers  are  rendered  all  round  with  cement  mor- 
tar, composed  of  one  part  Portland  cement  and  two  parts  of  sand.  Every  lot  of 
cement  brought  on  the  work  is  tested  at  the  head  office,  where  complete  testing  ap- 


AUSTRALASIA — NEW    SOUTH    WALES.  553 

paratus  is  provided,  and  all  cement  which  does  not  fulfill  the  specified  conditions,  or 
appears  to  be  of  inferior  or  doubtful  quality,  is  rejected.  The  sewers  are  constructed 
chiefly  in  tunnels,  and  a  great  portion  of  the  tunneling  is  in  saudstone  rock.  Numer- 
ous shafts  were  sunk  for  the  driving  of  the  tunnels,  and  to  be  used  for  ventilation  af- 
terwards, the  deepest  one  being  240  feet.  The  rock  tunnel  excavation  was  done  by 
blasting  aud  presented  no  difficulties.  Iu  some  cases  the  drilling  was  done  by  per- 
cussive rock  drills  worked  by  compressed  air,  and  where  compressed  air  was  used  for 
this  purpose  it  was  also  used  to  work  the  winding  engines.  Iu  other  cases  the  drill- 
ing was  done  by  hand  and  ventilation  was  provided  by  Root's  blowers. 

Professor  Warren  states  that  the  portious  of  the  work  which  present 
most  interest  from  an  engineering  point  of  view  are  on  the  outlet  end 
of  the  outfall  sewer.  For  1  mile,  commencing  at*  the  outlet,  the  sewer 
is  8  feet  6  inches  by  7  feet  6  inches,  and  for  the  remainder  it  is  8  feet  2 
inches  by  7  feet  2  inches.  It  is  constructed  in  tunnel  on  sandstone  rock 
on  this  length  for  3,960  feet,  and  iu  water-charged  sand  1,643  feet,  and 
in  open  cutting  in  water-charged  sand  for  2,967.  This  part  of  the  sewer 
Professor  Warren  states  is  very  interesting  on  account  of  the  novelty 
of  the  design,  there  being  nothing  like  it  as  far  as  he  is  aware  hitherto 
constructed.    He  says : 

For  draining  the  water  charged  sand  nine  centrifugal  pumps  were  used  with  6- 
inch  to  9-inch  pipes.  Pumping  wells  were  sunk  to  one  side  of  the  sewer  treuch  and 
close  timbered  to  the  foundation  level;  the  sumps  below  this  level,  a  few  feet  in 
depth,  being  steened  with  concrete  to  prevent  any  water  entering  except  through  a 
pipe  built  in  the  concrete  and  connected  with  the  subduct  laid  along  the  center  of  the 
sewer  trench  aud  tunnels.  The  subduct  consisted  of  9-iuch  earthenware  pipes  laid 
in  hard  wood  boxes  open  at  the  top  and  packed  with  broken  stone.  These  boxes 
were  made  water-tight,  and  the  sides  were  carried  up  about  2  inches  above  the  foun- 
dation level  so  as  to  prevent  any  water  entering  from  below  that  level,  except  at  the 
end  of  the  duct,  which  was  always  kept  some  distance  ahead  of  the  concrete  work. 
During  the  construction  of  the  sewer,  opsuings  through  the  concrete  were  left  over 
the  subduct  at  intervals  of  200  feet,  and  lines  with  rakes  attached  were  passed 
through  from  one  to  the  other,  and  these  lines  were  occasionally  pulled  backwards 
aud  forwards  to  keep  the  pipes  clear  of  silt  or  other  obstruction.  Two  traveling 
cranes  with  30-feet  jibs  were  used  for  raising  the  sand  from  the  trenches,  which  were 
sunk  with  a  batter  of  one  in  eight  and  close  timbered  at  the  sides. 

The  main  southern  section  of  the  sewer  drains  the  southern  slope  of 
the  city,  including  several  of  the  most  important  boroughs,  the  area 
being  over  1.100  acres.  The  cuttings  in  Some  places  are  30  feet  deep. 
Professor  Warren  says  that  where  the  sewer  passes  over  natural  water 
courses  concrete  culverts  have  been  constructed  through  which  the 
streams  are  carried  under  the  sewer,  so  that  the  land  drainage  and  the 
interest  of  market  gardeners  are  not  interfered  with.  The  main  sewer 
is  constructed  of  bluestone lined  with  brickwork  and  sandstone  concrete. 
For  the  lower  portions,  it  is  rendered  on  the  inside  with  Portland  cement 
mortar  half  an  inch  thick  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  cement  to 
two  of  sharp,  clean  sand. 

The  sewer  is  provided  throughout  its  length  with  ventilation  man- 
holes and  with  gas  check  valves  to  prevent  the  sewer  gas  rising  to 
the  higher  levels ;  also  with  Hushing  and  penstock  chambers.     Three 


554  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

million  bricks  and  35,000  casks  of  cement  were  used.  In  connection 
with  the  system  a  sewage  farm  of  about  300  acres  of  loose  ground  has 
been  secured  for  the  purpose  of  filtering  the  sewerage.  Suitable  filter 
beds  have  been  made  for  the  disposal  of  surplus  water  during  heavy 
rains.  These  beds  are  capable  of  filtering  400,000  gallons  of  sewage  per 
acre  in  24  hours.  They  are  used  in  rotation  that  the  very  best  filtering 
powers  may  be  obtained.  There  are  cultivated  areas  on  the  sloping 
ground  toward  Cook's  Eiver  formed  in  terraces  on  the  ridge  and  fur- 
row system  connected  with  the  main  carrier  by  means  of  small  wooden 
distributors,  with  sluices,  timber  boxes,  etc.  The  sanitary  results  are 
shown  by  the  purity"  of  the  effluent  water.  The  terraces  and  banks  of 
the  main  carrier  are  planted  with  Mecembryanthemum  tigrinum.  The 
prepared  beds  are  planted  with  sorghum,  barley,  lucerne,  etc.  This 
farm,  together  with  many  other  valuable  improvements,  not  usually 
connected  with  sewage,  has  done  much  towards  making  this  great  work 
almost  unique  as  well  as  one  of  the  most  complete  and  satisfactory  sys- 
tems of  drainage  in  the  world. 

HIGHWAYS. 

The  public  roads  in  New  South  Wales,  and,  indeed,  in  all  the  Austra- 
lian colonies  from  the  first  settlement  of  the  country,  have  been  built 
in  the  most  substantial  manner.  At  first  they  were  constructed  entirely 
by  prison  labor.  The  New  South  Wales  road  department  was  organ- 
ized in  1857,  aud  Mr.  T.  A.  Coglan,  the  Government  statistician,  states 
that  although  good  service  was  done  by  the  road  pioneers  before  that 
date,  the  modern  system  of  road  making  may  be  said  to  have  begun 
with  the  creation  of  the  roads  department.  It  was  not  known  until 
18G7  that  the  whole  of  the  roads  received  attention  at  the  hands  of  the 
state.  The  department  of  roads  has  also  the  control  of  the  bridges, 
ferries,  punts,  etc.  Among  the  duties  devolving  upon  the  department 
are  the  selection  of  the  work  and  the  disbursement  of  the  funds  noted 
annually  for  the  purpose.  Prof.  W.  H.  Wasseu,  M.  I.  o.  e.,  prolessor 
of  mechanical  and  civil  engineering  in  the  University  of  Sydney,  has 
summarized  the  duties  of  the  roads  department  as  follows: 

(1)  The  removal  of  all  complete  interruptions  to  traffic,  more  particularly  to  mail 
transit,  by  bridging  the  rivers  and  creeks. 

(2)  The  improvement  of  all  the  most  difficult  mountain  passes  and  swamps. 

(3)  The  final  determination  of  the  direction  of  the  roads  and  the  clearing  of  the 
same,  followed  by  drainage  and  culvertiug  where  most  required. 

(4)  The  forming  aud  metaling  of  roads,  excepting  where  municipalities  exist. 

It  being  almost  impossible  to  insist  on  any  one  uniform  mode  of  con- 
structing the  roads  it  was  decided  to  adapt  them  as  far  as  possible  to 
the  conditions  of  the  country  through  which  they  were  to  pass,  with  a 
due  regard  to  the  requirements  of  the  traffic  and  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  material  available. 
The  following  are  the  maiu  roads  in  New  South  Wales: 
Northern  road— length,  405  miles,  from  Morpeth  to  Maryland,  New 
England. 


AUSTRALASIA — NEW    SOUTH    WALES.  555 

Western  road— length,  338  miles,  from  Sydney  to  Warren,  through 
Bathurst,  Orange,  and  many  other  important  townships;  thence  pro- 
longed to  the  Darling,  at  Bourke,  by  a  line  175  miles  in  length. 

Southern  road— length,  385  miles,  from  Sydney  to  Albury.  This  road 
was,  before  the  construction  of  the  railway,  the  great  highway  between 
Sydney  and  Melbourne. 

South  coast  road — length,  250  miles.  This  road,  after  leaving  Camp- 
belltown,  ascends  the  coast  range,  along  the  top  of  which  it  runs  as  far 
as  Coal  Cliff.  It  then  traverses  the  Illawarra  district,  parallel  to  the 
coast,  and  passes  through  the  rich  lauds  watered  by  the  Shoalhaven, 
Clyde,  and  Moruya,  as  far  as  Eden,  at  the  southern  limit  of  the  colony. 

The  public  roads  have  nothing  like  the  importance  they  formerly 
possessed  previous  to  their  having  been  superseded  for  the  most  part 
by  the  railways.  The  tendency  now  is  to  make  the  roads  act  as  feeders 
to  the  railways  by  conveying  the  traffic  from  outlying  districts  towards 
the  convenient  stations  along  the  railway  line.  The  length  of  the 
roads  are  estimated  at  about  30,000  miles;  of  these  6,500  miles  have 
been  formed,  metaled  and  graveled,  and  4,500  miles  not  metaled,  but 
drained,  and  upon  which  culverts  have  been  built,  and  7, GOO  miles  of 
road  through  the  forests  of  the  interior  marked  out  by  cart  wheels,  and 
1,400  miles  through  mountain  passes,  some  of  which  presented  diffi- 
culties almost  immountable,  and  in  their  construction  great  engineering 
skill  was  displayed.  Of  these  roads  much  attention  has  been  directed 
to  that  at  Bulli  Pass.  This  great  work  was  begun  in  1867  for  the  pur- 
pose of  opeuing  up  communication  with  the  northern  part  of  the  Illa- 
warra district  and  the  Great  Southern  Railway  at  Campbelltown.  The 
Illawarra  district  is  regarded  as  the  garden  spot  of  the  colony,  and  is 
remarkable  not  only  for  its  fertility  but  for  the  beauty  and  variety  of 
its  scenery.  In  some  places  the  grades  are  as  steep  as  1  in  8,  but  the 
road  is  perfectly  straight  and  smooth.  Another  magnificent  road  is  that 
around  Mount  George,  in  the  Blue  Mouutains  district,  and  connecting 
with  the  main  road  leading  to  the  Jenolan  Caves.  The  scenery  along 
the  road  is  varied  and  picturesque  in  the  extreme.  Although  ap- 
proaching very  near  the  edges  of  precipices  several  thousend  feet  in 
depth,  strong  stone  facings  of  sufficient  height  protect  the  traveler 
from  danger  and  keep  the  roads  from  falling  away  during  heavy  rains. 

CONSTRUCTION  AND   MAINTENANCE. 

The  colony  is  divided  into  fifty-four  road  districts  and  four  hundred 
road  trusts.  The  districts  are  managed  by  superintendents  or  engineers. 
The  trusts  have  the  supervision  of  certain  grants  for  the  maintenance 
of  roads  of  minor  importance.  There  are  also  a  number  of  important 
road  trusts  in  the  vicinity  of  Sidney  all  of  which  are  well  managed. 

Annually  votes  are  obtained  from  Parliament.  First,  for  the  main 
roads  referred  to,  and  secondly,  for  such  of  the  minor  roads  as  may  be 
considered  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  specifically  dealt  with,  iu 


556  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

which  case  each  road  is  described  by  name  and  placed  upon  a  schedule 
having  a  certain  sum  of  money  allotted  to  it  according  to  importance. 
In  addition  to  these  votes,  a  considerable  sum  is  annually  voted  under 
the  head  of  unclassified  roads.  This  amount  is  distributed  by  the 
minister  for  public  works  for  expenditure,  upon  representations  made, 
and  after  report  of  the  officers  referred  to. 

Special  votes  are  made  for  the  erection  of  bridges  by  Parliament, 
and  also  for  repairs  to  same. 

Funds  having  been  thus  allotted,  road  superintendents  submit  pro- 
posals for  expenditure  to  the  supervising  engineer,  who  directs  the 
calling  for  tenders  for  the  various  works  approved  of  by  them. 

Specifications  aud  plans  are  exhibited  at  the  court-houses  nearest  the 
site  of  the  work  and  advertisements  inserted  in  the  local  newspapers 
inviting  persons  to  send  in  tenders  by<i  stated  date. 

Tenders  having  been  received  by  the  local  officer  are  submitted  by 
him  with  his  recommendation  to  the  assistant  engineers,  who  have 
power  to  accept  tenders  for  any  amount  not  exceeding  £200.  Tenders 
above  that  amount  are  submitted  to  the  minister  for  works  for  accept- 
ance. The  lowest  tender  is  accepted  in  every  case  unless  some  special 
reason  exists  for  passing  it  over.  A  tender  having  been  accepted,  the 
papers  are  returned  to  the  road  superintendent  that  he  may  obtain  the 
signature  of  the  contractor  to  his  contract. 

There  are  two  forms  of  contract  agreement  used — a  memorandum  of 
task  agreement  for  all  sums  under  £200,  and  a  penal  bond  for  all  sums 
over  that  amount  with  sureties  in  10  per  cent,  on  the  amount  of  the 
contract. 

The  road  superintendent  prepares  these  agreements  on  printed  forms, 
and  when  signed  the  bond  is  sent  with  all  papers  to  the  head  office  of 
the  branch  through  the  supervising  engineers  to  be  filed. 

In  case  of  task  agreements  the  butt  remains  in  his  possession  in  the 
task  book,  the  duplicate  coupon  is  sent  on  to  the  head  office  with  pre- 
vious papers  to  be  filed,  and  the  triplicate,  signed  by  the  superintend- 
ent, handed  to  the  contractor.     (Sample  copy  attached.) 

All  contractors  are  bound  by  printed  general  conditions,  which  form 
part  of  their  contract  papers,  aud  are  in  all  cases  attached  to  the  speci- 
fications and  signed  by  the  contractor. 

The  contract  having  been  signed,  the  road  superintendent  directs 
the  contractor  to  commence  the  work. 

As  the  work  proceeds  progress  payments  are  made  from  time  to  time 
to  the  amount  ot  80  per  cent,  upon  the  value  of  the  work  done,  upon  the 
certificate  of  the  superintendent,  countersigned  by  the  supervising  en- 
gineer, and  the  balance  upon  the  completion  of  the  contracts. 

Each  road  superintendent  has  also  a  public  bank  account,  into  which 
are  placed  moneys  for  payment  to  contractors  and  others  as  advised 
from  the  engineer-in  chief's  office.  The  road  superintendents  are  also 
held  responsible  for  seeing  that  the  votes  of  Parliament  are  not  ex* 


AUSTRALASIA — NEW    SOUTH    WALES.  557 

ceeded,  and  have  to  furnish,  quarterly,  a  return,  showing  the  financial 
position  of  the  district,  the  balances  to  credit  of  votes,  and  the  liabilities 
incurred  against  each. 

The  same  routine  is  carried  out  with  regard  to  bridge  contracts.  On 
all  important  bridges,  the  plans  having  been  prepared  by  the  engineer 
for  bridges,  au  officer  is  stationed  during  the  progress  of  the  work, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  see  that  that  work  is  faithfully  carried  out,  and  cer- 
tify to  pay  vouchers.  This  officer  is  responsible  to  and  corresponds 
with  the  supervising  engineer. 

In  cases  of  smaller  bridges  of  simple  design  the  road  superintendent 
alone  exercises  supervision.  9 

To  the  road  superintendents,  as  stated  before,  is  deputed  the  duty  of 
submitting  proposals  for  works  to  be  carried  out  each  year,  and  they 
prepare  the  necessary  levels,  sections,  and  working  plans,  for  the  ordi- 
nary formation  and  grading,  or  it  is  done  by  qualified  surveyors  under 
their  direction,  subject  to  the  supervising  engineer,  to  whom  is  submit- 
ted all  proposals  with  specifications  for  approval  before  further  action 
is  taken.  Wherever  possible,  levels  are  taken  and  sections  prepared 
for  grading  the  roads  where  construction  is  to  be  carried  out.  Lately 
a  number  of  surveyors  have  been  appointed  for  this  purpose,  as  it  has 
been  found  to  be  too  great  a  tax  upon  the  road  superintendents'  time, 
and  took  them  away  from  their  duties  of  supervision. 

These  surveyors  travel  about  from  district  to  district  for  the  purpose 
of  carrying  on  necessary  surveys  as  may  be  required. 

The  very  small  wooden  culverts  are  now,  in  the  districts  within  rea- 
sonable reach  of  the  railways,  to  a  great  extent  abandoned  in  favor  of 
eartheuware  drain  pipes,  which  are  now  largely  used.  The  sizes  of 
these  pipes  are  usually  12  iuches,  18  inches,  and  24  inches  in  diameter. 

These  are  in  2  foot  lengths,  readily  transported,  quickly  fixed,  last  an 
indefinite  time,  aud  form  an  effective  and  inexpensive  culvert.  The 
roads  are  usually  formed  27  to  30  feet  in  width  where  the  cross  section 
of  the  ground  is  moderately  flat  aud  favorable,  aud  where  it  is  steep 
or  rocky,  making  formation  expeusive,  such  as  in  mountain  country, 
the  width  is  reduced  to  24  feet,  20  feet,  and,  in  exceptionally  bad  coun- 
try and  where  only  small  traffic  may  be  expected,  even  18  feet  wide. 

Metaling  is  usually  18  feet  in  width,  the  quantity  of  metal  being  from 
1  cubic  yard  to  the  linear  yard  of  road  on  all  ordinary  roads  to  14  cubic 
yards  on  roads  where  exceptionally  heavy  traffic  exists  or  the  soil  is 
bad  and  soft. 

The  size  of  metal  used  in  construction  is  usually  3  inches  gauge,  and 
it  is  usually  laid  on  the  earth  formation  without  bottom  ballast  or  pitch- 
ing. 

The  metal  is  then  blinded  with  gravel  if  procurable,  or  if  not,  with 
the  best  gritty  material  procurable  within  reasonable  distance. 

In  some  instances  in  the  black-soil  country  where  the  ground  is  Hat 
and  water  readily  absorbed,  so  that  a  bad  base  for  the  roads  exists,  a 


558  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

foundation  of  brushwood  is  laid  and  covered  with  a  layer  of  better 
soil,  such  as  shale,  to  a  depth  of  6  inches  to  receive  the  metal.  This 
practice  is  not,  however,  common.  In  districts  where  good  gravel  ex- 
ists this  is  largely  used  in  lieu  of  stone  on  the  ground  of  economy.  A 
good,  smooth  road  results,  carrying  light  traffic  well. 

Before  the  extension  of  the  railways  into  the  more  remote  parts  of  the 
colony  the  three  great  trunk  lines  of  road  and  their  principal  branches 
carried  the  traffic  into  the  interior. 

These  trunk  lines  were  the  Great  Northern,  the  Great  Western,  and 
the  Great  Southern  roads  and  extending  about  300  miles  inland. 

They  have  been  each  metaled  from  200  to  300  miles. 

The  method  employed  to  maintain  was  to  place  men,  styled  mainte- 
nance men,  along  the  roads,  giving  each  a  fixed  length  varying  from  4 
to  10  miles.  Their  duty  was  to  keep  the  surface  good  by  spreading 
metal,  raking  in  ruts  as  the  surface  became  broken  by  traffic,  attending 
to  repairs  to  culverts,  etc. 

The  supply  of  metal  for  maintaining  the  road  was  provided  by  annual 
contract,  let  at  the  beginning  of  each  year,  each  contract  extending 
over  a  stated  length  of  road,  the  metal  being  supplied  in  heaps  in  such 
places  as  might  be  directed  and  there  measured,  the  spreading  being 
sometimes  part  of  the  contract,  at  others  it  was  spread  by  the  mainte- 
nance men. 

The  same  system  is,  with  modification,  still  in  use ;  but  it  has  been 
found  that  the  trunk  lines  of  road,  being  superseded  by  railways  and 
there  not  being  so  much  traffic  on  the  branch  roads  severally,  the  work 
of  maintaining  the  surface  on  these  branches  is  not  so  costly  per  mile 
as  upon  the  old  trunk  lines;  therefore  the  maintenance  men  are  fre- 
quently itiuerant;  still  the  same  general  principle  is  adhered  to. 

The  maintenance  men  are  paid  at  a  uniform  rate  of  7s.  3d.  per  day 
which  is  to  cover  repairs  to  tools,  supplied  in  the  first  instance  by  the 
department.  A  code  of  rules  and  instructions  for  the  maintenance  men 
is  supplied  to  each ;  to  them  they  are  required  to  adhere.  (Copy  at- 
tached). These  men  are  directly  subordinate  to  the  road  superintend- 
ent and  engaged  or  discharged  by  him. 

During  the  last  16  years  the  government  have  constructed  55  miles  of 
eartheruware  culverts  and  25  miles  of  lumber,  brick,  and  concrete  cul- 
verts. The  government  now  largely  use  iron  culverts,  with  rolled  gird- 
ers and  buckeled  plates,  from  4  to  35  feet  span,  the  floor  of  the  plates 
being  filled  with  concrete.  Mr.  P.  Scarr,  one  of  the  assis  tant  engi- 
neers, in  a  report  bearing  date  21st  of  December,  1890,  reviews  at  length 
the  condition  of  the  roads  in  the  southwestern  division.  He  states 
that  in  the  maintenance  of  existing  roads  there  is  great  room  for  im- 
provements, lie  directs  especial  attention  to  the  condition  of  the 
metaled  roads,  mountain  cuttings,  drains,  water  tables,  culverts,  etc., 
as  being  badly  in  need  of  repair.  The  system  adopted  for  maintaining 
the  main  trunk  lines  of  roads  in  years  past,  when  the  whole  traffic  of 


AUSTRALASIA — NEW    SOUTH    WALES.  559 

the  interior  passed  over  them,  is  not  suitable  for  the  extensive  ramifica- 
tion of  the  minor  roads  which  now  carry  the  traffic  to  the  railways  and 
principal  centers.  Except  in  very  few  places  the  traffic  is  nothing  like 
as  heavy  as  that  of  the  old  trunk  roads.  The  system  in  vogue  then,  of 
placiug  solitary  men  upon  definite  lengths  of  road,  is  out  of  place  now. 
He  says : 

Then,  under  tbe  very  heavy  and  constant  traffic,  these  men  were  regularly  and 
continually  employed  in  surface  repairs,  and  were  visitetl,  if  not  at  regular  at  least 
at  frequent  intervals.  The  officers  had  as  a  primary  duty  the  maintenance  of  the 
main  lines,  so  that  they  became  so  intimately  acquainted  with  the  lengths  of  road 
that  they  could  estimate  accurately  the  quantity  of  metal  required  on  each  and  the 
number  of  men  for  each  length  of  road.  So  that  this  system  of  having  solitary  men 
was  perhaps  the  best  that  could  be  devised. 

He  says,  further,  that  from  the  large  extent  of  road  comprised  within 
each  road  district  it  is  not  possible  for  the  officers  to  see  these  men 
often  enough  to  enable  them  to  judge  whether  they  exert  themselves 
or  not.  Although  an  enormous  sum  is  paid  away  annually  in  mainte- 
nance wages,  the  maintenance  of  the  work  is  by  no  means  such  as  it 
should  be.  Value  is  not  obtained  for  the  money  paid.  Following  upon 
this  state  of  things  the  metaled  lengths  are  imperfectly  maintained, 
cuttings  scoured  by  water,  drains  choked  by  vegetation,  and  culverts 
out  of  repair.  It  is  impossible  to  lay  to  the  charge  of  the  officers 
these  results.  It  would  be  going  further  into  the  mire  for  them  to  put 
on  additional  men  to  do  the  work.  He  proposes  as  a  remedy  the  re- 
duction of  the  number  of  the  solitary  men,  and  to  form  flying  gangs  who 
shall  travel  throughout  the  districts,  each  to  have  in  a  regular  way  a 
general  circuit  and  perform  all  the  necessary  repairs  periodically.  He 
recommends  that  in  forming  these  gangs  the  men  at  present  employed 
should  be  absorbed  as  far  as  practicable,  and  that  those  remaining 
should  act  as  watchmen  over  these  gangs  and  receive  a  slight  increase 
of  pay  above  the  others,  and  make  them  responsible  for  the  proper 
working  of  the  gang.  By  this  means  50  per  cent,  more  work,  he  says, 
could  be  done  for  the  money  now  expended.  Mr.  Scarr  states  that  in 
order  to  test  this  plan  he  placed  a  number  of  experienced  officers  in  two 
districts,  who  have  been  at  work  several  months  with  such  favorable 
results  that  he  decided  to  recommend  its  general  adoption.  Among  the 
improvements  brought  about  in  the  southwestern  division  by  Assistant 
Engineer  Scarr  has  been  to  make  all  parts  of  the  road  districts  more  ac- 
cessible than  formerly  to  headquarters,  and  at  the  same  time  keep  in 
view  the  relative  importance  of  the  several  roads  and  the  facility 
afforded  by  the  railway  for  getting  at  the  points  of  destination.  The 
Gundagai  district  has  been  considerably  reduced  by  cutting  off  from  it 
a  number  of  roads  lying  to  the  east  of  it  and  throwing  them  into  a  new 
district  of  Cootamundra.  This  reduction  amounts  to  147  miles  of  road 
and  an  expenditure  of  $13,345  annually  on  scheduled  roads.  From 
Yass  has  been  taken  102  miles  of  road,  with  an  expenditure  of  $5,285; 
from  Wagga  district  oij  miles,  at  an  expenditure  of  $2,500.    The  Coota- 


560 


STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


nmndra  district  now  embraces  125  miles  of  road  at  an  expenditure  of 
$3Q,275.    The  result  of  this  rearrangement  is  shown  in  the  following 

table: 


Officer. 


Mileage. 


Expendi 
tare. 


Gonlburn 

Crookwi'll 

Y:iss 

Xoung  

Gnndiigal. 

Tumberiiniba.. 
Wagga  Wagga 

Albury 

Deuiliquln 

Hay i 

Cootamundra... 


Mr.  Hawaii  . . 
Mr.  Hawden. . 

Mr.  Nielley 

Mr.  Moriarty. 
Mr.  Frazer  ... 
Mr.  Allman  . . 
Mr.  Taylor... 
Mr.  Smyth.... 

Mr.  Beere 

Mr.  Obisholm 
Mr.  Cox 


$30,  245 
35,  850 
30,  500 

35,  000 
91,450 
40,  250 
25,  300 
45,  300 
43,  400 

36,  900 
30,  525 


Total  . 


5,431 


Mr.  Scarr  says  these  tend  to  equalize  both  the  mileage  and  the  expend- 
iture as  much  as  possible,  but  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  mere 
statement  of  mileage  and  expenditure  must  not  be  taken  as  complete 
evidence  of  the  amouut  of  work  entailed  upon  each  officer  when  com- 
paring one  district  with  another.  Eegard  must  be  had  in  doing  this  to 
the  nature  of  the  country  as  to  the  facility  of  getting  about,  the  impor- 
tance of  the  roads  and  work  to  be  supervised,  and  the  relative  position 
of  the  various  roads.  With  the  exception  of  the  Gundagai  district 
there  is  not  any  material  difference  in  the  amount  of  the  expenditure. 
In  this  case  the  disproportion  to  the  amount  to  be  disbursed  in  the 
other  districts  is  caused  by  the  special  grant  of  $60,000  for  the  road 
from  Tumut  to  Kiandra,  now  in  course  of  expenditure.  This  will  be 
carried  out  during  the  present  year,  when  the  amount  for  that  district 
will  again  fall  to  its  normal  amount.  In  the  Albury  district,  where  the 
works  are  important,  the  expenditure  is  slightly  over  the  general  aver- 
age, but  here  a  senior  aud  experienced  officer  with  two  assistants  are 
stationed. 


EFFECT  OF  IMPROVED  PUBLIC  ROADS  UPON  LAND  VALUES. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  improvement  in  the  conditions  of 
the  roads  from  time  to  time  has  exercised  a  material  influence  upon 
the  value  of  land  throughout  the  country.  In  some  districts  as  a 
consequence  of  this  improvement  it  is  found  that  produce  (grain,  for 
example)  can  be  profitably  carried  considerable  distances  to  market 
or  to  railway  stations  on  the  way  to  market. 

In  some  cases  maize  is  carted  20  to  30  miles  by  a  good  road  to  a 
railway  and  sent  250  miles  to  the  metropolis,  with  a  result  remuuer- 
tive  to  the  grower,  whilst  in  other  districts  where  the  soil  is  equally 
rich,  the  same  grain  can  only  be  carted  at  a  loss  a  less  distance  to 
a  seaport  300  miles  distant  from  the  same  market,  in  consequence 
of  the  unimproved  condition  of  the  roads. 

A  consequence  of  this  is  that  much    land  which  would    otherwise 


AUSTRALASIA NEW    SOUTH    WALES.        -  561 

remain  in  a  primitive  state  now  is  brought  under  cultivation  and  sup- 
ports population  enjoying  the  privileges  of  advanced  civilization. 

In  other  industries,  too,  the  effect  of  the  better  state  of  the  roads 
is  felt.  Mining,  grazing,  etc.,  are  carried  on  to  greater  advantage  and 
the  benefit  of  this  condition  is  felt. 

G.  W.  Griffin, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

Sydney,  March  12,  1891. 


ROADS  IN  NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 

[Inclosure  in  Consul  Griffin's  report.J 

Under  Secretary  Barling  to  Consul  Griffin. 

Public  Works  Department, 

Sydney,  March  23,  1891. 
Sir  :  With  reference  to  your  letter  of  the  26th  ultimo,  and  to  mine  of  the  6th 
instant,  I  am  directed  hy  the  secretary  forpublic  works  to  forward  herewith,  in  com- 
pliance with  your  request,  a  copy  of  the  report  of  Mr.  E.  J.  Statbam,  supervising 
engineer,  No.  1  Roads  Division,  which  it  is  hoped  may  prove  of  service  for  the  pur- 
poses you  require. 

I  have  the  honor  to  be,  sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

J.  Barling, 

Under  Secretary, 
Per  D.A.W.T. 
G.  W.  Griffin,  Esq., 

Consulate  of  the  United  Slates,  Sydney. 


General  Report  No.  1  Division. 

To  the  Commissioner  and  Engineer-in-Chief  for  Roads  : 

Sir  :  In  submitting  my  general  report  for  the  past  half  year  I  would  explain  in  the 
rirst  instance  that  delay  in  furnishing  that  report  is  due  to  a  number  of  circumstances 
tending  to  bring  about  that  result,  principally  the  derangement  of  affairs  consequent 
upon  removal  to  Sydney,  the  necessity  to  personally  visit  portions  of  the  new  dis- 
trict with  which  I  was  unfamiliar,  the  disentanglement  of  business  formerly  in  my 
charge  now  transferred  to  another  division,  the  continued  attention  to  those  matters 
until  such  other  division  could  be  entirely  taken  up,  tho  reorganization  of  my  now 
district,  and  more  especially  the  press  of  current  business  which  has  constantly  de- 
manded more  than  the  regular  office  hours.  My  former  division  extended  along  the 
north  coast  from  the  Maiming  ^p  the  Queensland  border,  with  Grafton  as  head- 
quarters. It  included  the  road  districts  of  the  Manning,  Macleay,  Bellinger.  Graf- 
ton, Clarence,  Lismore,  Casino,  aud  Tweed.  A  short  experience  of  the  division  as 
thus  arranged  demonstrate/!  the  utter  nnworkableness  of  some  of  the  districts,  duo 
to  extension  and  ramification  of  new  roads  and  development,  of  fresh  centers  for 
settlement.  In  recognition  of  the  necessity  to  meet  tho  altered  circumstauces  the 
■fanning  and  Macleay  have  been  relieved  by  the  introduction  of  a  new  district,  with 
Port  Mucquarie  as  its  center.  The  Grafton  district  has  been  divided  into  two,  desig- 
nated Grafton  and  South  Grafton  ;  and  Lismore  has  also  been  divided  by  making 
another,  with  Woodbnro  as  headquarters.     Uuder  this  now  development  Grafton, 

33a 36 


562  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

never  a  convenient  center,  became  more  than  ever  unsuitable  as  divisional  head- 
quarters; and  notwithstanding  every  effort  vexatious  delays  have  resulted,  no  doubt 
contributing  to  the  discontent  which  has  lately  been  the  subject  of  inquiry.  The 
same  causes  operating  more  or  less  over  the  whole  colony,  a  thorough  reorganization 
becamo  a  necessity,  aad  under  the  new  arrangement  my  division  has  been  modified 
by  a  curtailment  of  its  length  on  the  coast,  and  the  additions  of  a  portion  of  the  table 
land  bringing  it  in  touch  with  the  railway  system  and  the  principal  postal  routes, 
resulting  in  a  vast  improvement  as  respect  the  rapidity  with  which  the  business  can 
be  dispatched  and  any  particular  place  visited. 

As  now  constituted  my  division  is  designated  No.  1,  comprising  the  following  dis- 
tricts in  order  of  their  latitude  north  of  Sydney  : 

1,  Armidale ;  2,  Bellinger ;  3,  Inverell ;  4,  Glen  Innes ;  5,  South  Grafton ;  6,  Graf- 
ton ;  7,  Maclean  ;  8,  Woodburn  ;  9,  Teuterfield ;  10,  Casino ;  11,  Lismore ;  12,  Tweed. 

Armidale.—  This  district  comprises  the  greater  part  of  the  southeastern  portion  of 
the  table-land  of  New  England,  with  a  length  of  607  miles  of  roads  under  immediate 
charge  of  Mr.  S.  A.  Donnelly  ;  in  addition  to  the  mileage  mentioned  the  numerous 
works  and  bridges  provided  for  by  special  grants  make  up  an  amount  of  business 
which  characterizes  this  as  one  of  the  most  important  districts.  The  springing  up 
of  a  township  at  Hillgrove  mines,  with  a  population  of  over  2,000,  gave  rise  to  the 
necessitv  for  an  entirely  new  road,  on  which  heavy  traffic  had  to  be  provided  for  and 
demanded  a  large  share  of  the  superintendent's  time  and  attention ;  at  the  same 
place  a  problem  presented  itself  as  to  the  best  means  to  provide  access  to  the  various 
workings  down  the  Hillgrove  gorge,  which  has  a  precipitous  scarp  extending  to  a 
depth  of  1,600  feet;  this  has  been  solved  by  the  laying  out  of  a  zigzag  track  some  2 
miles  in  length,  designed  by  Mr.  Stilwell ;  a  tender  for  its  construction  was  accepted, 
but  the  contractor  failed  to  take  it  up  and  fresh  tenders  have  been  ordered.  Heavy 
traffic  has  also  developed  in  connection  with  the  railway  stations  at  Uralla,  Black 
Mountain,  and  Guyra,  from  each  of  which  centers  new  roads  radiate  and  are  likely 
to  become  of  rapidly  increasing  importance  with  the  settlement  of  population  on 
the  rich  basaltic  country  in  the  neighborhood  of  each  of  these  stations.  The  road 
from  Guyra  to  Tingha  is  becomiug  one  of  special  importance  as  a  route  to  the  tin 
mines  and  has  to  carry  very  heavy  traffic  over  a  surface  which  presents  long  stretches 
of  black  basaltic  soil,  and  porphyritic  slopes  of  specially  treacherous  nature  apt  to 
become  quagmire  after  any  continuous  wet  weather,  and  only  to  be  remedied  by  the 
most  thorough  construction.  A  great  deal  of  good  work  has  already  been  done  on 
this  road,  but  the  expense  of  construction  has  necessarily  been  so  heavy  that  the  re- 
quirements of  traffic  are  yet  a  long  way  from  being  provided  for  and  occasional  in- 
terruptions are  ouly  to  be  expected. 

Easterly  from  Guyra  a  road  suddenly  assumed  importance  as  the  route  to  the  mines 
at  Kookrabooka  and  Bearhill. 

Bellinger. — Here  a  set  of  conditions  entirely  different  to  the  foregoing  present  them- 
selves. The  Bellinger  and  Nambucca  rivers  branching  off  near  the  coast,  are  crossed 
by  ferries,  those  at  Raleigh,  South  Arm,  and  Nambncca  being  of  considerable  width. 
There  are  other  ferries  higher  up  the  river,  namely,  at  Fernmount  on  the  main  arm 
of  the  Bellinger  and  at  Congarini  on  the  NambuccaCl  All  these  ferries  are  provided 
with  large-sized  punts  worked  by  wire-rope  gearingy  -vhich  seem  to  thoroughly  meet 
the  requirements.  The  various  branches  of  these  rivers  extend  into  rich  brush  land 
which  has  been  brought  under  cultivation.  The  back  country  is  ridgy  and  broken, 
but  there  are  numerous  pockets  of  brush  land  taken  up  for  cultivation,  and  it  has 
been  necessary  to  connect  these  with  various  centers  by  roads  for  the  most  part  in 
side  cutting  with  numerous  bridges  and  culverts.  The  grading  and  sectioning  of 
these  roads  have  taken  up  much  time  and  called  for  the  services  of  officers  of  special 
training  and  experience.  The  most  important  work  in  hand  lately  has  been  the 
ascent  of  the  tableland  known  as  the  Dorrigo  Road  (this  is  a  rise  of  some  2,000  feet) 
by  exceptionally  heavy  rock  side  cutting,  the  scarp  being  so  precipitous  in  places 


AUSTRALASIA NEW    SOUTH    WALES.  563 

that  cascades  have  threatened  the  stability  of  the  roadway,  and  it  has  been  necessary 
to  control  them  by  intercepting  channels,  leading  into  the  more  defiued  water  courses 
which  are  provided  with  culverts.  The  works  on  this  road  are  well  advanced.  The 
public  are  very  impatient  to  have  it  opened,  as  it  will  give  access  to  a  large  extent 
of  rich  land  only  needing  this  road  to  induce  a  population  to  settle  on  it. 

North  from  the  Bellinger  much  work  has  been  done  in  opening  up  the  road  toCofTs 
Harbor,  all  through  brush  land,  which  has  been  taken  up  for  settlement. 

At  CorPs  Harbor  the  new  jetty,  now  in  course  of  construction,  has  given  rise  to  the 
necessity  for  a  new  road  about  14-  miles  in  length,  to  connect  it  with  the  through  road 
between  the  Bellinger  and  the  Clarence.  This  road  is  now  well  advanced,  and  will 
be  ready  before  the  jetty  is  finished.  Between  Coft's  Harbor  and  Corindi  has  hitherto 
been  in  the  Bellinger  district,  and  has  demanded  a  large  share  of  attention  ;  but  this 
together  with  the  road  from  Moonee  to  Sharpe'a  has  now  been  transferred  to  the  South 
Grafton  district.  Another  important  work  in  baud  is  the  opening  up  of  the  road 
from  Boat  Harbor  via  Spickett's  Creek  to  the  Nauibucca,  which  will  greatly  shorten 
the  mail  route,  and  afford  direct  communication  between  principal  centers  of  popula- 
tion on  the  two  rivers.  There  are  heavy  works  on  this  road  in  crossing  the  moun- 
tainous divide  between  the  rivers;  the  connection  will  probably  be  available  for 
wheel  traffic  in  a  few  months.  Mr.  Leith  has  pushed  on  these  works  energetically 
siucehe  took  charge. 

Inverell. — This  district  has  been  under  the  charge  of  Mr.  C.  W.  Jenkins  since  15th 
October,  between  which  time  and  the  end  of  the  year  he  reported  seventeen  contracts 
completed,  seventeen  others  put  in  hand. 

An  exceedingly  heavy  traffic  has  to  be  dealt  with  on  the  main  road  from  Inverell  to 
Gleu  Inues  all  the  way  through  black  basaltic  soil,  every  yard  of  which  has  to  be 
metaled;  the  greater  part  of  it  has  already  been  constructed,  but  being  new  work, 
it  was  terribly  cut  up  during  the  late  wet  season,  and  has  required  much  attention 
to  put  it  in  order  again.  There  is  a  great  sameness  as  regards  the  roads  in  this  dis- 
trict, which  are  for  the  most  part  through  rich  basaltic  soil,  and  consequently  ex- 
pensive to  construct. 

Glen  Lines.—  This  district,  in  charge  of  Mr.  Miller,  is  one  in  which  black  soil  pre- 
dominates, and  metal  construction  is  much  iu  demand.  From  Gleu  Innes  toward 
Grafton  is  one  of  the  great  mail  routes  of  the  colony,  there  being  a  daily  mail  be- 
tween New  England  and  the  Clarence  via  the  Newton  Boyd  road.  Metaling  is  being 
carried  on  to  a  large  exteut.  A  great  deal  of  construction  has  also  been  carried  out 
on  the  road  from  Gleu  Inues  to  Red  Range  and  Kings  gate,  where  an  agricultural 
population  has  settled;  one  of  the  principal  works  ou  this  road  is  the  bridge  over 
the  Mann  River  now  nearing  completion.  Since  the  opening  of  the  railway  the  road 
from  Kmmaville  through  Tent  Hill  to  Deep  water  has  assumed  great  importance  as 
being  tin-  principal  traffic  route  from  the  rail  at  Deepwater  to  the  tin  mines  on  Vege- 
table Creek,  and  is  oue  of  the  roads  to  be  provided  for  from  special  general  vote. 

South  Grafton.—  This  newly  formed  district  was  only  taken  up  by  Mr.  Everett  at 
the  end  of  the  year,  and  he  has  hardly  had  time  to  make  himself  acquainted  witli  it. 
He  lias,  however,  found  that  the  work  before  him  is  so  onerous  that  he  is  unable  to 
devote  the  necessary  time  to  the  exploration  and  grading  for  extension  of  roads  in 
the  Upper  Orara,  which  is  of  the  most  urgent  importance,  having  been  so  long 
awaiting  the  services  of  a  competent  man. 

Mr.  Everett's  camp  is  now  iu  that  locality,  and  a  surveyor  has  been  sent  to  take 
ii{*  ' '"'  work. 

CofFs  Harbor  will  be  tin;  outlet  for  this  country  as  soon  as  the  jetty  is  completed, 
and  it  is  very  necessary  that  kheae  roads  should  be  opened  up  in  time. 

Grafton. — The  Newton  Boyd  road  remains  in  Mr.  Kanken'w  charge,  and  he  has  in 
hand  the  mad  to  the  Chandlers  Creek  gold  field,  which  is  heavy  mountain  cutting. 
Much  the  same  description  of  work  demands  at  tent  ion,  and  has  been  standing  over 
a  considerable  time  for  some  one  at  liberty   to  devote  their  time  to  it.     The  most 


564  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

important  work  in  hand  is  the  Alumny  Creek  hridge,  an  iron  structure  with  brick 
abutments,  the  contract  for  which  has  been  recently  let.  At  Carr's  Creek  some  fas- 
cine work  has  been  successfully  carried  out,  where  extensive  slips  have  taken  place. 
Another  similar  work  is  in  progress  on  the  river  bank  at  McLachlan's,  near  Ulmarra, 
and  is  reported  to  be  successful. 

The  steam  ferry  at  Grafton  and  ferries  at  Ulmarra,  Southampton,  and  Eatonswill 
are  attached  to  this  road  district.  There  has  been  a  certain  amount  of  loss  of  time 
iu  transferring  newly  defined  roads  and  works  in  hand  to  the  lately  formed  South 
Grafton  district,  but  the  reorganization  is  now  fairly  well  established,  and  Grafton 
requirements  will  receive  the  attention  which  their  importance  demands. 

Maclean.—  This  district,  which  is  in  charge  of  Mr.  F.  G.  Hurley,  takes  in  the  alluvial 
delta  of  the  Clarence,  a  portion  of  the  road  Lawrence  to  Teuterfield,  and  Harwood 
to  Woodburn,  also  the  steam  ferry  at  Harwood  and  hand  ferries  at  North  Arm,  South 
Arm  Brushgrove,  Bluff  Point,  Maclean,  and  Oyster  Channel.  Many  of  the  roads  iu 
this  district  are  over  swamps  and  have  consequently  to  be  embanked.  There  are 
numerous  timber  bridges  which  require  constant  attention  on  account  of  the  ravages 
of  white  ants. 

Woodburn.—  This  district,  lately  cut  off  from  Lisraore,  and  now  in  charge  of  Mr. 
Crummer  takes  in  the  lower  Richmond,  aud  a  strip  along  the  coast  as  far  as  Byron 
Bav  -  here  swamps  have  to  be  contended  with  on  the  low  lands,  and  all  else  is  the 
dense  brush,  which  is  rapidly  disappearing  with  the  advance  of  settlement. 

There  is  an  ever  increasing  demand  for  new  roads,  and  the  local  officer  has  no  light 
task  in  reporting  on  the  various  applications  and  setting  out  works  in  cases  where 
funds  have  been  provided.  The  brush  hook  aud  the  level  have  to  precede  expenditure 
in  nearlv  every  instance,  and  the  work  of  this  district  is  consequently  not  to  be 
kidded  either  by  the  mileage  or  the  amount  of  grants;  and,  though  lowest  on  the 
listln  both  these  respects,  it  is  not  by  any  means  an  unimportant  one. 

Tenlerfield.—  This  districtis  in  Mr.  Williamson's  charge  ;  there  are  not  somany  roads 
as  in  some  of  the  other  large  districts,  but  long  distances  have  to  be  covered,  and  the 
traveliug  is  more  than  average.  Some  of  the  works  as  at  Acacia  Creek  and  River- 
tree  are  at  a  considerable  distance  from  headquarters. 

One  of  the  most  important  works  carried  out  lately  is  the  descent  of  the  tableland, 
between  Uudercliffe  and  Rivertree,  where  a  road  has  been  constructed  with  easy  grad- 
ients, at  an  exceptionally  small  cost  for  such  an  undertaking. 

The  road  from  Tenterfield  to  Tabulam  and  Casino  has  assumed  special  importance 
siuce  the  opening  of  the  railway,  as  it  is  the  mail  route  to  the  Richmond  river  district 
and  the  Fairfield  mines.  There  are  a  great  many  bridges  in  this  district,  mauy  ot 
them  rather  old,  and  needing  careful  looking  after. 

Casino— Is  in  Mr.  Gracie's  charge.  It  is  one  of  the  older  districts,  from  which,  in 
succession,  the  Tweed,  Lismore,  and  Woodburn,  have  been  cut  off.  There  are  many 
important  works  already  carried  out  which  have  to  be  maintained,  and  lately  there 
has  been  a  great  extension  of  settlement  due  to  the  resumption  of  leasehold  areas, 
which  will  necessitate  new  roads,  and  the  more  thorough  construction  of  these  already 
opened.  The  richness  of  the  land  and  extent  of  settlement  both  necessitate  and  jus- 
tify a  large  expenditure  in  road  construction. 

Since  the  opening  of  the  railway  to  Tenterfield,  the  mails  formerly  sent  by  sea, 
either  by  the  direct  boats,  or  those  trading  to  the  Clarence,  are  now  forwarded  by 
rail  and  coach,  via  Tabulan  and  Casino.  In  anticipation  of  such  change,  a  direct 
road  has  been  opened  up,  aud  a  great  deal  of  work  has  been  done  on  it ;  but  it  passes 
over  a  considerable  extent  of  black  soil,  and  the  construction  is  consequently  ex- 
pensive. Provision  for  this  does  not  appear  on  the  appended  list,  as  the  amount  has 
not  yet  been  determined ;  it, however  is  noted  as  one  of  the  roads  to  be  supplemented 
from  the  general  vote. 

Lismore  district— Is  in  Mr.  AUman's  charge.  The  town  of  Lismore  is  the  shipping 
port  for  a  surrounding  country,  all  of  which  is  of  the  richest  aud  most  fertile  descrip- 


AUSTRALASIA NEW    SOUTH    WALES. 


565 


tion,  and  will  for  some  time  be  the  terminus  of  a  new  railway  system.  The  develop- 
ment of  sugar  growing  and  extension  of  the  dairying  industry  have  given  rise  to  the 
demand  for  a  multiplicity  of  roads  which  might  appear  out  of  proportion  to  the  size 
of  the  district ;  there  can,  however,  be  no  question  as  to  the  necessity  for  their  con- 
struction or  the  expediency  of  incurring  the  expense  of  so  doing.  There  are  numer- 
ous and  important  bridges  in  this  district;  some  of  these  still  in  hand,  or  about  to  be 
commenced.    It  would  unduly  prolong  this  report  to  allude  to  these  in  detail. 

The  Tweed  district— Is  now  in  Mr.  Scott's  charge,  but  till  recently  has  been  under 
Mr.  Morton,  of  whose  services  in  connection  with  the  district  I  can  speak  in  the 
highest  terms. 

The  district  includes  the  watersheds  of  the  Tweed  and  Brunswick,  with  the  net- 
work of  roads  having  their  terminus  at  Byron  Bay,  where  a  jetty  has  been  con- 
structed and  a  shipping  port  established.  The  whole  of  this  country  is  of  exceptional 
fertility,  and  the  difficulties  of  road  construction  are  of  no  ordinary  description. 

To  review  the  works  already  constructed,  or  to  sketch  those  provided  for,  would 
involve  so  much  detail  that  it  appears  to  me  it  would  now  be  out  of  place. 

Bridge  repairs. — The  abundance  and  excellence  of  the  timbers  in  these  districts 
made  timber  bridge  construction  the  rule,  though  some  fine  iron  and  composite 
structures  have  been  erected.  The  climate  is,  however,  unfavorable  to  their  lon- 
gevity, dry  rot  and  white  ant  being  very  destructive  ;  the  white  ant  even  attacks 
the  punts,  which  are  saturated  with  tar  and  always  in  water. 

Repairing  parties,  under  experienced,  practical  foremen,  I  find  to  be  the  most  sat- 
isfactory way  of  dealing  with  these  repairs,  all  material  being  supplied  by  contract. 

Road  districts  and  appropriations,  1891,  No.  1  division. 


Officer. 

District 

No.  of 
roads. 

Mileage. 

Amount. 

30 
16 
16 
17 
12 
8 
11 
16 
14 
13 
41 
19 

607 
252 
401 
369 
260 
204 
154 
129 
390 
291 
321 
209 

11,  486 
7,165 

14,  442 
8,790 
9,807 
7,485 
4,980 
5,235 
8,870 
9,125 

12,  510 
12,  970 

Mr.  Miller 

Total 

213 

3,587 

112,865 

NEWCASTLE. 


REPORT  BY  COMMERCIAL  AGENT  BAQQS. 

A  report  on  the  streets  aud  roadways  of  this  immediate  district — and 
that  is  all  the  territory  covered  by  this  report— will  hardly  be  instruct- 
ive or  of  advantage,  except  comparatively. 

The  streets  of  the  large  towns  and  cities,  ranging  in  population  from 
3,000  to  00,000  inhabitants,  are  invariably  macadamized,  as  are  also  tbe 
country  roads  wherever  an  effort  has  been  made  to  improve  their  orig- 
inal condition. 

These  city  or  town  streets  are  formed  by  loosening  the  surface  soil, 
spreading  on  4  inches  of  sandstone  ballast,  then  2£  inches  of  blue  metal, 
over  which  is  spread  a  thin  layer  of  sandy  gravel.    This  is  the  ordinary 


566  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

formation ;  but  it  makes  a  rough  aud  uneven  surface  and  is  quickly  cut 
in  holes.  On  the  principal  thoroughfares  the  layer  of  blue  metal  is 
dipped  in  pitch  and  a  thiu  coating  of  pitch  over  the  top  of  this.  This 
composition  makes  a  good,  smooth,  hard  road ;  but  it  needs  constant 
repairing  under  heavy  travel. 

Owing  to  the  want  of  courtesy  shown  by  the  Newcastle  town  clerk  I 
am  unable  to  give  the  cost  of  the  original  formation  or  of  the  repair  of 
the  city  streets. 

Owing,  however,  to  the  kindness  of  Mr.  W.  S.  Wells,  government 
engineer  in  charge  of  the  roads  and  bridges  of  this  district,  exclusive 
of  towns,  I  am  enabled  to  furnish  the  following  information : 

The  country  roads  in  this  (Newcastle)  district  (which  extends  about  50 
miles  to  the  south  and  about  10  miles  to  the  north  of  this  city  along 
the  coast  and  from  the  coast  line  inland  a  maximum  distance  of  60 
miles  and  an  average  distance  of  35  miles),  are  partly  uuder  the  control 
of  government  engineers  and  partly  under  the  control  of  road  trusts. 
These  road  trusts  are  appointed  by  the  government  to  expend  the 
annual  appropriations  on  the  numerous  byroads,  which  are  only  of 
local  importance  to  farmers  and  pastoralists. 

I  append  a  list  of  roads  under  both,  which  shows  the  number  of  miles 
of  different  classes  of  roads  cleared,  formed,  drained,  and  metaled  up 
to  date,  also  number  of  bridges  and  culverts  erected. 

Road  in  charge  of  engineers miles . .  157 

Road  in  charge  of  trustees do...  248 

Road,  metaled,  graveled,  and  ballasted do . . .     70 

Road  formed  ..: do...     96^ 

Road  cleared  and  partly  drained do...  123 

Mountain  passes  and  cuttings do...     38 

Bridges  in  district number..     25 

Culverts  and  pipe  drains do...  238 

The  following  are  the  average  prices  paid  for  different  classes  of  work 
in  this  district': 

Clearing  66  feet  wide,  grubbed  to  18  inches,  at  $3.90  per  chain. 

Ordinary  formation,  30  feet  wide,  at  $4.87  per  chain. 

Two  and  one-half  inches  blue  metal  spread  18  feet  wide,  at  $2.42  per 
cubic  yard. 

Four  inches  sandstone  ballast  18  feet  wide,  at  $1.21  per  cubic  yard. 

Side  drains,  average  depth  2  feet  in  soil,  at  $2.42  per  chain. 

Mountain  cuttings,  20  feet  wide,  from  $15  to  $100  per  chain. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  this  country  is  as  yet  so  thinly  settled,  the 
science  of  road-building  has  not  reached  that  degree  of  perfection 
which  would  be  of  service  to  an  older  and  more  thickly  populated  com- 
munity. 

The  greater  portion  ,of  the  roads  are  simply  wagon  tracks  through 
the  bush,  absolutely  impassable  in  wet  weather.  Wherever  the  travel 
warrants  it,  however,  a  good  road  is  formed  on  the  lines  above  laid 
down.    Between  town  and  town  the  roads  are  superior  to  the  majority 


AUSTRALASIA — FIJI.  567 

of  country  roads  in  the  United  States,  but  once  off  the  main  road  their 
superiority  vanishes. 

George  T.  Baggs, 

Commercial  Agent. 
United  States  Commercial  Agency, 

Newcastle,  New  South  Wales,  May  20,  1891. 


FIJI. 

REPORT  BY  COMMERCIAL  AGENT  ST.  JOHN,  OF  LEVUKA. 

Practically  speaking,  there  are  no  roads  in  this  colony  that  deserve 
the  name. 

Each  magisterial  district  is  at  present  making  a  dirt  road  by  cutting 
two  parallel  ditches  and  throwing  the  dirt  from  them  between  the  two, 
more  to  employ  prison  labor  than  to  build  roads  that  will  be  used  for 
traffic  or  pleasure. 

The  main  streets  of  both  Suva  and  Levuka  are  made  by  prison  labor 
of  broken  coral  washed  up  by  the  sea,  which  is  a  very  good  material 
for  the  purpose,  but  it  is  not  very  lasting. 

The  traffic  of  the  islands  is  all  done  by  water;  consequently  roads  are 
not  required. 

From  inquiry  I  learn  that  there  is  not  50  miles  of  road  in  this  colony. 

Carriages  or  wagons  are  not  used,  except  by  a  very  few,  in  the  towns 
of  Suva  and  Levuka. 

Andrews  A.  St.  John, 

Commercial  Agent. 

United  States  Commercial  Agency, 

Levuka,  February  16,  1891. 


SUPPLEMENT 


SHEFFIELD.* 

EFPORTBY  CONSUL  FOLSOM. 

OITY   STREETS. 

The  .Material  used  for  streets  where  the  traffic  is  very  heavy  is  gran- 
ite ;  for  medium  traffic  gritstone  sets  and  wood  blocks ;  and  for  very 
light  traffic  "tar  macadam,"  i.  e.,  broken  granite  or  limestone  mixed 
with  boiling  pitch  and  tar. 

Granite.— This  is  obtained  from  Leicestershire,  Cumberland,  and  Dal- 
beattie in  Scotland,  and  costs  from  20s.  6d.  ($4.99)  to  24s.  6d.  ($5.96)  per 
ton.  It  is  used  in  the  form  of  sets,  measuring  6  by  4,  6  by  3,  5  by  4, 
5  by  3  inches  and  4-inch  cubes,  the  first  two  sizes  being  used  for  the 
heaviest  traffic.  The  sets  are  laid  on  a  bed  of  concrete  formed  of  broken 
stone  and  sand,  mixed  either  with  Portland  cement  or  hydraulic  lias 
lime,  and  laid  from  6  to  9  inches  thick,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
traffic.  On  the  top  of  the  concrete  is  spread  a  layer  of  fine  shingle  on 
which  the  sets  are  bedded  ;  the  joints  are  then  partially  filled  with  one- 
fourth-inch  shingle,  and  filled  up  flush  with  hot  asphalt  (boiling  pitch 
and  tar).  Value  when  laid,  including  concrete  foundation,  -13s.  6eZ. 
($3.28)  per  superficial  yard. 

Gritstone  sets.—  These  are  obtained  from  quarries  in  the  neighbor- 
hood and  district.  They  are  10  inches  deep  and  vary  from  about  6  to 
10  inches  wide.  They  cost  from  15s.  ($3.65)  to  16s.  ($3.89)  per  ton.  No 
concrete  foundation  is  used  for  this  pavement,  the  sets  being  simply 
bedded  on  a  layer  of  shingle  and  well  beaten  into  place  with  a  heavy 
"beetle."  They  are  then  grouted  in  the  same  way  as  the  granite  sets. 
Value  when  laid  about  10s.  ($2.43)  per  superficial  yard. 

Wood  paving. — This  consists  of  blocks  of  red  deal  6  inches  deep,  3 
inches  wide,  and  9  inches  long.  Most  of  the  wood  paving  in  Sheffield 
has  been  put  down  in  its  natural  state,  but  in  the  last  lot  the  blocks 
were  creosoted.  The  price  of  the  blocks  is  about  ljd.  (2£  cents)  each. 
A  concrete  foundation  is  formed  .similar  to  that  described  for  granite 
paving,  and  over  this  a  layer  of  sand  is  spread,  on  which  the  blocks  are- 
bedded.  The  end  joints  butt  up  against  each  other,  but  the  side  joints 
are  kept  the  proper  distance  apart  by  means  of  three  iron  studs  driven 

*  This  report  was  received  too  late  for  Insertion  in  its  proper  place. 

&C9 


570  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

into  one  of  the  sides  of  the  block,  making  the  joint  three-eighths  of  an 
inch  wide.  The  paving  is  then  grouted  up  solid  with  boiling  pitch 
and  tar,  or  with  liquid  cement  and  sand.  The  latter  method  is  now 
generally  adopted.  Value  when  laid,  12s.  6d.  ($3.04)  per  superficial 
yard,  including  concrete  foundation. 

Tar  macadam. — Very  little  of  this  form  of  paving  is  used  near  the 
center  of  the  town.  It  consists  of  either  furnace  slag,  limestone,  or 
granite  broken  to  a  If  or  2  inch  gauge  and  mixed  with  boiling  pitch  and 
tar.  It  is  laid  on  a  foundation  course  of  flat  rubble  stone  set  on  edge. 
This  foundation  is  well  rolled  with  a  heavy  steam  roller  (10  tons)  and 
the  macadam  is  then  spread  over  the  pitching  to  such  a  thiekuess  that 
after  being  rolled  with  the  steam  roller  it  will  be  4  inches  thick.  A  thin 
coating  of  tarred  shingle  or  granite  chippings  about  one-half-inch  gauge 
is  then  spread  on  the  surface  which  is  again  rolled.  The  rubble  pitch- 
ing costs  from  Is.  (24  cents)  to  Is.  6d.  (36  cents)  per  square  yard.  Slag 
tar  macadam  costs  2s.  3d.  (55  cents)  per  square  yard ;  limestone  costs 
2s.  6d.  (Gl  cents)  per  square  yard,  and  the  granite  costs  3s.  (73  cents) 
per  square  yard. 

COUNTRY  ROADS  OR  HIGHWAYS. 

These  are  all  macadamized.  A  foundation  course  is  laid  as  described 
for  the  tar  macadam.  The  macadam  consists  chiefly  of  limestone  which 
is  obtained  from  quarries  in  North  Derbyshire  aud  conve3'ed  direct  on  to 
the  roads  in  carts.  It  costs  about  7s.  ($1.70)  per  cubic  yard  including 
carting  and  breaking,  equal  to  about  2s.  9d.  (67  cents)  per  super- 
ficial yard  of  finished  roadway.  Furnace  slag  is  also  used,  and  is 
obtained  from  the  iron  works  and  blast  furnaces  in  the  neighborhood. 
It  is  delivered  at  the  railway  stations  at  3s.  (73  cents)  per  ton,  breaking 
2s.  Id.  (51  cents)  per  ton  extra,  finished  Is.  Qd.  (36  cents)  per  superficial 
yard.  Granite  macadam  is  also  used  in  suburban  roads.  It  comes 
chiefly  from  Leicestershire  and  costs,  delivered  at  the  stations,  9s.  9d. 
($2.37)  to  10s.  6d.  ($2.55)  per  ton  broken.  Finished  roadway  2s.  3d.  (55 
cents)  per  superficial  yard. 

On  a  few  crossroads  and  country  lanes  gannister  is  used,  but  only 
where  the  traffic  is  exceedingly  light.  Costs  about  Is.  (24  cents)  per 
superficial  yards. 

The  macadam  of  whatever  material  it  may  be  is  spread  over  the 
road  to  the  proper  contour  and  covered  with  a  layer  of  small  limestone 
chips,  or,  in  the  more  remote  roads,  with  clean  roads  sweepings.  It  is 
then  watered  aud  rolled  either  with  the  steam  roller  or  a  heavy  two- 
horse  roller. 

GENERAL. 

The  first  cost  of  public  roads,  and  also  the  cost  of  maintenance  is 
paid  out  of  the  public  rates,  the  expense  being  thus  borne  by  the  whole 
of  the  ratepayers.  Where  the  road  is  a  private  one,  having  been  laid 
out  and  made  by  individual  owners,  then  the  expense  of  paving,  etc., 


SUPPLEMENT:    SHEFFIELD.  571 

done  by  the  corporation  prior  to  taking  it  over  as  a  public  road,  is 
divided  amongst  the.  property  owners  on  each  side  of  the  road  in  pro- 
portion to  tbe  length  of  their  respective  frontages. 

A  well-made  road  undoubtedly  enbances  tbe  value  of  the  adjoining- 
laud  or  property,  although  it  is  difficult  to  say  to  wbat  extent.  In  tbe 
case  of  cottage  property  adjoining  a  private  street  the  effect  of  making 
good  the  street  and  "dedicating"  it  to  the  public  frequently  is  to  raise 
the  rentals. 

I  am  indebted  to  Charles  F.  Wike,  esq.,  borough  surveyor,  Sheffield, 
for  tbe  foregoing  facts  in  relation  to  the  construction  of  pavements  and 
roadways  in  and  about  Sheffield. 

Tbe  following  paper  by  Mr.  Edgar  S.  Saunders,  c.  E.,  assistant  bor- 
ough surveyor,  Sbeffield,  has  been  kindly  furnished  me  by  him,  with 
drawings  illustrating  tbe  manner  in  which  the  best  pavements  and  roads 
are  constructed : 

PAVEMENTS  AND  E0ADWAY8. 

Before  deciding  of  what  material  a  roadway  is  to  be  made  there  must  be  considered 
the  class  of  trade  of  the  town,  whether  a  manufacturing,  agricultural,  or  seaside 
town,  etc.,  and  also  (and  more  important  than  the  foregoing),  the  gradient  of  the 
road  or  street  in  question.     A  good  roadway  should  be : 

(1)  Durable  and  requiring  little  repairing. 

(2)  Safe  with  a  minimum  of  traction,  and  yet  with  sufficient  foothold  for  horses, 
and  with  as  little  possible  jolting  to  the  traffic. 

(3)  Laid  to  such  a  cross-section  as  will  throw  off  the  rain  water  at  once. 

(4)  Easy  to  cleanse,  nonabsorbent  of  moisture,  and  make  a  minimum  of  mud  and 
dust. 

(5)  And  it  must,  above  all  things,  have  a  good  aud  firm  foundation;  for  it  must 
not  be  forgotten  that  it  is  the  foundation  that  carries  the  weight,  and  that  the  super- 
incumbent pavement  is  really  only  the  means  of  transferring  the  weight  of  the  traf- 
fic to  these  foundations,  and  that,  however  durable  the  pavement  may  be,  it  is  bound 
to  require  renewal,  whereas  the  foundations  should  be  permanent. 

The  wear  of  the  surface  of  a  road  is  generally  estimated  to  be  due  to  the  action  of 
the  horses'  feet  to  the  extent  of  two-thirds  of  the  total  wear,  the  remaining  one-third 
being  due  to  atmospheric  and  other  causes. 

It  is  impossible  to  cleanse  a  roadway  too  much  ;  not  only  does  it  add  to  the  life  of 
the  sets  (of  whatever  material  they  may  be),  but  it  is  also  a  great  boon  to  the 
horses  which  have  to  traverse  them,  the  difference  in  traction  between  a  paved  road- 
way well  swept  and  in  good  order,  and  one  covered  with  mud,  being  sometimes  as 
much  as  50  per  cent. 

Considering  safety  in  traveling  only,  it  is  stated  that  ahorse  will  travel  the  furthest 
without  falling,  on  gritstone  sets,  wood  pavement  ranking  second,  asphalt  (natural) 
third,  and  granite  last  of  all;  but  it  must  not  be  therefore  necessarily  assumed  that 
gritstone  has  a  superiority  over  wood  or  the  latter  over  granite,  since,  as  mentioned 
at  first,  there  has  to  be  considered  the  gradient  of  the  street  and  therefore  the  foot- 
hold required. 

A  most  important  consideration  is  to  give  a  proper  contour  to  the  carriage  way. 
This  is  mainly  dependent  on  the  longitudinal  gradient  of  the  road,  or  street,  in  ques- 
tion, it  being  necessary  that  a  more  convex  contour  should  be  given  to  a  level,  or  Hat, 
street  than  to  one  with  a  sharp  incline.  It  is  also  dependent  upon  the  material  used 
for  paving,  more  camber  being  needed  tor  gritstone  than  granite;  asphalt  pavement 
requires  the  least,  as  there  is  a  minimum  amount  of  friction  ;  then  comes  wood,  next 


572  STREETS    AND   HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

granite,  and  lastly  gritstone  sets.  (See  Appendices  BCD  and  E.)  It  is  therefore 
impossible  to  give  a  fixed  rule  for  this,  bnt  it  may  be  safely  assumed  that  the  varia- 
tion should  extend  from  about  1  in  30  to  about  1  in  40,  according  to  the  gradient  of 
the  road  and  the  material  used. 

It  has  been  a  considerably  discussed  question  as  to  what  should  be  the  actual  form 
of  the  cross-section  of  the  roadway,  whether  circular,  parabolic,  or  two  straight  lines 
L  Mintcted  tangentially  by  means  of  a  central  curve,  and  probably  in  the  majority  of 
cases  it  will  be  found  that  the  latter  is  the  easiest  for  average  traffic,  but  if  adopted, 
the  two  side  liues  should  not,  in  practice,  be  perfectly  straight,  but  should  have  a 
slight  camber  given  to  them,  as  otherwise  there  might  be  a  tendency  in  the  sides  of 
the  carriage  way  to  wear  hollow.     (See  Appeudices  B,  C,  D,  and  E.) 

The  usual  materials  at  the  paver's  disposal,  are:  (1)  Granite,  (2)  wood,  (3)  as- 
phalt, (4)  gritstone.  The  last,  though  not  in  very  frequent  use,  is,  if  of  proper  grit,  a 
valuable  material,  particularly  in  towns  built  in  hilly  countries  where  granite  or 
wood  would  be  dangerous  to  traffic,  and  where  the  traffic  is  not  too  great. 

It  is  now  proposed  to  describe  the  manner  of  utilizing  the  foregoing  materials  as 
pavements  for  the  carriage  ways  of  large  towns. 

Granite  sets. — Granite  sets  well  laid  undoubtedly  form  the  most  durable  of  pave- 
ments, being  hard,  cleanly,  lasting,  nonabsorbent,  and  making  little  dirt  or  dust, 
their  only  objection  being  that  they  are  somewhat  noisy  and  (in  certain  conditions 
of  the  atmosphere)  slippery,  although  this  depends  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  kind 
of  grauite  used.  Whatever  the  class  of  granite,  it  is  essential  that  it  be  well  squared 
and  dressed  before  it  is  laid.  The  sizes  of  the  sets  in  most  general  use  are  :  7  by  4 
inches,  7  by  3  inches,  6  by  4  inches,  6  by  3  inches,  5  by  3  inches,  and  4-inch  cubes. 

The  5  by  3  inch  and  the  4-inch  cubes  should  not  be  used  where  the  traffic  is  very 
heavy,  but  are  suitable  for  streets  having  a  medium  tonnage  passing  over  them. 
They  are,  of  coarse,  lighter,  and  therefore  easier  to  handle  than  the  deep(  r  and 
broader  sets,  and  so  a  pavement  constructed  with  them  is  laid  rather  more  rapidly, 
which  may  be  sometimes  advantageous.  The  6  by  4  inch  and  the  6  by  3  inch  are 
the  sizes  of  sets  most  frequently  employed.  The  former,  however,  should  not  be 
used  on  a  street  having  much  incline,  as  being  1  inch  wider  than  the  6  by  3  inch  sets, 
they  do  not  afford  so  good  a  foothold  for  horses.  The  sets  should  be  dressed  truly 
square,  with  the  sides  and  ends  perpendicular  to  the  face  and  bed,  so  that  the  areas  of 
the  two  latter  are  equal.  This  is  most  important,  as  not  only  does  it  insure  stability 
and  firmness  to  the  pavement,  each  set  having  its  utmost  area  of  base,  but  also,  if 
the  pavement  requires  repairing  and  resetting  in  the  course  of  time,  it  allows  the 
sets  to  be  reversed,  i.  e.,  the  bed  may  be  turned  uppermost  so  as  to  form  the  face, 
which  is  an  economical  practice  well  worth  consideration. 

If  the  sides  be  not  truly  square  to  the  face  but  incline  inwards,  then  the  base  is 
less  in  area  than  the  face,  and  the  condition  of  the  set  is  one  of  perpetual  unstable 
equilibrium ;  nor  can  the  sets  be  used  over  again  as  suggested  above,  as  the  top 
joints  could  not  then  be  made  good  since  they  would  be  wider  than  the  bottom  ones; 
for  this  reason  also  the  sets  must  not  incline  outwards  from  the  face  to  the  bed. 
Care  must  also  be  taken  to  reject,  or  to  have  redressed,  any  sets  with  much  belly 
on  their  sides,  that  is  to  say,  sets  whose  sides  instead  of  being  plane  surfaces  are 
more  or  less  spherical.  It  is  sometimes  impossible  to  altogether  do  away  with  this 
objectionable  feature  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  working  some  of  the  granites, 
but,  as  far  as  possible,  it  ought  not  to  exist,  as  it  is  impossible  to  grout  satisfactorily 
such  a  joint  as  will  be  found  by  the  contact  of  one  set  with  another  one  of  which  is 
"bellied"  on  the  side  of  contact;  it  also  spoils  the  regularity  of  the  lines  of  the 
joint  of  the  pavement,  which  should  be  exactly  parallel  to  each  other,  and  strictly  at 
right  angles  to  the  curb  line  of  the  road  or  street. 

With  regard  to  the  face  an  exact  uniformity  of  surface  is  not  a  necessity ;  indeed  it 
is  requisite  that  there  should  be  a  certain  amount  of  roughness  to  obviate  slipperiness, 
but  large  or  unsightly  excrescences  should  not  be  allowed. 


SUPPLEMENT:    SHEFFIELD.  573 

In  resetting  a  street  already  paved  with  granite  the  old  sets  mnst  be  taken  up  and 
carefully  squared  and  dressed  in  the  manner  above  described,  the  sets  boing  reversed, 
f.  e.,  the  old  bed  made  the  new  face  if  the  original  quality  of  dressing  will  allow  it; 
if  not,  a  new  face  must  be  made  which  will,  of  course,  reduce  the  depth. 

The  ends  of  the  sets  as  before  stated  sbould  always  be  dressed  so  as  to  be  per- 
pendicular to  the  face,  and  to  be  truly  planed. 

In  takiug  out  the  excavation  preparatory  to  paving  a  road  with  granite  sets,  and 
which  road— supposing,  for  an  instance— has  hitherto  not  been  formed  with  tbis  ma- 
terial, the  formation  level  should  be  made  at  a  depth  sufficient  to  receive  the  depth 
of  the  sets  proposed  to  be  used,  together  with  about  1  inch  for  bedding  material, 
and  about  9  inches  for  coucrete,  which  latter  thickness  is,  as  a  rule,  the  most  useful 
one  for  the  foundation  course.  Thus,  suppose  the  size  of  the  sets  to  be  used  is  G  by 
3  inches,  then  the  depth  of  the  excavation  will  be : 

Inches. 

Depth  of  sets 6 

Bedding  material 1 

Concrete  foundation 9 

Total 16 

If,  however,  the  ground  at  this  depth  be  found  to  be  boggy,  soft,  or  at  all  unreli- 
able, then  a  further  depth  should  be  excavated,  and  additional  concrete  put  in  ;  and 
conversely,  if,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  in  old  macadamized  roads,  which  consist,  by 
means  of  numerous  old  coveriugs,  of  great  thickness  of  metal,  it  be  found  that  there 
is  a  good  foundation  before  getting  to  the  depth  of  the  9  inches  for  concrete,  then  a 
less  thickness  for  the  latter  material  will  suffice,  thereby  effecting  economy  with 
equal  strength.  In  any  case  the  formation  level  should  correspond  in  camber  with 
the  proposed  finished  surface  of  the  road,  so  as  to  insure  uniformity  of  thickness  of 
foundation  course. 

The  binding  element  of  the  concrete  must  be  either  hydraulic  lias  lime  or  Port- 
land cement,  the  former  being  the  most  generally  used,  though  in  several  towns  the 
latter  material  is  almost  exclusively  used  for  this  purpose.  Given  good  materials, 
the  following  are  suitable  proportions  : 

LIME   CONCRETE. 

Measures. 

Broken  stone 3$ 

Clean  sand 1£ 

Hydraulic  lias  lime 1 

CEMENT  CONCKETE. 

Broken  stone 3^ 

Clean  sand --•  21 

Portland  cement 1 

The  stone  should  be  clean,  hard,  and  angular  in  shape,  the  latter  qualification  'be- 
ing very  necessary,  as  stones  having  a  rounded  surface  will  not  bond  well  together 
so  as  to  form  a  homogeneous  mass  ;  care  must  also  be  taken  to  exclude  all  clay  dirt 
or  other  foreign  material  which  would  tend  to  prevent  thorough  cohesion. 

The  sand  must  be  clean  and  sharp  and,  as  a  rule,  good  river  sand  is  preferable  to 
all  other;  it  must  also,  similarly  to  broken  stone,  be  free  from  all  dirt  of  any  kind. 
In  towns  in  which  there  are  large  iron  works  "slag  "  dust  has  beeu  used  for  concrete 
in  place  of  sand,  but  though  nioro  economical  in  some  cases  (on  account  of  being 
local),  and  though  it  forms  a  good  enough  material  for  the  purpose  if  clean,  its  use 
can  not  be  generally  recommended  on  account  of  dirt  being  very  frequently  inter- 
mixed. The  lime .should  bo  hydraulic  blue  lias — lime  from  the  hardest  and  lowest 
beds  of  the  lias  formation. 


574  STREETS   AND    HIGHWAYS   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Should  cement  be  used  it  must  be  well  burned  Portland  cement  of  the  best  quality, 
free  from  all  dirt,  or  other  foreign  substance,  and  slow  setting  with  a  gray  color 
when  gauged  and  air  dried.  It  should  be  of  not  less  than  114  pouuds  weight  to  the 
bushel,  and  must  be  sufficiently  fine  so  that  a  portion  being  sifted  through  a  wire 
sieve  of  2,500  meshes  to  the  square  inch  there  must  not  be  left  a  residue  of  more  than 
10  per  cent,  in  weight. 

Briquettes  of  neat  cement  should  be  made  in  the  proportion  of  7  ounces  of  water  to- 
40  ounces  of  cement  and  should  remain  one  day  in  the  air,  and  then  be  placed  for  6 
days  in  water,  after  the  expiration  of  which  time  they  must  be  tested  in  a  proper 
cement  testing  machine,  and  should  sustain  a  tensile  strain  of  350  pounds  to  the 
square  inch. 

The  concrete  must  be  mixed  upon  a  low  movable  platform  capable  of  being  shifted 
along  as  the  work  proceeds. 

TLo  three  materials,  stoue,  sand,  and  lime,  or  cement,  as  the  case  may  be,  should 
be  msasured  separately,  the  stone  then  being  placed  by  itself  on  the  platform  and 
the  saud  aud  lime  (or  cement)  thoroughly  incorporated- with  each  other.  The  two 
latter  must  then  be  placed  over  the  broken  stone,  and  the  whole  mass  must  be  com- 
pletely turned  over  twice,  so  that  the  whole  of  the  materials  may  be  thoroughly 
intermixed.  Water  should  then  be  added  from  a  watering  can  provided  with  a  rose, 
and  the  materials  well  turned  over  again  for  a  third  time ;  the  concrete  must  then  be 
immediately  shoveled  up  into  barrows,  and  wheeled  away  on  to  the  formation  sur- 
face, giving  by  the  action  of  loading  the  barrows  another  turn  over.  Too  much 
importance  can  not  be  attached  to  the  necessity  of  thorough  and  complete  incorpora- 
tion of  the  materials,  and  as  this  can  only  be  obtained  by  means  of  careful  and 
repeated  turnings  over  it  is  necessary  that  this  be  done  in  a  most  careful  and  com- 
plete manner.  Concrete  is,  after  all,  but  like  masonry — stones  and  mortar — and  just 
as  the  blocks  of  stone  of  the  latter  should  be  surrounded  on  all  their  joints  with  the 
mortar,  so  also  the  broken  stone  in  concrete  must,  each  individually,  be  surrounded 
with  a  perfect  coating  of  the  lime,  or  cement  and  sand.  Another  point  to  carefully 
note  is  the  quantity  of  water  used.  The  workman  is  sometimes  to  blame  in  this  par- 
ticular, as  he  often  adds  more  water  than  is  sufficient  to  release  the  chemical  action 
of  the  lime  or  cement,  as  the  case  may  be.  Too  much  water  greatly  weakens  the 
strength  of  the  concrete  and  only  so  much  should  be  used  as  will  completely  wet, 
but  not  drench,  the  material  on  the  platform.  The  acting  of  the  turning  over,  load- 
ing into  the  barrows,  placing  in  situ,  aud  ramming  will,  if  properly  done,  completely 
wet  the  whole  of  the  material,  though  possibly  it  might  seem  too  dry  immediately 
after  the  watering. 

Before  the  coucrete  is  placed  in  position  levels  must  be  fixed  for  it  so  as  to  insure 
uniformity  of  thickness. and  camber.  These  levels  should  consist  of  iron  pegs  not 
less  than  IB  inches  long  and  placed  longitudinally  at  short  distances,  the  number 
across  the  road  depending  on  the  width  of  the  carriage  way ;  the  tops  of  these  pegs 
are  to  be  carefully  boned  into  the  required  gradient,  and  also  to  the  proper  camber 
of  the  transverse  section  (it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  formation  surface  should 
have  been  first  formed  to  the  proper  contour) ;  9  inches  upwards  from  the  ground 
should  then  be  marked  on  the  pegs,  if  the  concrete  is  to  be  of  that  thickness,  and 
either  that  portion  or  the  remaining  top  inches  is  to  be  chalked  or  painted  over  so 
that  the  finished  surface  of  the  concrete  may  be  clearly  defined.  This  setting  out 
of  the  levels  requires  careful  attention,  and  must  be  well  looked  after.  The  iron 
pegs  being  properly  fixed,  and  the  concrete  being  thoroughly  mixed,  as  before  de- 
scribed, aud  loaded  into  the  barrows,  it  must  be  wheeled  from  the  mixing  platform, 
deposited  in  position,  aud  be  well  rammed  with  heavy  wooden  rammers,  until  ita 
thickness  is  uniform  with  the  chalked  pegs.  Thorough  ramming  is  very  essential, 
not  only  to  consolidate  the  concrete  but  also  to  work  up  a  smooth  finished  surface. 
The  concrete  must  then  be  allowed  to  thorougly  set  before  any  further  steps  are 
taken,  which  length  of  time  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  quality  of  the  lime  and 
cement. 


SUPPLEMENT:     SHEFFIELD.  575 

The  next  process  is  to  cover  the  concrete  with  heckling  material  for  the  sets.  This 
may  consist  of  either  coarse  sand  or  very  tine  gravel,  and  in  towns  where  there  aro 
works,  furnace  ashes  form  a  very  suitable  and  economical  material.  Whatever  is  used 
it  should  he  spread  over  the  concrete  to  a  depth  of  about  1  inch,  so  that  the  more  or 
less  irregular  beds  of  the  sets  may  have  a  firm  seat  over  the  whole  of  their  area.  The 
Bets-are  then  to  be  laid  in  rows  with  their  lengths  at  right  angles  to  the  direction 
of  the  street.  They  must  break  joint  properly,  with  as  much  overlap  aspossible,  and 
must  be  well  and  solidly  rammed.  The  channels,  next  to  the  curb,  may  bo  formed  of 
two  or  more  rows  of  sots  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  other  sets,  i.  e.,  parallel  in 
their  length  to  the  direction  of  the  street,  but  a  better  channel  is  made  by  using 
slabs  of  granite  15  inches  wide  and  of  a  depth  equal  to  the  sets  nsed,  the  joints  be- 
ing truly  square,  and  the  surface  dressed  off  to  a  plane  surface.  This  latter  plan 
euables  the  rain  water  to  (low  much  quicker  to  the  gullies,  particularly  in  a  flat  street, 
there  being  less  friction  than  if  sets  are  used,  being  less  joints,  and  a  more  even  sur- 
face. Iu  any  case  the  channels  should  be  laid  about  4  inches  below  the  level  of  the 
curb,  and  one-quarter  inch  below  the  sets.     (See  Appendix  13.) 

Should  the  gradient  of  the  road  be  steep  it  is  a  good  plan  to  lay  a  "  wheeler" 
course,  that  is  to  say,  a  row  of  granite  slabs,  similar  to  those  forming  the  channels, 
should  be  laid  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  road  going  up  hill,  and  at  a  distance  apart 
from  the  channel,  center  to  center,  equal  to  the  average  gauge  of  the  wheels  of  the 
traffic  which  will  most  frequeutly  nse  the  road.  These  aro  of  very  great  service  to 
heavy  traffic  on  a  steep  gradient,  acting,  in  fact,  as  tram  lines,  affording  as  they  do 
the  minimum  of  traction  to  the  wheels  of  the  vehicles,  while  the  sets  between  them 
afford  a  good  foothold  for  the  horses. 

The  sets  being  laid  they  have  now  to  be  grouted.  Clean  gravel,  small  stones,  or 
fine  slag  (which  forms  a  most  suitable  material  if  cheaply  obtainable),  not  exceeding 
a  quarter-iuch  gauge,  must  be  spread,  over  the  top  of  the  sets  and  be  repeatedly 
swept  over  the  surface  until  the  joints  are  tilled  to  rather  more  than  half  their  depth, 
and,  if  necessary,  a  "cramming"  iron  must  be  used  to  wedge  the  shingle  firmly  into 
the  joints,  care  being  taken  not  to  disturb  their  true  line.  The  joints  must  then  be 
grouted,  thoroughly  flush,  with  boiling  pitch  and  tar,  and  it  must  be  understood  that 
this  groutiug  should  be  really  thorough  and  complete. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  the  exact  proportions  for  the  mixing  of  the  pitch  and  tar 
necessary  for  the  final  groutiug.as  the  latter  varies  so  much  iu  its  consistency;  it  is 
generally  obtained  from  the  gas  works  of  the  town,  and  should  be  as  pure  as  possible. 
The  pitch  most  suitable  for  use  is  that  known  as  "medium  hard,"  and  should  be  of 
such  a  nature  as  to  be  softened  after  being  immersed  5  minutes  in  water  heated  to  a 
temperature  of  about  60°  C.  (140°  F.).  The  two  materials  must  be  placed  in  a  tar 
pan  and  well  boiled,  one  man  being  constantly  employed  in  turning  the  mixture 
over  with  a  ladle,  when  the  boiling  point  has  been  reached,  and  continuing  to  do  so 
until  the  contents  begin  to  settle,  when,  as  a  rule,  it  is  ready  for  use;  this  is  neces- 
sary to  prevent  boiling  over  which  might  result  iu  the  whole  panfull  catching  fire. 
It  must  be  boiled  so  that  a  cake  of  it  wheu  cool  and  set  must  be  tough  and  not  too 
brittle,  but  with  a  slight  and  only  slight  amount  of  elasticity.  If  it  be  too  brittle 
when  set  the  vibrations  of  the  traffic  may  crack  it  and  loosen  it  from  the  sets,  which  it 
will  not  therefore  properly  cement  together;  if  it  be  too  elastic  it  will  in  hot  weather 
work  out  of  the  joints  and  get  soft,  thereby  not  giving  the  necessary  support  to  the 
stones.  Proper  grouting  is  therefore  a  very  important  adjuuct  to  good  carriage-way 
paving. 

The  last  operation  concludes  the  work  of  laying  granite  pavement,  which  pave- 
ment is,  on  the  whole,  probably  the  most  useful,  durable,  and,  in  the  end,  economical 
pavement  that  can  be  adopted  for  the  carriage  ways  of  large  cities  or  towns. 

Appendix  1!  at  the  end  of  this  pamphlet  shows  a  suggested  cross  section  of  a  road- 
way paved  with  granite  sets.  The  footpaths  have  been  added  in  this  and  the  suc- 
ceeding appendices,  merely  in  order  to  complete  the,  transverse  section  of  the  wholo 
road.     The  cross  fall  of  the  carriage  way,  shown  in  the  appendices,  is  of  course  not 


576  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

arbitrary,  since,  as  before  explained,  this  will  vary  in  accordance  with  the  gradient  of 
Ibe  street. 

Wood  pavement.— :The  advantages  of  wood  pavement  are:  (1)  It  is  the  quietest  of  all 
pavements.  (2)  It  gives  a  minimum  of  traction,  excepting  asphalt.  (3)  It  is  very 
clean,  as  if  properly  formed  it  should  make  no  dirt.  (4)  If  a  horse  fall  on  it  he  can, 
it  is  said,  rise  easier  than  on  granite  or  asphalt. 

The  objections  are  :  (1)  It  absorbs  moisture  to  a  somewhat  great  extent.  (2)  The 
wood  is  liable  to  swell  and  sometimes  forces  up  the  curbs  and  footway.  (3)  It  can 
not  well  be  used  on  a  steeper  gradient  than  1  in  20  at  the  most. 

It  is  not  as  durable  as  granite,  and  therefore,  though  not  costiug  quite  so  much  in 
the  first  instance,  it  really  is  dearer  than  the  latter,  as  it  requires  more  frequent  re- 
newal. 

The  best  wood  to  use  for  the  purpose  is  Baltic  red  timber,  or  yellow  deal ;  and  must 
be  thoroughly  sound  and  well  seasoned,  especially  free  from  sap,  and  also  from  all 
shakes,  knots,  or  other  imperfections.  The  blocks,  which  must  be  cut  so  as  to  have 
the  fiber  upwards,  should  be  6  inches  deep  by  3  inches  in  width,  and  9  inches  iu 
length.  The  blocks  are  sometimes  creosoted,  in  which  case  1  cubic  foot  of  wood 
should  absorb  about  8  to  9  pounds  of  creosote.  If  the  wood  used  be  of  really*good 
quality,  and  be  carefully  laid  with  the  fiber  vertical  on  a  good  concrete  foundation, 
such  as  described  for  granite  paving,  and  be  thoroughly  grouted,  this  class  of  pave- 
ment will  wear  for  a  considerable  time,  its  life  with  average  traffic,  and  with, of 
course,  needful  repairs,  being  about  9  or  10  years.  It  is  especially  useful  when  laid  in 
places  where  it  is  necessary  to  subdue  the  noise  of  the  traffic,  such  as  in  front  of  a 
hospital. 

With  regard  to  the  method  of  laying  it  is  unnecessary  to  mention  again  the  concrete 
foundation,  as  the  method  before  described  for  granite  pavemeut  applies  equally  to 
wood,  whether  in  materials,  manner  of  mixing,  or  mode  of  laying.  The  concrete 
laid,  aud  having  become  thoroughly  set,  a  thin  covering  or  bedding  of  saud  should 
be  spread  over  the  surface,  and  on  this  tho  wood  blocks,  carefully  selected,  should  be 
set  with  their  lengths  at  right  angles  to  the  curb  line,  and  having  their  ends  in  con- 
tact. 

The  setting  should  not  commence  close  to  the  channel,  as  in  the  case  of  granite 
pavement,  but  about  7  to  9  inches  from  it,  this  space  being  filled  up  the  last  thing; 
this  allows  for  any  swolliug  of  the  wood,  and  will  help  to  counteract  the  pressure 
against tbechaunels  and  curbs,  and  lessen  the  tendency  to  force  them  up.  An  "expan- 
sion" joint  is  also  sometimes  left  near  the  curb,  but  this  is  very  unsightly  aud  is  of  ques- 
tionable utility.  The  side  joints,  that  is  to  say,  the  joints  running  across  the  street 
and  parallel  to  the  leugth  of  the  blocks,  must  be  kept  apart  so  as  to  afford  a  foothold 
for  the  horses.  The  widtli  of  these  joints  should  be  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch, 
and  they  may  be  obtained  either  by  using  laths  of  this  width  placed  between  each 
row  and  afterwards  removed  for  the  groutiug,  or,  what  is  better,  by  means  of  three 
iron  studs,  haviug  square  heads  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  and  driven  home  into 
the  sides  of  the  blocks  so  as  to  form  au  equilateral  triangle.  This  latter  method  has 
great  advantages  over  the  former  and  is  the  one  most  commonly  adopted.  When  the 
laths  are  removed  for  the  grouting  the  blocks  are  very  liable  to  be  more  or  less 
shifted  from  their  position  on  account  of  the  workmen  walking  over  them,  and  other 
causes,  and  always  require  some  adjusting  and  putting  into  proper  line  before  the 
final  grouting  takes  place,  and  even  then  it  is  very  difficult  to  get  a  truly  uniform 
joint  the  whole  width  of  the  carriage  way.  By  utilizing  the  iron  studs,  on  the  con- 
trary, each  block  may  be  at  once  firmly  placed  against  its  longitudinal  neighbor, 
and  there  is  no  danger  of  any  movement  taking  place  prior  to  the  grouting.  Gravel 
or  shingle  three-eighths  inches  gauge  is  then  sometimes  swept  over  the  surface  of  the 
pavement  so  as  to  partially  fill  up  the  joints  (in  a  similar  manner  described  for  gran- 
ite paving),  but  it  is  a  question  whether  this  should  be  requisite  when  the  iron  studs 
are  used,  as  these  should  insure  thorough  stability  and  solidity  to  the  block.     When 


SUPPLEMENT:    SHEFFIELD.  577 

the  laths  are  used  it  is  of  course  necessary  to  have  the  shingle.  The  grout  itself  may 
consist  of  either  Portland  cement  and  sand  or  pitch  aud  tar,  as  specified  for  granite 
pavement,  or  may  be,  aud  this  is  probably  the  best,  a  combination  of  both  methods. 

The  pitch  and  tar,  well  and  properly  boiled  and  of  good  quality,  as  before  described, 
should  be  poured  into  the  joints  of  the  pavement  until  they  are  filled  to  about  one- 
third  their  depth  ;  this  should  be  allowed  to  get  cool  and  set,  after,  which  a  grouting, 
consisting  of  Portland  cement  and  clean  sharp  sand,  each  of  such  quality  as  herein- 
before detailed,  and  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  of  cement  to  one  and  a  half  parts 
of  sand  (or  even  only  one  part  of  sand  if  the  cement  be  at  all  poor),  must  be  poured 
in  so  as  to  completely  fill  all  the  joints  flush  with  the  surface  of  the  blocks.  The 
whole  surface  of  the  carriage  way  is  then  to  receive  a  coating  about  half  an  inch 
thick  of  fine  gravel  or  small,  clean  chippings. 

The  channels  should  be  formed  by  means  of  two  rows  of  blocks  set  with  their 
lengths  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  street,  and  laid  4  inches  below  the  curb  and 
flush  with  the  main  blocks.     (See  Appendix  C.) 

Asphalt  pavement. — Asphalt  pavements  are  not  greatly  in  use,  and  it  is  a  material 
which  can  not  bo  generally  advocated  as  useful  for  the  pavements  of  carriage  ways 
of  large  cities,  its  great  objection  being  its  extreme  slipperiness  and  also  the  great 
difficulty  of  stopping  or  starting  a  horse  drawing  a  burden  on  account  of  the  almost 
non-existence  of  a  foothold.  The  chief  points  in  its  favor  are  that  it  is  very  noise- 
less though  not  so  much  so  as  wood  ;  there  is  very,  little  traction,  no  shaking  or 
vibration  in  driving  over  it;  it  is  very  easily  cleansed,  and  is  quickly  laid-  It  is, 
however,  impossible  to  use  it  where  there  is  anything  like  a  gradient,  and  also  it  can 
not  be  laid  in  wet  weather. 

The  asphalt  itself  consists  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  bitumen,  chem  ically  combiued 
in  somewhat  varying  proportions,  and  should  have  a  due  aud  uniform  grain  when 
broken.  For  laying  carriage  ways  the  limestone  should  contain  about  10  per  cent, 
of  bitumen.  Asphalt  pavement  has  one  particularity  peculiar  to  itself,  and  thereby 
differing  from  all  other  pavements,  and  that  is  that  owing  to  its  elastic  nature, 
which  is  its  great  feature,  and  which  lasts  for  a  long  time,  it  does  not  actually  begin 
to  wear  until  it  has  been  laid  for  a  considerable  period,  although  its  actual  thick- 
ness will  be  reduced. 

It  is  to  be  laid  on  a  concrete  foundation  as  previously  described,  and  which  must, 
and  this  is  more  important  in  this  than  in  all  other  kinds  of  superincumbent 
pavement,  be  thoroughly  set  and  perfectly  dry,  as  otherwise  the  asphalt  will  be 
liable  to  "  blow."  Cement  concrete  is  better  than  lime  concrete  for  the  foundation 
of  this  pavement. 

The  rock  asphalt  must  be  of  the  purest  quality,  and  be  of  such  cnemical  analysis 
as  before  meutioued  ;  after  being  broken  to  small  lumps  it  must  ~be  thoroughly  pul- 
verized in  a  proper  disintegrator.  It  should  then  be  heated  on  plates  to  such  a  tem- 
perature as  may  be  necessary  to  wholly  get  rid  of  all  moisture,  this  temperature 
varying  according  to  the  nature  of  the  material,  but  generally  about  220°  to  270°. 
It  must  be  immediately  and  carefully  carried  to  the  road  in  covered  vehicles  of  iron 
so  as  to  lose  as  little  heat  as  possible,  and  to  be  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  con- 
crete foundation  to  a  depth  of  3  inches,  which  will  be  reduced,  after  ramming,  to 
nearly  2  inches.  It  must  theu  be  carefully  raked  and  spread,  so  as  to  ensure  thor- 
ough regularity  of  depth  and  evenness  of  surface,  and  be  well  rammed  with  heated, 
to  prevent  sticking,  iron,  of  about  10  pounds  weight,  the  ramming  being  done  lightly 
at  first  and  heavier  afterwards. 

When  finished  the  pavement,  if  properly  done,  should  present  a  perfectly  uniform 
and  pleasing  appearance.  It  must  be  allowed  to  cool  and  become  thoroughly  consoli- 
dated before  allowing  [traffic  to  pass  over  it.  The  slipperiness,  its  great  drawback, 
may  be  temporarily  remedied  by  strewing  fine  shingle  or  sand  over  the  surface,  but 
this  tends  to  wear  it  out,  as  it  breaks  the  skin  and  lets  In  the  moisture  ;  it  also  makes 
the  surface  muddy  and  dirty. 
«33A 37 


578  8TREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  channels  should  be  formed  of  either  granite  sets  laid  iu  rows  about  four  in 
number  and  parallel  to  the  curb  line,  or  with  grauite  slabs  15  iuches  wide  and  6 
inches  deep,  as  described  hereinbefore.  In  any  case  the  chaunels  should  be  laid 
about  half  an  inch  below  the  level  of  the  asphalt  aud  4  inches  below  the  curb.  On 
the  whole  this  kind  of  pavement  can  not  be  generally  recommended  for  the  paviug 
of  towns,  being  dangerous  to  traffic  and  not  sufficiently  lasting  where  the  traffic  is 
heavy;  its  advantage  being  its  quietude,  easiness  of  traction,  imperviousuess  to 
moisture,  and  the  ease  with  which  it  is  cleansed.     (See  Appendix  D.) 

Gritstone  sets. — Sets  formed  of  gritstone  are  used  to  a  large  exteut  in  those  towns 
or  cities,  near  which  there  are  suitable  quarries.  It  is  a  material  having  many  ad- 
vantages for  the  pavement  of  carriage  ways,  but  it  can  not  be  said  to  be  durable 
where  there  is  great  traffic,  and  this  is  its  great  drawback,  as,  of  necessity,  this 
means  frequent  repairing  and  renewal,  which  eventually  causes  it  to  be  classed  as  an 
expensive  pavement.  For  roads,  where  the  traffic  is  moderate,  or  where  the  gradient 
precludes  wood  and  asphalt,  and  makes  even  granite  dangerous,  gritstone  sets  are 
very  useful  and  may  be  adopted  with  success.  They  are  not  slippery,  do  not  present 
too  much  traction,  afford  good  foothold  to  horses,  and  are  speedily  laid.  This  pave- 
ment is  not  so  noisy  as  grauite,  and  is,  in  the  first  instance,  considerably  less  ex- 
pensive (always  supposing  that  the  requisite  quarries  are  more  or  less  in  thelocal- 
ity)  but  as  a  durable,  useful,  pavement  it  can  not  be  compared  with  the  latter,  nor  is 
it,  as  stated  above,  cheaper  in  the  end. 

The  stone  should  be  from  a  good  gritstone  quarry  and  be  composed  of  a  hard,  brown, 
or  yellowish  brown,  grit  not  too  close.  Very  fine  grits  should  be  avoided,  as  these  do 
not  possess  the  necessary  wearing  properties. 

The  sets  must  be  cut  so  that  the  grain  of  the  stone  is  parallel  to  the  leugth  of  the 
set,  and  at  right  angles  to  its  width.  This  is  of  the  utmost  importance  as  sets  with 
their  grain  cut  this  way  will  wear  much  longer  than  with  the  grains  parallel  to  the 
width  of  the  set,  so  that  in  case  of  two  sets  being  placed  side  by  side  in  the  pave- 
ment one  cut  correctly  and  the  other  incorrectly,  it  would  follow  that  the  wrongly 
cut  one  would  the  soonest  show  wear,  and  there  would  be  a  "puddle  hole"  iu  the 
street.  The  reason  why  the  wrongly  cut  sets  wear  away  the  quickest  is  because  the 
grain  being  parallel  to  the  width  of  the  stone  it  is  in  the  line  of  traffic,  to  which  it 
therefore  renders  little  resistance,  and  is  soon  overcome  by  it.  The  sets  may  vary 
in  depth  from  8  to  10  inches ;  the  latter  being  the  most  useful,  and  though  costing 
more  at  first  are  the  most  economical,  as  when  they  are  worn  down  about  2  inches 
and  have  thereby  got  irregular  and  into  holes,  (and  it  may  here  be  remarked  the  worst 
feature  of  this  pavement  is  that  however  uniform  in  quality  all  the  sets  may  be,  and 
however  uniformly  and  properly  cut,  it  will  always,  unless  the  traffic  be  a  very  light, 
wear  irregularly  which  is  probably  due  to  the  traffic  more  or  less  confined  to  certain 
lines  which  will  always  soon  tell  on  gritstone),  the  10-iuch  sets  may  be  taken  up, 
redressed  and  squared  and  then  reset,  whereas  the  8-inch  sets  are,  as  a  rule,  too  much 
worn  and  knocked  about  so  that  they  are  only  worth  using  for  bowlder  pavement. 
The  10- inch  sets,  being  of  course  heavier  than  the  8-inch,  require  more  handling  and 
can  not  be  set  as  quickly  as  the  latter. 

Whatever  the  depth,  the  width  should  not  be  less  than  5  nor  more  thau  7  inches, 
and  the  length  should  be  from  7  to  10  inches.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  pavemeut 
of  the  street  should  consist  of  sets  of  one  width,  such  as  is  adopted  for  grauite  sets, 
as  a  horse  cau  obtain  foothold  on  the  stone  itself,  whereas  in  granite  paving  the  foot 
of  the  horse,  if  placed  on  the  center  of  a  set,  almost  invariably  slips  back  until  it 
reaches  the  joint.  For  a  steep  gradient,  however,  the  narrower  gritstone  sets  should 
be  used,  the  broader  ones  being  kept  for  flat  streets. 

The  sets  must  be  dressed  truly  square  through  their  whole  depth,  so  as  to  iusure 
an  area  of  base  equal  to  that  of  the  face.  No  excresences  on  the  sides  or  end  joints 
must  be  permitted,  it  being  necessary  that  all  the  joints  should  be  truly  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  face  and  parallel  to  each  other.  The  face  of  the  sets  may  be  left  somewhat 
rough,  as  any  undue  roughness  will  soon  be  worn  off  by  the  traffic. 


SUPPLEMENT:    SHEFFIELD.  579 

This  class  of  sets  having — compared  with  granite  or  wood — a  large  area  of  base,  it 
is  not  necessary  to  have  a  concrete  foundation,  provided  that  the  ground  at  the 
formation  level  be  found  to  be  hard  and  solid,  and  provided,  also,  that  tho  traffic  to 
pass  over  is  not  too  heavy  (and  it  must  be  remembered  that  this  pavement  is  not 
suitable  where  the  traffic  is  great).  If,  however,  the  ground,  or  any  part  thereof,  be 
found  to  be  soft  or  unreliable  further  excavation  must  be  made  and  lias  line  concrete 
filled  iu,  as  specified  before  for  the  granite  paving.  On  the  surface  of  the  foundation, 
whether  natural  or  concrete,  a  layer  of  clean  sand  or,  if  cheaply  procurable,  furuace 
ashes  is  to  be  spread  about  1  inch  thick,  on  which  the  sets  are  to  be  laid  in  liues, 
with  their  length  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  street,  aud  properly  coursed 
in  single  courses.  They  must  be  set  with  au  overlap  of  at  least  3  inches  at  the  joints 
and,  as  before  mentioned,  so  that  tho  natural  grain  of  the  stone  is  parallel  to  its 
length.  Each  stone  wheu  set  should  be  well  and  solidly  rammed  with  a  heavy 
"  beetle,"  care  being  taken  to  preserve  the  proper  camber. 

The  sets  must  then  be  grouted  iu  a  manner  similar  to  that  described  for  granite 
paving,  i.  e.,  one  fourth  inch  gravel,  or  slag,  must  be  swept  over  the  surface,  using  a 
"cramming  iron"  if  necessary  until  the  joints  are  about  half  full,  after  which  they 
must  be  flushed  up  solid  with  boiling  pitch  and  tar  as  before  detailed.  The  chan- 
nels may  be  formed  either  by  simply  the  prolongation  of  the  rows  of  sets  up  to  the 
curb  or  may  consist  of  gritstoue  slabs,  similar  to  the  granite  one  mentioned  for  gran- 
ite paving  ;  the  latter  method  is  probably  the  best  as  the  slabs  offer  less  resistance  to 
the  eurface  water;  they  should  measure  15  inches  wide  by  8  to  10  inches  deep,  aud 
must- be  set,  as  in  the  case  of  the  other  pavements,  4  inches  below  the  curb  aud  one- 
fourth  inch  below  the  sets. 

In  many  towns  this  class  of  pavement  is  successfully  used,  but  too  much  must  not 
be  expected  from  it;  it  has  not  the  wear  and  solidity  of  granite,  and  can  not  be  used 
economically  where  the  traffic  is  very  heavy,  but  for  streets  with  comparative  steep 
gradients  and  moderate  traffic,  gritstone  sets  form  a  most  useful  material.  (Appen- 
dix E  shows  this  class  of  pavement.)  » 

There  has  now  been  described  in  detail  the  four  materials  mentioned  at  the  com- 
mencement of  this  essay,  viz,  granite,  wood,  asphalt,  and  gritstone,  but  it  should 
be  clearly  understood  that  whatever  material  be  adopted  the  success  of  a  pavement 
consists  in  the  manner  in  which  the  material  is  dressed,  the  way  it  is  laid  and  grouted, 
and  in  having  a  good  firm  foundation  ;  in  other  words  the  points  to  be  considered 
are:  (1)  Suitable  material  of  the  best  quality.  (2)  Material  to  be  properly  "got 
up"  and  prepared.  (3)  The  foundation  must  be  thoroughly  hard  and  firm.  (4) 
There  must  be  skillful  laying  and  perfect  ramming.  (5)  The  grouting  must  be  of 
good  aud  suitable  composition,  aud  liberally  filled  into  the  joints. 

The  last  stipulation  does  not,  of  course,  apply  to  asphalt  pavement. 

The  proper  construction  of  crossings  at  the  junction  of  new  streets  is  of  great  im- 
portance, aud  is  not  always  an  easy  undertaking,  great  care  beiug  required  to  set  out 
the  proper  levels,  which  must  bo  strictly  adhered  to  in  the  laying.  The  ceuter  line 
of  each  road  must  bone  through,  each  central  line  coiuciding  in  level  at  the  point  of 
intersection,  the  camber  of  the  main  carriage  way  working  flat  as  tho  ceuter  of  the 
crossroad  is  reached,  so  that  at  that  point  there  will  be  no  camber  ;  this  is  to  be  done 
by  keeping  up  the  level  of  the  line  of  the  channels  of  the  maiu  road  as  the  ceuter  of 
the  crossroad  is  approached,  which  will  cause  the  center  of  the  two  roads  to  be  tho 
highest  point  of  the  crossing,  and  also  cause  the  two  crossings  at  the  ends  of  the  sec- 
ondary street  to  have  a  suitable  camber,  so  that  all  the  surface  water  will  fall  off 
easily  into  the  proper  chaunels  and  there  will  be  no  jolting  or  hindrance  to  the  traffic. 
Tho  crossings  at  each  end  of  the  side  street  should  have  a  number  of  lines  of  granite 
slabs,  sometimes  called  "  plodders,"  laid  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  main  street, 
and  separated  from  each  other  by  three  or  four  rows  of  grauite  sets.  The  plodders 
should  be  12  inches  wide  aud  equal  in  depth  to  that  of  the  sets  used  ;  they  arc  a 
great  convenience  to  pedestrian  traffic,  as  they  are  much  easier  aud  more  pleasant  to 
walk  upon  than  the  sets.     (See  Appendices  F  aud  G). 


580  STREETS    AND    HIGHWAYS    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  sets  forming  the  large  crossiug  may  either  be  laid  in  the  same  maimer  aud  di« 
rectiou  astheyare  iu  the  maiu  carriage  way,  that  is  to  say,  in  regular  rows  with  their 
lengths  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  street  (see  Appendix  F),  or,  what  is  much 
better,  may  he  placed  diagonally  (see  AppeudixG).  This  latter  system  affords  a  good 
foothold  for  horses  in  turning  the  corners  and  prevents  the  danger  of  slipping,  which 
is  very  liable  to  occur  when  a  horse  is  pulling  along  the  length  of  the  sets.  The  ends 
of  the  diagonal  sets,  where  they  abut  upon  the  straight  sets,  at  each  of  the  four 
sides  of  the  crossing,  must  be  properly  cut  and  leveled  off  so  as  to  insure  a  good 
joint,  aud  where  they  meet  each  other  at  the  two  center  lines  they  must  form  a  true 
"herring-bone"  joint,  which  may  be  either  single  or  double,  the  former  being  the 
most  generally  adopted.     (Appendix  G  shows  the  latter.) 

The  circular  channels,  connecting  the  channels  of  the  two  streets,  are  to  be  truly 
cut  to  the  proper  radius,  bone  through,  and  be  carefully  laid. 

The  footpaths  in  Appendices  F  and  G  are  shown  merely  to  complete  the  plans  of 
the  streets. 

For  the  surface  drainage  of  the  carriage  way,  aud  also  to  receive  the  rain  water  off 
the  causeway,  gullies  must  be  provided.  These  should  be  of  cast-iron,  properly 
trapped  and  connected  to  the  sewer  with  6-inch  glazed  stoneware  socket  pipes,  hav- 
ing their  joints  filled  with  puddled  clay,  and  a  puddle  band  5  inches  thick  around 
each  socket  joint.  The  distance  apart  of  the  gullies  mey  be  somewhat  greater  on  a 
steep  road  than  on  a  flat  one,  and  if  the  longitudinal  section  of  the  carriage  way  be 
a  dead  level  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  an  artificial  fall  in  the  channel,  that  is  to  say, 
the  point  in  the  channels  half  way  between  two  gullies  must  be  kept  higher  than  the 
level  of  the  channels  at  the  gullies,  but  this  must  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible  as 
it  breaks  the  uniformity  of  the  cross  fall  of  the  road.  In  all  cases,  however,  thor- 
ough surface  drainage  is  necessary,  both  to  lengthen  the  life  of  the  pavement  aud  to 
render  the  traffic,  whether  vehicular  or  pedestrian,  safe  and  pleasant.  As  mentioned 
at  the  commencement  proper  cleansing  is  also  an  important  adjunct. 

Great  advances  have  been  made  during  recent  years  in  the  quality  aud  workman- 
ship of  the  carriage-way  pavements  of  our  large  towns,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  as 
"  experieutia  docet,"  there  is  to  be  still  further  improvement  made  before  the  high- 
est point  of  perfection  is  gained. 

Prices  have  been  purposely  omitted  in  this  essay,  as  the  cost  of  pavements  depends 
so  much  on  the  position  of  the  towns,  its  proximity  to  granite,  or  other  quarries,  the 
means  of  transport  to  it  by  rail,  or  canal,  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  satisfactorily 
an  idea  of  its  value. 

Granite  pavement. — As  a  rule  the  most  suitable  granite  for  paving  are  syenites,  or 
syenitic  granite.  The  syeniteconsists  of  quartz,  feldspar,  and  hornblende,  the  latter 
taking  the  place  of  mica  in  the  ordinary  granite;  syenitic  granite  consists  of  all  the 
four  constituents.  They  are  generally  obtained  from  quarries  in  Leicestershire, 
Cumberland,  Guernsey,  and  Jersey;  the  material  from  the  latter  two  places  is,  how- 
ever, apt  to  wear  slippery.  Penmaenmaur  stone  from  North  Wales,  a  kind  of  trap- 
rock,  is  likewise  used,  and  also  different  granites  from  Ireland  and  Scotland,  such 
as  (from  the  last-named  country)  Aherdeen  and  Dalbeattie. 

Wood  pavement. — Beech  wood  has  been  employed  for  wood  paving,  but  is  dearer 
than  the  red  wood,  or  yellow  deal,  which  should  always  be  carefully  cut  from  sound 
specimens  of  the  northern  pine. 

Asphalt  pavement. — Instead  of  the  rock  asphalt  being  pulverized  and  heated,  as 
described  in  the  foregoing  paper,  it  is  sometimes  mixed  with  small  hard  grit  and 
melted  down  to  a  liquid  state,  a  small  amount  of  bitumen  being  added  to  assist  the 
process.  It  is  then  removed  from  the  boiling  pans  in  ladles  and  poured  over  the  con- 
crete foundations,  brought  up  to  a  regular  surface  by  rubbers  and  covered,  while  soft, 
with  fine  shingle.  This  method,  however,  is  not  so  good  as  the  compressed  pave- 
ment. 

GriMone  sets. — A  great  quantity  of  the  gritstone  used  for  paving  comes  from  York- 
shire aud  Lancashire. 


SUPPLEMENT:    SHEFFIELD.  581 

Weights  of  materials  for  carriage- way  pavements  and  the  areas  thty  will  cover. 
[A  cubic  foot  of  granite  weighs  164  to  180  pounds.] 

A  ton  of  granite  sets—  Sq  yard8 

7  by  4  inches  will  cover  about 3 

G  by  4  incbes  will  cover  about 33. 

6  by  3  incbes  will  cover  abont 4 

5  by  3  inches  will  cover  about 41 

4  by  4  inches  (cubes)  will  cover  about 5 

A  cubic  foot  of  red  deal  weighs  abont  43  pounds;  1,000  wood  blocks  6  by  3  by  9 
inches  set  with  three-eighths  of  an  inch  cross  joint  will  cover  about  22£  square  yards, 
it  taking  about  44  blocks  to  1  yard. 

A  cubic  foot  of  asphalt  weighs  about  143J  pounds.  A  ton  of  asphalt  laid  3  inches 
thick  (before  ramming)  will  cover  nearly  7  square  yards. 

A  cubio  foot  of  gritstone  weighs  155  to  170  pounds.  A  ton  of  gritstone  sets,  10 
inches  deep  and  about  6  inches  wide  will  cover  2  square  yards ;  8  inches  deep  will 
cover  about  2f  square  yards. 

Benjamin  Folsom, 

Consul. 
United  States  Consulate, 

?,  August  10, 1891. 


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i.v  iMW-i^  tli.-  liu.-  ,,(■  .  h.mn.'ls  s.i  tIimi    Hlin,  i:,-  lm.-  ('])  N  rmW.i.-.i  th.-r,-  will  I..-   .•.nnh.-r;   1 1 1  it*  "ill  tsne  a  suiluM  '  '■  num. 

Hi.-  ;ir.-!'n..i  i...  1. 1  Lin.l  t)ii'  wat>  i-  t"r.  -id  tli-j  .':u  Tin^eway  will  be  t  brown  toward  the  four  corners. 


[Consular  Report  0 


INDEX. 


1.  HIGHWAYS. 

CONSTRUCTION,  MAINTENANCE,  MATERIAL,  COST,  ETC. 

Africa — 

Egypt,  538. 

Morocco,  539. 

St.  Helena,  540. 

Sierra  Leone,  540. 
America — 

British  North  America:  The  importance  of  highways:  Roman  roads;  National 
highways  for  the  United  States,  437-441.  British  Columbia,  442-444  ;  King- 
ston, 446;  Movrisburg,  450;  Nova  Scotia,  453-455  :  Port  Stanley  and  St. 
Thomas,  456;  Port  Hope,  457;  Port  Sarnia,  458;  Quebec,  460. 
Mexico- 
Northern  Mexico,  463;  Nogales,  464;  Paso  del  Norte  and  Piedras  Negras,  465; 
Sonora,  466 ;  Tampico  and  Tuxpan,467. 

Central  America : 
Nicaragua,  468. 

South  America: 

Brazil,  Bahia  district,  469. 
Colombia:  Barranquilla,  474. 
Dutch  Guiana,  474. 
Venezuela,  476. 

West  Indies : 

British:  Antigua,  479-485 ;  Bahamas,  485;  Bermuda,  487;  Jamaica,  488-490; 

Trinidad,  491-496. 
Danish:  St,  Thomas,  497;  St.  Croix,  497-501. 
Dutch :  Curacoa,  502. 
French  :  Guadeloupe,  504. 

Spanish:  Porto  Rico  and  Santiago  do  Cuba,  503. 
Asia— 

British:  Bombay,  507,  508;  Ceylon,  new  system  of  road  making,  509-514. 

China:  Road  making  in  China,  514-.r>17  ;  Road  repairiug  in  China  (official  paper), 
617-519;  Amory,  lithology,  520,  topography  and  geology,  522,  climate, 
525,  road  making,  526;  Foochow,  527;  Hong-Kong,  528;  Ningpo  and  Shang- 
hai, 529. 

Japan,  530. 

Philippine  Islands,  530-632. 

Turkey  in  Asia:  Palestine,  533;  Syria,  the  Beirut-Damascus  highway,  534-536. 
Australasia — 

New  South  Wales,  statistics  of  roada  and  road  building,  554-661;  road  building 
in,  official  papers,  561-565. 

Fiji,  r>67. 

583 


584  index. 

Europe- 
Austria,  2-11. 

Belgium:  Antwerp  district,  16-18,  23-30,  30-33;  Brussels  district,  34;  Flanders, 
40, 41, 43, 44  ;  Liege  district,  47, 48. 

Denmark,  45-48. 

France  :  A  century  of  successful  road  building;  value  of  French  roads,  51 ;  typi- 
cal roads  ;  divisions  and  classification,  52 ;  legal  preliminaries;  running  the 
line,  53;  early  details,  54;  engineers'  work:  practical  hints,  56;  the  old 
way  ;  mountain  roads,  57;  construction  of  road,  58  ;  mode  of  construction, 
59;  repairs  and  alterations,  60;  use  of  rollers;  basalt  vs.  granite ;  road  serv- 
ice, 61 ;  cost  of  good  roads  in  France,  61, 62 ;  bridges,  62  ;  history  of  French 
public  roads,  74 ;  French  vs.  Am erican  roads,  66;  road  making  in  Havre  dis- 
trict, 68-73 ;  75-77  ;  80, 81 ;  82-84  ;  86, 87. 

Germany:  Aix  la  Chapelle,  88;  Bavaria,  90, 91 ;  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  110-113; 
Magdeburg,  114  ;  Plauen,  116;  Saxony— historical  road  notes,  117-120 ;  road 
laws,  120,  121  ;  classification  of  roads  and  ways,  121-125 ;  state  roads,  126, 
131;  country  roads,  131;  cultivation  of  trees  along  Saxon  roads,  132-137, 
164;  generalization  regarding  Saxon  roads,  137-139;  139,140;  state  and 
country  roads,  159-171 ;  Stettin,  173, 174. 

Italy,  175,  176;  Catania,  178;  Genoa,  180;  Lombardy,  181,  182;  Tuscany,  185; 
Sicily,  186-189. 

Holland:  Netherlands  public  highways,  translation  of  an  official  paper  concern- 
ing, 191, 192. 

Russia :  Highways,  193  ;  suburban  roads,  194. 

Spain  :  Roman  roads  of  Spain,  193-204  ;  road  making  in  Spain,  204  ;  history  of 
road  building,  205;  general  road  system,  207-211  ;  country  roads  in  Spain, 
212;  Carthagena  district,  215 ;  Denia,  216-218;  Grao  de  Valencia,  219  ;  Mal- 
aga, 220. 

Switzerland  :  Scientific  road  building  in,  221-223  ;  Swiss  road  buildiug  laws  and 
regulations,  224-229;  roadways  of  Switzerland,  233-238;  Lucerne  highways, 
242,243;  St.  Galle,  247-249. 

United  Kingdom — 

England:  British  highways,  250-255  ;  English  streets  and  highways,  255-267. 
Highways  in  Cheshire  and  Wales,  356;  Highways  in  middle  counties, 
389;  Sheffield,  570. 
Ireland  :  Irish  highways,  393-396, 401-406. 

Scotland :  Roman  roads,  408 ;  country  roads  of  Aberdeen,  409-413  ;  Dunferm- 
line highways,  413-416;  Scotch  highways,  416-420.  Midlothian  roads, 
432;  Galashiels  district,  435. 


2.  STREETS. 

CONSTRUCTION,  MAINTENANCE,  MATERIAL,  COSTS,  ETC. 
Africa — 

Egypt :  Streets  of  Cairo,  537. 
Morocco,  539. 
St.  Helena,  539. 
Sierra  Leone,  540. 
America — 

British  North  America:  Belleville,  441 ;  British  Columbia,  444  ;  Chatham,  444; 
Coaticook,  Moncton,  and  Kingston,  445 ;  Montreal,  447-450 ;  Morrisburg,  451 ; 
Nova  Scotia  (Halifax),  451-453;  Port  Stanley  and  St.  Thomas,  456;  Port 
Hope  and  Port  Sarnia,  457;  Quebec,  460. 
Mexico:  Monterey,  462;  Nogales,  464  ;  Paso  del  Norte  and  Piedras  Negras,  4G5; 
Sonora,  466 ;  Tampico  and  Tnxpan,  467. 


index.  585 

America — Continued. 
Central  America: 

Nicaragua,  468. 
South  America : 

Brazil:  Bahia,  470;  Porto  Alegro,  471 ;  Pelotas,  473. 
Colombia : 

Barrauquilla,  474. 
Dutch  Guiana,  474. 
Venezuela.  474,  475. 
West  Iudies— 

British:   Antigua,  477-479;   Bahamas,  485  ;  Bermuda,  487;   Jamaica,  483;   Trini- 
dad, 485. 
Danish:  St.  Thomas  and  St.  Croix,  497-501. 
Dutch:  Curacoa,  502. 
French:  Guadeloupe,  504. 

Spanish  :  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico,  and  Sautiago  do  Cuba,  503. 
Asia- 
British  Asia :  Bombay,  507,  508. 

China:  Foochow,  527;  Hong-Kong,  528 ;  Shanghai,  529. 
Philippine  Islands,  531. 
Turkey  in  Asia : 

Palestine,  533 ;  Syria,  536. 
Australasia : 

New  South  Wales,  543-554,  565. 
Fiji,  567. 
Europe—  # 

Austria:  Trieste,  15.     Vienna,  11-14. 

Belgium  :  Antwerp,  18-22.    Brussels,  33.    Flanders,  36-38.     Liege,  41. 
Denmark:  Copenhagen,  49-51. 

France:  Marseilles,  77-79.     Paris,  84,  85.     Rheims,  85,  86.    Roubaix,  81,  82. 
Germany :  Aix  la  Chapelle,  87.    Bavaria,  streets  of  Nuremberg,  88,  89.    Berlin, 
92-105.     Frankfort-on-the-Main,  105-110.     Hamburg,  113.     Magdeburg,  114. 
Plauen,  115.     Saxony,  125-132,  139-159.     Stettin,  171-173. 
Italy  :  Bologna,  176, 177.     Catania,  177, 178.     Genoa,  179,  180.     Messina,  182-184. 

Florence,  184, 135.     Sicily,  186-189. 
Holland  :  Rotterdam,  189-191.    Schiedam,  191. 
Russia  :  St.  Petersburg,  194. 

Spain  :  Street  building  in  Spain,  211.    Barcelona,  213.    Carthagena,  214.    Denia, 
216.     Grao  de  Valencia,  219.     Steel-rail  roadway,  219.    Malaga,  220.     Gi- 
braltar, 220,  221. 
Switzerland :  Road  laws  relating  to  cities,  228.    Basle,  239,  240.    Geneva,  229-232. 
Lucerne,  240,  241,  244,  245.     St.  Galle,  246,  247. 
United  Kingdom — 

England :  Birmingham,  276,  277.  Blackburn,  331,  385.  Bolton,  385,  386.  Hull, 
granite  pavements,  277,  278.  Macadamized  roadways,  279,280.  London^ 
streets  of  London,  by  Chief  Engineer  Weaver,  281-286;  street  and  house  ref- 
use, by  Chief  Engineer  Weaver,  286-290 ;  streets  of  London,  by  Surveyor 
Reward,  291-297 ;  accidents  to  horses  on  London  pavements,  by  Mr.  Haywood, 
engineer  to  commissioners  of  sewers,  297-317  ;  asphalt  pavements  in  London^ 
by  Mr.  Haywood,  317,  326  ;  wood  and  asphalt  pavements  in  Loudon,  by  Mr. 
Haywood,  326-340 ;  cost  of  maintaining  London  pavements,  340-342.  Liver- 
pool, streets  and  sewers  of,  343-355 ;  sewers,  359-368.  Salford,  386,  387,  Shef- 
field, 569-581.  Stratford,  337-389.  Tunstall,  390-392. 
Iroland  :  Belfast,  397,398.     Dublin,  399-401. 

Scotland:  Dunfermline,  407.     Glasgow,  416, .420-422 ;  specifications  for  paving, 
etc,  423-426.     Edinburgh,  427-431. 


586  INDEX. 

3.  PAVEMENTS. 

Pavements- 
Asphalt:  Belgium,  Brussels,  33.    Canada,  Montreal,  449.    France,  Paris,  84,  85. 

England,  London,  282-286,   317-340;  Sheffield,  577,580.     Germany,  Berlin, 

96;  Frankfort,  108;  Saxony,  147,  149.     Spain,  Barcelona,  213.     Switzerland, 

Basle,  239;  Zurich,  230. 
Asphalt  pavements,  tests,  experiments,  durability,  proper  manner  of  laying,  etc. : 

London,  317-340;  asphalting  of  streets  (Trinidad  directions,  495). 
Brick:  189,444. 
Gravel :  Paris,  84,  85. 
Iron:  Belgium, 98;  Spain  (steel-rail  roadway). 


Europe:  Belgium,  44;  France,  78;  Germany,  115,  143,  149,  159,  162;  Italy, 
187;  Spaiu,  212,  216,219;  Switzerland,  239,  242.  United  Kingdom  :  Eng- 
land, 250,  256-267,  276,  279,  282-286,  368-380,  391,  570;  Ireland,  394,  398, 
401,  403,  407;  Scotland,  410-422,  429,430,  432,  435. 

America:  Canada,  444,  445,  450,  452,  460;  West  Indies,  487,  488,  497,  502,  503, 
504. 

Asia,  British,  507,  511-514,  526,  528,  530,  533,  534. 

Africa  :   Egypt,  537,  540. 

Australasia:  New  South  Wales,  554,  565. 
Macadamized  roads,  Parliamentary  papers,  essays,  etc.,  on  the  proper  manner  of 

roadmaking :    England,  250-254,  256-266,  368-380 ;   Scotland,  412,  422,  4'29 ; 

Nova  Scotia,  453. 
•    Lava,  177. 
Stone : 

Europe :  Belgium,  33,  36,  43  ;  France,  78, 84,  85 ;  Germany,  87,  89,  101,  106, 
115,  145,  149,  171,  172;  Italy,  176,  179,  183,  185,  186;  Russia,  195;  Spain, 
213,|215,  219;  Switzerland,  230,  239,  241,  246,  247.  United  Kingdom: 
England,  276,  279,  282-286,  569,  572,  580 ;  Ireland,  397,  399 ;  Scotland, 
420,  427,  430. 

America  :  Canada,  448,  452 ;  Mexico,  462 ;  Venezuela,  475,  476. 

Asia:  China,  522;  Philippines,  531 ;  Palestine, 533. 

Australasia:  New  South  Wales,  548-550. 
Wood: 

Europe :  France,  84,85;  Germany,  108,  147;  Russia,  194;  Spain,  213; 
Switzerland,  230,  239,  240;  United  Kingdom  :  England,  276,  277,  282-286, 
317,  340,  569,  576,  580;  Ireland,  400;  Scotland,  420. 

America  :  Canada,  444,  448,  451,  461. 

Australasia  :  New  South  Wales,  544-548. 
Wood  pavements,  tests,  experiments,  durability,  etc. : 
London,  326-340 ;  Sydney,  545. 

4.  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PROFILES    OF    SECTIONS,    SHOWING    MODES    OF    CONSTRUCTION,    MA- 
TERIAL, ETC. 
Europe : 

Austria-Hungarian  state  roads,  2, 3. 

Belgium:  A  street  in  Ghent,  37;  country  road  in  Flanders,  39;  highroads  in 

Liege  district,  43. 
France :  Paved  or  macadamized  roadways,  55 ;  public  roads,  58, 59 ;  road  makiug 
in  the  arrondissemeut  of  Havre,  69 ;  national,  departmental,  and  country 
highways,  79 ;  road  in  the  Nante"s  district,  82. 


INDEX.  587 

Europe— Continued. 

Germany:  BavariatThighway,91 ;  macadamized  streets  in  Magdeburg,  143;  mac- 
adamized, paved,  and  asphalt  streets  iu  Saxony,  145,  146,147;  sewers  and 
drainage,  151,15-2,153;  state  and  country  roads  in  Saxony,  161;  granite  gutter 
stones,  172  ;  streets  in  Stettin,  173. 

Italy  :  Streets  and  country  roads  in  Catania,  lava  blocks,  178. 

Spain  :  Road  from  Denia  to  Ondara,  217;  steel-rail  roadway  in  Grao  de  Valencia, 
219. 

Switzerland:  Streets  of  Zurich, 232;  Roman  roads  in  Switzerland, 237;  modern 
roads,  canton  Bern,  238;  streets  of  Lucerne, 241, 242, 244, 245. 

United  Kingdom  :  Sewers  and  water  mains  in  London,  285  ;  sewers  of  Liverpool, 
351-355 ;  Sheffield,  see  the  page  at  close  of  book  (supplement) ;  street  in  Stret- 
ford,  388;  roads  iu  Ireland,  403. 
America — 

Nova  Scotia :  Proposed  roads  in,  455. 

Venezuela:  Street  in  Caracas, 475. 

West  Indies :  Trinidad,  roads  in,  491, 492. 

5.  CONTRIBUTORS. 

Page. 

Adams,  Lyell  T.,  consul,  Horgen;  roadways  of  Switzerland 233-238 

Angier,  Alton,  consul,  Rheims ;   streets   and  highways   in   the   district   of 

Rheims : 85-87 

Atwell,  W.  P.,  commercial  agent,  Ronbaix  ;  highways  and  streets  in  Depart- 

partmentdn  Nord 80-82 

Baggs,  George  T.,  commercial  agent,  Newcastle,  N.  S.  W. ;  streets  and  roads 

of  district 565,567 

Bartlett,  Charles,  consul,  Guadeloupe ;  country  roads  of  Guadeloupe 504 

Beckwith,  Henry  W.,  consul,  Bermuda  ;  streets  and  roads  of  Bermuda 487, 488 

Bedloe,  Edward,  consul,  Ainoy;  lithology  (520),  topography  (522),  geology 

(522),  climate  (525),  and  road  making  in  Amoy  district 520-527 

Benedict,  James  S.,  commercial  agent,  Moncton  ;  streets  of  Moncton 445 

Bennett,  H.D.,  consul,  Nantes;   highways  in  the  district  of  Nantes 82-84 

Bird,  Winfield  S.,  consul,  La  Guayra;  streets  (474)  and  highways  (476)  of 

Venezuela 474,477 

Bissinger,  Erhard,  consul,  Beirut,  the  Beirut-Damascus  highways 534,536 

Black,  Win.  J.,  consul, Nuremburg;  streets  of  Nuremburg  and  highways  of, 

Bavaria 88-91 

Bode,  A.  S.,  vice-consul,  Bombay ;  streets  and  roads  of  Bombay 507 

Bowen,  Henry  W.,  consul,  Barcelona;  highways  iu  Spain 212 

Bowen,  Henry  W.,  consul,  Barcelona;  streets  of  Barcelona . 212-214 

Bowser,  Bolding,  consul,  Sierra  Leone ;  streets  and  roads  in  colony 540 

Bradford,  John  S.,  consul,  Antigua,  streets  (477)    and   highways  (479)  of 

Antigua 477-482 

Brockbank,  W.  H.,burrongh  surveyor,  Bolton;  street  making  in  Bolton 385 

Brown, L.W. consul,  Glasgow;   Scotch  highways  (416),  streets  in  Glasgow 

(420),  specilication  for  street  paving,  official  (423) 416-426 

Bruce,  Wallace,  consul,  Leith;  streets  of  Edinburgh  (427),  Midlothian  high- 
ways (432-436) 427-436 

Burgess,  Win.,  consul,  Tnnstall ;  highways  (389)  in  district  and  streets  (390) 

of  Tunstall  district 389-392 

Burke,  David  N.,  consul,  Bahia;  streets  and  roadways  in  State  of  Bahia 469-471 

Catlin,  George  L.,  consul,  Zurich  ;  roads  (221-229)  of  Switzerland  and  streets 

(229-232)  ofZurich 221,232 

Coffin,  James  B., consul,  St.  Helena;  roadsin  St.  Helena 539 


588  INDEX. 

Crawford,  J.  M.,  consul-general,  St.  Petersburg,  bighwaysof Piussia  and  streets 

of  St.  Petersburg 193-195 

Danforth,  James  R.,  consul,  Liege ;  streets  aud  highways  iu  tbe  Liege  district.      40-44 

Daniels,  Byron  G.,  consul,  Hull;  streets  aud  roads  of  Hull 277-280 

Diller,  Isaac  R.,  consul,  Florence;  streets  of  Florence  and  roads  of  Inscany.  184-186 

Dixon,  Isaac,  surveyor,  Waverlee  district,  Liverpool;  specifications,  etc 357 

Darling,  J.  B.,  under  secretary,  New  Soutb  Wales 561 

Den  by,  Cbarles,  minister,  Peking;  road  building  (514-517)  and  road  repair- 
ing in  China  (517-519) 514-519 

Deneen,  S.  H.,  consul,  Belleville;  streets  of  Belleville  and  roads  of  Hastings 

County , 441 

Devenisb,  Syl.,  town  superintendent  of  Port  of  Spain;  practical  suggestions 

for  road  making  (491-495),  asphalting  of  streets  (495,496).. 491-496 

Drayton,  John,  consul,  Tuxpan  ;  streets  and  roads  of  Tuxpan 467-468 

Edwards,  W.  H.,  consul-general,  Berlin;  streets  of  Berlin  and  suburban  high- 
ways (103) 92-105 

Estes,  W.  R.,  consul,  Kiugston,  Jamaica;  road  building  in  Jamaica 488-490 

Evans,  Fred.,  chairman  of  commission  on  public  roads  of  Antigua,  report  of 

commission 482-485 

Fechet,  Eugene  O.,  consul,  Piedras  Negras;  roadways  and  streets  of  district.  465 

Fletcher,  James,  consul,  Genoa;  streets  of  Genoa  and  highwaysof  province.  179-180 
Folsom,  Benjamin,  consul,  Sheffield,  streets  (569)  and  highways  (570)  of 

Sheffield  district  .... 569-584 

Fowler,  John,  consul,  Ningpo;  streets  in  Ningpo  and  roads  in  country 528,529 

Frye,  Wakefield  G.,  consul-general,  Halifax;   streets  of  Halifax  (451)  and 

roads  of  Nova  Scotia  (453) 451-455 

Garduer,  Walter  E.,  consul,    Rotterdam ;  streets   of  Rotterdam  (189)  aud 

Schiedam  (191),  and  public  highways  of  Holland  (191) 189-192 

Gardini,  Carlo,  consular  agent,  Bologna;  streets  of  Bologna 176,177 

Goldschmidt,   consul-general,  Vienna;   highways  of  Austria  and  streets  of 

Vienna 1-15 

Gilman,  Henry,  consul,  Jerusalem  ;  streets  aud  highways  in  Palestine 533,  534 

Grant,  Louis  B.,  acting  consul-general,  Cairo ;  streets  of  Cairo  (537)  and  high- 
ways of  Egypt  (538) 537-539 

Gracey,  Samuel  L.,  consul,  Foo-Chow;  streets  of  Foo  Chow  and  roads  in  dis- 
trict    527 

Gifford,  George,  consul,  Basle  ;  streets  of  Basle 239. 240 

Griffin,  G.  W.,  consul,  Sydney;  streets  (543-554)  and  highways  (554-561)  in 

New  South  Wales 543-561 

Grinnell,  William  F.,  cousul,  Manchester ;  street  making  in  Blackburn,  Bol- 
ton, Salford,  and'Stratford 381-389 

Hartigau,  James  F.,  consul,  Trieste;  streets  of  Trieste 16 

Haywood,  William  P.,  engineer  and  surveyor  to  the  commissioners  of  sewers 
of  London;  granite  and  wood  pavings  in  Greenwich,  specifications,  etc., 
(293-304),  accidents  to  horses  (304-317),  asphalt  pavements  in  London 
(317-325),  wood  and  asphalt  pavements  in  London  326-340),  cost  of 

maintaining  London  pavements  (340-342) .293-342 

Heath,  Charles,  consul,  Catania;  streets  and  highways  of  Catania 177-179 

Hemmick,  Roland,  jr.,  consul,  Geneva;  streets  and  roads  of  Geneva 240 

Howard,  James  R.,  road  surveyor  to  the  Greenwich  district  board  of  works; 

streets  of  London,  specifications,  etc.,  (291) 291-293 

Hewitt,  W.,  surveyor,  macadamized  roads;  paper  read  at  a  meeting  of  sur- 
veyors (England)  368-380 

Hewson,  Thomas,  borough  engineer  of  Leeds;  tender  for  paving,  flagging, 

and  leveling  (268-274)  and  specifications  for  macadamizing  (274).... 268-275 


INDEX.  589 

Page. 
Uorne,  Samuel  B.,  consul,  St.  Thomas;  streets  and  roadways  of  St.  Thomas..  497 
Official  ordinances   relating   to  street  and  road  making  in  St.  Croix  (offi- 
cial)     407-501 

Husher,  P.  A,,  consul,  Port  Stanley  aud  St.  Thomas;  streets  and  roadways  of 

Elgin  County 456,457 

Jarrett,  John,  consul,  Birmingham;  British  highways 250-255 

streets  of  Birmingham 276 

Johnson,  Chas.  F.,  consul,  Hamburgh;  streets  of  Hamburgh 113 

Jones,  Wallace  S.,  consul,  Messina ;  highways  of  Italy 175, 176 

streets  of  Messina 182-184 

Jacob,  Arthur,  borough  engineer  of  Salford  ;  street  making  in  Salford 386 

Kellogg,  James,  consul,  Stettin;  streets  of  Stettin  and  highways  in  district..   171-174 

King,  Adam,  consul-general,  Paris;  streets  of  Paris 84,85 

Kuapp,  Chas.  L.,  consul-general,  Montreal;  Btreets  of  Montreal 447-450 

Knowles,  Horace  G.,  consul,  Bordeaux;  roads  and  road  making  in  France. ..       63-65 

Leonard,  J.  A.,  consul-general,  Shanghai;  roads  in  China 529 

Lieberknecht,  A.,  consul,  Tampico;  streets  and  roads  of  Tampico 467 

Loom  is  Francis  B.,  consul,  St.  Etienne;  road  and  bridge  building  in  France..       51-62 
McBride,  K.  K.,  director  of  public  works;  highways  of  Ceylon  (new  system).  510-514 
McCallum,  J.  B.,  borough  engineer,  Blackburn  ;  street  making  and  repair- 
ing in  Blackburn  (381-332),  Blackburn  improvement  act  (332-384),  Dal- 
beattie granite  (384),  Penmaenmawor  stone  (385) 381-385 

McLain,  Thos.  J.,  consul,  Nassau;  streets  of  Nassau  and  roads  of  the  Ba- 
hamas   485,486 

Magahau,  Fred.  W.,  consular  agent,  Lurgan  ;  Irish  highways 393-396 

Mason,  Frank  H.,  consul-general,  Frankfort ;  streets  of  Frankfort  (105),  aud 

highways  of  Germauy(  110) 105-113 

Mathews,  F.  A.,  consul-general,  Tangier;  streets  and  roads  of  Morocco 539 

Merritt,  H.  F.,  consul,  Chemnitz:  roads  and  road  making  in  Saxony 117-139 

Mertens,  Theodore,  consular  agent ;  grao  of  Valencia,  streets  and  highways 

of  Valencia 219, 220 

Morey,  W.,  consul,  Colombo,  Ceylon  ;  roads  of  Ceylon 509 

Molina,    Cirilo,  consul,  Carthagena,  Spain;  streets  of  Denia  and  country 

roads  of  district 216-218 

Myers,  Levy  W.,  consul,  Victoria;  country  roads  and  streets  of  British  Co- 
lumbia     442-444 

Negley,  Charles,  consul,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul ;  streets  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul, 

Pelotas,  and  Porto  Alegro 417-713 

Newell,  William,  consul,  Managua;  streets  and  country  roads  of  Nicaragua.  468 

New,  John  C,  consul-general,  London  ;  streets  of  Loudon 280 

Newsom,  T.  M.,  consul,  Malaga;  streets  and  roads  of  Malaga 220 

Nickeus,  Johnson,  consul,  Barraaqnilla ;  streets  and  roads  of  Colombia 474 

Osborne,  John  B.,  consul,  Ghent;  streets  and  highways  of  Flanders 36-40, 

Pace,  Samuel  D.,  consul,  Port  Sarnia  ;  streets  and  roads  of  western  Ontario.  457-459 
Palmer,  Aulick,  consul,  Dresden  ;  city  streets  (189p-159)  and  state  and  coun- 
try roads  of  Saxony  (159-271) 139-171 

Pepper,  Geo.  W.,  consul,  Milan  ;  streets  and  roads  of  district lbl,  182 

Peters,  Thomas  W.,  commercial  agent,  Plauen  ;  streets  of  Pljiuen  and  high- 
ways of  Saxony 115,116 

Piatt,  John  J.,  consul,  Cork  ;  highways  aud  streets  in  the  sooth  of  Ireland.  407 

Pierce,  Win.  P.,  consul,  Trinidad  ;  road  making  in  Trinidad 491 

Preston,  Win,  S.,  consul,  Cognac  ;  mads  in  Cognac  district 80 

Prince, T.  A., highways  surveyor  for  the  borongh  of  Leeds;  information  as 

to  roads  and  streets  in  borough 275 

Pugh,  Horace  C, consul,  Palermo;  streets  and  roads  of  Sicily Ife0-189 


590  INDEX. 

Page. 
Reid,  Alex.  J.,  consul,  Dublin  ;  streets  of  Dublin  (399)  and  country  roads  (401)  399-4U6 
Roid,  James  D.,  commercial  agent,  Dunfermline;  Roman  roads  (408),  country 

roads  of  Scotland  (409),  and  highways  in  Dunfermline  districts  (413) 407-416 

Reimer,  Otto  E.,  consul,  Santiago  de  Cuba;  streets  and  country  roads  of  San- 


tiago 


503 


Royle,  H.,  engineer,  Stretford;  street  making  in  Stretford 387-389 

Robertson,  W.  Henry,  consul,  St.  Gall ;  streets  (246)  of  St.  Gall  and  highways 

(247)  of  the  district 246-249 

Roosevelt,  George  W.,  consul,  Brussels ;  streets  and  highways  of  Brussels  dis- 
trict        33-35 

Ruby,  Samuel  G.,  consul,  Belfast;  streets  of  Belfast 397 

Ryder,  Frederick  M.,  consul,  Quebec;  roads  aud  streets  of  Quebec 460-462 

Rvder,  Henry  B., consul,  Copenhagen;  streets  of  Copenhagen  and  highways 

of  Denmark 45-51 

Sampson,  A.  J.,  consul,  Paso  del  Norte;  streets  and  roadways  of  Paso  del 

Norte 465 

St.  John,  Andrew  A.,  commercial  agent,  Levuka ;  streets  and  roads  in  Fiji. ..  567 

Schofield,  W.  A.,  commercial  agent,  Morrisburg;  macadamized  roads  (450)  and 

town  and  village  streets , 450,451 

Scidmore,  C.  W.,  vice  consul-general,  Kauagawa ;  streets  and  roads  in  Japan.  530 

Shaffer, L.M., commercial  agent, Port  Hope;  country  roads 457 

Sherman,  Thomas  H.,  consul,  Liverpool;  streets  and  sewers  of  Liverpool 

(343-354)  and  highways  of  the  district  (356-368)   343-368 

Simons, O.H., consul,  Hong  Kong;  streets  and  roadways  in  Hong  Kong 528 

Smith,  Delos  H.,  consul,  Nogales;  streets  aud  roads 415 

Smith, L.  B., consul, Curagoa;  streets  and  highways  in Curacoa 502 

Sprague, Horatio  I.,  consul;  streets  and  roads  of  Gibraltar 220,221 

Steuart,  John  H.,  consul,  Antwerp  ;  highways  and  streets  of  the  province  of 

Antwerp 16-30 

Stewart,  L.  B.,  consul,  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico  ;  streets  of  San  Juau  and  roads 

of  Porto  Rico 503 

Strahan,  E.  J.,  supervising  road  engineer,  Sydney;  report  on  roads  and  road 

making  in  New  South  Wales 561-565 

Street,  Alfred  W.,  consul,  Coaticook ;  roads  in  Coaticook 445 

Sutton,  Warner  P.,   cousul-general,   Nuevo  Laredo;    streets  of  Monterey 

(462)  highways  of  northern  Mexico  (463) 462-464 

Tanner,  Geo.  C,  consul,  Liege,  highways  in  Belgium  and  the  United  States      30-33 
Pictou;  importance  of  highways  (437),  requisites  for 
a  good  highway  and  national  highways  for  the 

United  States  (438) 43V-441 

Trail,  C.  B.,  consul,  Marseilles;  history  of  Freuch  road  building  and  streets, 

Marseilles - 74-79 

Turner,  R.  W.,  consul,  Cadiz ;    Roman  roads  (195-204)  and  road  making  in 

Spain  (204-211)  and  street  making  in  Spain  (211) 195-211 

Twitchell,  M.  H.,  consul,  Kingston,  Ontario ;   streets  of  Kingston  (445)  and 

highways  of  Ontario 445-447 

Wakeham,  Henry  T.,  surveyor,  Garston  (Liverpool) ;  sewers  of  Garston 359-368 

Walton,  Rienzi,  executive  engineer,  Bombay ;    street  and  road  making  in 

Bombay  district 507-508 

Washburn,  Albert  H.,  commercial  agent,  Magdeburg;  streets  of  Magdeburg 

and  highways  in  the  district 114-115 

Weaver,  William  C.  E.,  surveyor,  town  hall,  Kensington;  steets  of  London 

(281-286),  street  and  house  refuse  (286-294) 281-290 

Webb,  Alex.  R.,  consul,  Manila;  streets  and  roads  in  Philippine  Islands 530-532 

Webster,  W.  H.  H.,  commercial  agent,  Chatham;  roads  of  Chatham 444 


INDEX.  591 

Page. 
Wigfall,  F.  H.,  consul,  Leeds;   English  highways  ('.255-267)  and  streets  of 

Leeds  (267-276) 255-376 

Wilke,  Chas.  F.,  assistant  bnrrough  surveyor;    construction  of  pavements 

and  roadways  in  and  about  Sheffield 571-581 

Willard,  A.,  consul,  Gnayinas;  streets  ami  roads  of  Sonora 466 

Williams,  Ernest,  consular  agent,  Lucerne;  streets  of  Lucerne 240-245 

Williams,  Oscar  F.,  consul,  Havre;    road  making  in  the  arrondissement  of 

Havre 66-73 

Wyndham,  Win.,  consul,  Paramaribo ;  roads  in  Dutch  Guiana 474 

Zeigler,  S.  B.,  consul,  Aix  la  Chapelle;  streets  and  highways  of  Aix  la  Cha- 

pelle  district 87-88 

6.  MISCELLANEOUS  REFERENCES. 

Accidents  to  horses  on  London  pavements 21)7-317 

American  vs.  European  highways 32 

American  vs.  French  roads 66 

Basalt  vs.  granite • 61 

Boulevards  of  Brussels 33 

Bicyclists,  rights  of,  on  English  road 254 

Bridges  in  France 62 

Cast  slag  stones  as  paving  material 147 

Codrington,  Thomas,  on  macadamized  road 2^9,260,267 

History  of  French  public  road 74 

Spanish  public  road 205 

Swiss  public  road 222,233 

Saxon  public  roads 117 

Geology  of  Ainoy 520 

Improved  public  streets  and  roads,  their  general  value,  and  their  special  value 
to  adjoining  and  intersected  lands,  etc. 
Europe:  Austria,  15  ;  France,  51,  80,  87  ;  Germany,  86,  116  ;  Spain,  218;  Switzer- 
land, 231,  243;  United  Kingdom,  England,  254,  392;  Ireland,  406,  407. 
America:  British  North  America,  437;  British  West  Indies  481,  488. 
Asia:  Palestine,  534;  Syria,  536. 
Australasia:  New  South  Wales,  560. 
Laws  aud  regulations  governing  the  construction  and  repair  of  streets  and  high- 
ways. 
Europe:  Austria,  1,3,5,6,10,11;  Belgium,  18,23;  France,   53,61;  Germany,  92, 
104,111,117,120-126,131;  Italy,   187;  Netherlands   192;  Russia,  193;  Spain, 
205,  206, 207,208,209, 210, 213,  215  ;  Switzerland,  224-228, 229  ;  United  Kingdom, 
England,  250,  253, 254,257, 268-275, 2*84, 286, 291-296, 357, 359, 381, 385;  Ireland' 
393,  397,404,  405;  Scotland, 419, 423-426,430,  435. 
America:  Canada,  417,153;  Brazil,  473;  West  Indies,  British,  477,482-485,490; 
Danish  West  Indies,  497-501 ;  Dutch   West  Indies,  502  ;  French  West  Indies' 
504. 
Asia:  Ceylon, 513;  China,  517,  527  :   Philippine  Islands,  631;  Syria,535. 
Australasia:  New  South  Wales, 543, 548, 555, 561. 

Mountain  roads r-j 

Lithology    of    Aumy ^on 

Itcfii.se  <>f  London  streets  and  houses,  removal  of 286-290 

Roads  and  road  making  in  Ceylon 510-514 


France. 


63, 1 


practical  hints   56 

reserving  the  landscape 41 


.r>92  INDEX. 

Page. 
Rollers,  use  of 01,396,410,420 

Roman  roads  in— 

Spain,   195-204;  Switzerland;  222,235,237;  England,    389;  Scotland   408;    how 
built,  437. 
Sowers,  construction,  repair,  etc.,  151,  345,365,551. 
Telford,  Thomas  (1819),  on  English  roads,  257;  on  road  construction,  433. 

Toll  gates  in  England 259 

Tolland  safeguard  in  Saxony 18 

Topography  of  Amoy 5^o 

Trees  and  transplanting  along  Saxon   highways 132-137,164 

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